YILDIZ TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, FACULTY OF CIVIL ENG. DEPT. OF GEOMATIC ENG.

ENGINEERING
CALCULATIONS
LECTURE NOTES – PART 2
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Bahattin Erdoğan and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nursu Tunalıoğlu

2020 - 2021 Spring Term

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Contents
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY ......................................................................................................................... 3
GREAT AND SMALL CIRCLES ...................................................................................................................... 4
SPHERICAL DISTANCE .................................................................................................................................... 9
SPHERICAL SHAPES ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Spherical Lune ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Spherical Wedge...................................................................................................................................... 11
Spherical Cap ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Spherical Segment ................................................................................................................................... 12
SPHERICAL TRIANGLES ................................................................................................................................ 14
Area of a Spherical Triangle & Spherical Excess ...................................................................................... 16
Polar Triangle and Trihedron ................................................................................................................... 19
Specifications of Spherical Triangles ....................................................................................................... 20
THEOREMS REGARDING SPHERICAL TRIANGLE .......................................................................................... 27
SINE THEOREM ........................................................................................................................................ 27
COSINE of a SIDE THEOREM .................................................................................................................... 27
COSINE of an ANGLE THEOREM .............................................................................................................. 27
SINE - COSINE THEOREM ......................................................................................................................... 28
COTANGENT THEOREM ........................................................................................................................... 28
Other Spherical Triangle Formulas .......................................................................................................... 29
Half-Angle Formulas: ........................................................................................................................... 29
Half-Side Formulas: ............................................................................................................................. 31
Delambre (Molweide) Formulas.............................................................................................................. 33
Napier’s Rules .......................................................................................................................................... 33
SPECIAL SPHERICAL TRIANGLES................................................................................................................... 34
SOLUTION OF RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES .............................................................................................. 34
Napier’s Rules .......................................................................................................................................... 36
Specifications of Right angled spherical Triangles .................................................................................. 37
Solutions of Right-angled spherical Triangles ......................................................................................... 37
1. Solving the right angled spherical triangles with given hypotenuse and a leg, .............................. 38
SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLE with A LEG ..................................................................................... 41
SOLUTION OF ISOSCELES and EQUILATERAL SPHERICAL TRIANGLES ..................................................... 42
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SOLUTION OF OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE Involves 6 cases .............................................. 42

1: a. Two angles and a side between these angles (ASA) ................................................................... 43
1: b. Two angles and a side opposite to one of these angles (AAS) .................................................... 44
2: a. Two sides and an angle between these sides (SAS) .................................................................... 46
2: b. Two sides and an angle opposite to one of these sides (SSA)..................................................... 48
3: Three sides (SSS) ....................................................................................................................... 49
4: Three angles (AAA) ................................................................................................................... 51
Solutions of the Other Elements on Spherical Triangle .......................................................................... 53
Height of the Spherical Triangle ............................................................................................................. 53
References: .................................................................................................................................................. 55
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SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY
A sphere is a solid bounded by a surface every point of which is equally distant from a fixed point
which is called the centre of the sphere. The straight line which joins any point of the surface with
the centre is called a radius. A straight line drawn through the centre and terminated both ways by
the surface is called a diameter.

Figure 1. The section of the surface of a sphere made by any plane is a circle.

Let c be the section of the surface of a sphere made by E plane, O the centre of the sphere. Draw
OM perpendicular to the plane; take any point A or B in the section and join OB or OA, MA or
MB. Since OM is perpendicular to the plane, the angle OMA or OMB is a right angle;

Therefore;
MA  (OA) 2  (OM ) 2

Now O and M are fixed points, so that OM is constant; and OA is constant, being the radius of the
sphere; hence MA is constant. Thus all points in the plane section are equally distant from the fixed
point M; therefore the section is a circle of which M is the centre.

Here;
OA  OB  r
MA  MB  r '
OM  d

r'  r 2  d 2
The below descriptions can be written for d and r ;
 If d  r , then plane E does not intersect with sphere
 If d  r , then plane E is tangent to the sphere
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 If d  r , then plane E intersects with sphere. This circle formed by intersection is so called
small circle
 If d  0 , then plane E goes through the center of sphere. This circle formed by intersection
is so called great circle

GREAT AND SMALL CIRCLES

The section of the surface of a sphere by a plane is called a great circle if the plane passes through
the centre of the sphere, and a small circle if the plane does not pass through the centre of the
sphere. Thus the radius of a great circle is equal to the radius of the sphere.

Figure 2. The circles on the sphere

On the globe, equator circle and circles of longitudes are the examples of great circle and, circles
of latitudes are the example of small circle.

Latitude: latitude lines are also known as parallels (since they are parallel to one another). The
lines are actually full circles that extend around the earth and vary in length depending on where
we are located. The biggest circle is at the equator and represents the earth's circumference. This
line is also called a Great Circle. There can be infinitely many great circles, but only one that is a
line of latitude (the equator). Any circle that is drawn and is smaller than earth's circumference is
called a Small Circle.

Longitude: longitude lines are also known as meridians. The lines extend in a N-S direction, but
are used to state locational positions either east or west of a set location. This location is known as
the Prime Meridian. Each meridian is exactly half of a great circle. Meridians are not parallel -
the spacing between them is the greatest at the equator (111.2 km) and decreases to zero at both
poles. Meridians intersect the parallels at right angles.
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The Prime Meridian runs from the North Pole through Greenwich, England (the Royal Observatory
outside of London) and to the South Pole. From this location, west longitude values increase from
0° to 180° halfway around the earth. Same applies to the east.

A plane intersecting the globe along a great circle divides the globe into equal halves and passes
through its center.

Figure 3. The great circles

A plane that intersects the globe along a small circle splits the globe into unequal sections. This
plane does not pass through the center of globe.

Figure 4. The small circle

Through the centre of a sphere and any two points on the surface a plane can be drawn; and only
one plane can be drawn, except when the two points are the extremities of a diameter of the sphere,
and then an infinite number of such planes can be drawn. Hence only one great circle can be
drawn through two given points on the surface of a sphere, except when the points are the
extremities of a diameter of the sphere.
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Figure 5. Through the centre of a sphere and any two points on the surface only a plane can be
drawn

If these mentioned two given points are the end points of a diameter, then infinite number of great
circle can be drawn.

Figure 6. The great circles

The great circle is an imagery line that follows the curve of the earth and represents the shortest
distance between two points. The spherical distance between two points P and Q on a sphere is the
distance of the shortest path along the surface of the sphere

The axis of any circle of a sphere is that diameter of the sphere which is perpendicular to the
plane of the circle; the extremities of the axis are called the poles of the circle. The poles of a great
circle are equally distant from the plane of the circle. The poles of a small circle are not equally
distant from the plane of the circle; they may be called respectively the nearer and further pole;
sometimes the nearer pole is for brevity called the pole.
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The diameter of the circle namely

KG is the axis of circle c, and K
and G are the poles of this circle
(c).

Figure 7. The axis of circle

The axis of equator which is intersection to a plane passing through the center of the earth is
called as rotation axis, which is perpendicular to this circle.

Figure 8. The Poles and rotation axis

Extremities of the rotation axis on the globe are called as North Pole and South Pole. A pole of a
circle is equally distant from every point of the circumference of the circle.

The distance between two points on the globe is measured by the arc of great circle passing through
these two points. This arc is selected as no bigger than half of the great circle. The distance defined
as mentioned above is called as spherical distance. At the below illustration, the bold line
represents the spherical distance between A and B.
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Figure 9. Spherical Distance

To show that the shortest distance between A and B is the great circle:

Let O be the centre of the sphere, A and B be any two points on the sphere. Infinite number of
plane can be drawn with A and B. the shortest distanced arc is the intersection of one of those
planes and sphere. Thus, infinite number of sphere arc can be drawn with these two points. Since,
if, the small circle is rounded on AB and the great circle is intersected with it, the below illustration
is obtained.

Figure 10. The shortest distance on the sphere

If, r '  r ; then d '  d

The shortest arc distance drawn between A and B, has the smallest curvature, which means, it
has the largest radius. The largest arc of a sphere is the great circle, thus, the largest arc passing
through these two points is smaller than the small circle.
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By the angle between two great circles is meant the angle of inclination of the planes of the circles.
Thus, in the figure, the angle between the great circles PA and PB is the angle AOB.

Figure 11. The angle of inclination of the planes of the circles

Angle APB is equal to angle of inclination of planes E1 and E2. In other words, the angle between
tangents of PT1 and PT2 is spherical angle. It can be measured by either angle  or arc AB.

SPHERICAL DISTANCE
If two points on the sphere are connected with a great circle, this interval can be defined as either
angle or distance. At the following figure, spherical distance y between A and B subtends to angle
 at the center of the sphere.
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Figure 12. The spherical distance

Let r be the radius of sphere, then the equation between y and  can be written as;
y   .r

Here; the unit of  is radian. To obtain the value in grad or degree, it should be divided to  :


y .r


If the distance is known, then the angle corresponded to it can be calculated as:

y
 .
r

The spherical distance is generally defined as angle unit. For instance; to compute the arc distance
of 1’, let the radius be 6370000 m,

 1
y .r  * 6370000  1852.96m
 3437.74677

This value is so called as nautical mile/geographical mile.

SPHERICAL SHAPES
Spherical Lune
Two great circles on the sphere divide the sphere into four pieces. Each piece is so called spherical
lune. In other words, the spherical lune is the surface area of a sphere between two planes which
intersect at the diameter. Moreover, these spherical lunes are equal to each other correspondingly.

Since the area of the whole sphere is 4r 2 , then Fa shows the area of the spherical lune defined
by angle  ;

4. .r 2 o 2 .r 2 o
Fa  .  .
360o 180o

By re-arranging the equation:

2.r 2 o
Fa  .
180o

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By using the abbreviation of 

o
Fa  2.r 2
o

 o

o

Fa  2.r 2 .

Figure 13. The spherical wedge and spherical lune

Spherical Wedge
V
Va  . o
360o

4
The volume of whole sphere, V  . .r 3 and the volume of the spherical wedge is given as
3
below:

4
. .r 3
Va  3 o . o
360

2  3
Va  . .r
3

Spherical Cap
A spherical cap is the region of a sphere which lies above (or below) a given plane. If the plane
passes through the center of the sphere, the cap is a called a hemisphere.
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Figure 14. The spherical cap

Let C be the center of the circle drawn by B; r be the radius of sphere, and AC=h, the area of the
spherical cap surface is computed with the below equation.

FSC  2. .r.h

As mentioned above, since the sphere is divided into two pieces by a given plane, the volume of
smaller cap is computed as;


V  .h 2 .(3.r  h)
3

If the volume is computed by the radius of circle (a), then:


V  .h.(3.a 2  h 2 )
6

Spherical Segment

A spherical segment is the solid defined by cutting a sphere with a pair of parallel planes. It can be
thought of as a spherical cap with the top truncated, and so it corresponds to a spherical frustum.
The surface of the spherical segment (excluding the bases) is called a zone.
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Figure 15. The spherical segment

Let r1 be the radius of the circle drawn by A, r2 be the radius of the circle drawn by B, r be the
radius of sphere, h be the distance between M 1 and M 2 ,

The area of the spherical segment is computed as below:

F  F2  F1

F2  2. .r.h2

F1  2. .r.h1

F  2. .r.h2  2. .r.h1

F  2. .r.(h2  h1 )

F  2. .r.h

The volume of the spherical segment is computed as below:


V  .h.(3r12  3r22  h 2 )
6
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SPHERICAL TRIANGLES

Spherical Trigonometry investigates the relations which subsist between the angles of the plane
faces which form a solid angle and the angles at which the plane faces are inclined to each other.

Suppose that the angular point of a solid angle is made the centre of a sphere; then the planes which
form the solid angle will cut the sphere in arcs of great circles. Thus a figure will be formed on the
surface of the sphere which is called a spherical triangle if it is bounded by three arcs of great
circles; this will be the case when the solid angle is formed by the meeting of three plane angles.
If the solid angle be formed by the meeting of more than three plane angles, the corresponding
figure on the surface of the sphere is bounded by more than three arcs of great circles, and is called
a spherical polygon.

Figure 16. Spherical Triangle and its elements

Figure 17. General Spherical Triangle

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The length of arc BC;

BC  r.BOˆ C
Here; the unit of angle BOˆ C is radian. Similarly, for the arc lengths of AB and AC;
AB  r. AOˆ B
AC  r. AOˆ C

As seen from the formulas, since the same r (radius of sphere) is used to compute the lengths of
every great circle, r should be taken as unit. Thus, the length of a great circle is equal to the
central angle that subtends the arc from the center. Therefore, sides of the great circles can be
defined as angles.

The computations and formulas given for the great circle cannot be implemented to solve a small
circle.

Figure 18. ABC is not spherical triangle

If any sides of the circle are no bigger than 180 degree, this circle is so called Euler spherical
triangle.

The three arcs of great circles which form a spherical triangle are called the sides of the spherical
triangle; the angles formed by the arcs at the points where they meet are called the angles of the
spherical triangle.

Let ABC be any spherical triangle, and let the points A' , B ' , C ' be those poles of the arcs BC, CA,
AB respectively which lie on the same sides of them as the opposite angles A, B, C; then the
triangle A' B' C' is said to be the polar triangle of the triangle ABC.

Since there are two poles for each side of a spherical triangle, eight triangles can be formed having
for their angular points poles of the sides of the given triangle; but there is only one triangle in
which these poles A' B' C' lie towards the same parts with the corresponding angles A, B, C; and
this is the triangle which is known under the name of the polar triangle. The triangle ABC is called
the primitive triangle with respect to the triangle A' B' C' .
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If three great circles are drawn from points A, B, C among AB, BC, and CA; let O be the center of
a sphere, and suppose a solid angle formed at O by the meeting of three plane angles. Let AB, BC,
CA be the arcs of great circles in which the planes cut the sphere; then ABC is a spherical triangle,
and the arcs AB, BC, CA are its sides. Three intersection points are found symmetric to center of
sphere O. In this case, Euler Spherical Triangles are formed. Let A' , B ' and C ' denote the
intersection points of the great circles from the sphere center.

The 8 Euler Spherical Triangles can be formed as:

ABC ; A' BC ; AB' C ; ABC '

A' B' C' ; AB'C' ; A' BC ' ; A' B' C

Figure 19. The eight spherical triangles

The triangles, which are symmetric to the center of O and equal to each other, are so called polar
triangle.

Area of a Spherical Triangle & Spherical Excess

To compute the area of ABC triangle, equations of spherical lune are used.

To find the area of a Lune:

A Lune is that portion of the surface of a sphere which is comprised between two great semicircles.
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Figure 20. The spherical lune

Let ACBDA, ADBEA be two lunes having equal angles at A; then one of these lunes may be
supposed placed on the other so as to coincide exactly with it; thus lunes having equal angles are
equal. Then it may be shown that lunes are proportional to their angles. Hence since the whole
surface of a sphere may be considered as a lune with an angle equal to four right angles, we have
for a lune with an angle of which the circular measure is A,

Area of Lune A

Surface of Sphere 2.

Suppose r the radius of the sphere, then the surface is 4. .r 2 ;

A
Area of lune: .4. .r 2  2. A.r 2
2.

To find the area of a Spherical Triangle:

Let ABC be a spherical triangle; produce the arcs which form its sides until they meet again two
and two, which will happen when each has become equal to the semicircumference.
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Figure 21. The area of spherical triangle

The triangle ABC now forms a part of three lunes, namely, ABA' CA , BCB' AB , and CAC' BC .
Now the triangles CA' B' and AC' B are subtended by vertically opposite solid angles at O, and we
will assume that their areas are equal; therefore the lune CAC' BC is equal to the sum of the two
triangles ABC and CA' B' . Hence if A, B, C denote the circular measures of the angles of the
triangle, we have:


FABC  FA'BC  F  2..r 2

FABC  FAB 'C  F  2. .r 2

FABC  FABC '  F  2. .r 2

Hence, by addition:
  
3.FABC  FA'BC  FAB 'C  FABC '  2.r 2 .(     )

From the above illustration,

FA'BC  FAB'C  FABC '  2. .r 2  FABC

By re-arranging the equation:

  
2.FABC  2. .r 2  2.r 2 .(     )

Therefore:
  
FABC  r 2 .(       )
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If the angles are given in degrees:

      180o 2
FABC  .r
o

The expression (      180o ) is called the spherical excess of the triangle and denote by  ;
  (      180o )

 2
FABC  .r


Hence, if the equation is re-arranged as to  ;

FABC
 .
r2

The sum of three angles of the spherical triangle is not constant, and is proportional to the area of
spherical triangle. Since area is getting bigger, the excess is getting bigger as well. Just the contrary
is also valid similarly. If the radius of a sphere is infinite, then it will be a plane. Thus, the excess
will be 0 and the sum of the angles will be 180o . The area of small spherical triangles can be
supposed to the plane triangles which have the same side lengths. These triangles are assumed as
small spherical triangles when considering their sides are so small comparing with the radius of
sphere. For instance, for the triangles having the sides up to 100 km are assumed as this.

Polar Triangle and Trihedron

The triangles, which are symmetric to the center of O and equal to each other, are so called polar
triangle.

Figure 22. The polar triangle

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Theorem: Let ABC be any spherical triangle, and let the points A' , B ' , C ' be those poles of the
arcs BC, CA, AB respectively which lie on the same sides of them as the opposite angles A, B, C;
then the triangle A' B' C' is said to be the polar triangle of the triangle ABC.

Theorem: The angles of the spherical triangle are the supplementary of the sides of the polar
triangle. Or; the sides of the spherical triangle are the supplementary of the angles of the polar
triangle.

if A, B, C, a, b, c denote respectively the angles and the sides of a spherical triangle, all expressed
in circular measure, and A’, B’, C’, a’, b’, c’ those of the polar triangle

A  a' 180o a  A' 180o

B  b' 180o b  B '  180o
C  c' 180o c  C ' 180o

If three corners of a spherical triangle are connected to the center of this sphere, a trihedron is
formed. O –center of the sphere- is the apex; OA, OB and OC are the sides; AOB, BOC and COA
are the faces of the trihedron. Since any spherical triangle has a trihedron, reverse is valid as well.
Angles between the sides of the trihedron are sides of the spherical triangle.

Figure 23. The trihedron

Specifications of Spherical Triangles

The letters A, B, C are used to denote the angles of a spherical triangle, and the letters a, b, c are
used to denote the sides.

1. Theorem: The sum of the angles of the spherical triangles is between 180 and 540 degrees,
and the sum of its sides is between 0 and 360 degrees.
For a ABC spherical triangle:
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180o  A  B  C  540o
0 o  a  b  c  360o

Proof: On the sphere, the biggest spherical triangle is a little smaller than the hemisphere.
Let the area of the hemisphere be 2. .r 2 ; then

  
F  r 2 .(       )
2. .r 2  r 2 .( A  B  C   )
A  B  C  3.  540o

Since a hemisphere is not a spherical triangle, it cannot involve this value.

Moreover, to have a positive area value; the expression should be written as below.

A  B  C    0o
A  B  C  180o

To find the limits of the sum of the sides; polar triangle can be used:
a  A'  180o
b  B'  180o
c  C '  180o

By addition:

A' B'C ' a  b  c  540o

The polar triangle is also a spherical triangle, and 180o and 540o , which are limits of angles
can be written instead of ( A' B'C ' ) . Then, the following expression is obtained

0 o  a  b  c  360o

2. Theorem: For any two of the three plane angles which form the solid angle at O are together
greater than the third. Therefore any two of the arcs AB, BC, CA, are together greater than
the third side. From this proposition it is obvious that any side of a spherical triangle is
greater than the difference between the other two sides.

ab  c Or ca b
bc  a a b  c
ac b bc  a
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Figure 24. The trihedron

Proof: For a OABC trihedron, let the relation between two sides be c  b . Let A1 be on
OA side, and B1 be on OB side. Consider that a line is drawn on AOB face starting from
OA line with the same angle value of AOC. Let D1 be the intersection point of this line.
Let C1 be taken on OC line as OD=OC1.
On the newly formed A1B1C1 plane triangle;

A1C1  C1B1  A1D  DB1

The triangles A1OD1 and B1OD are equal to each other. A1OD1  B1OD
Thus, A1C1  A1D
Then, C1 B1  DB1

Since The OB1 side is common for ODB1 and OB1C1 triangles, OC1  OD , and considering
the above inequation, the below can be written

B1OC1  B1OD

Extending the inequation adding A1OC1 to the left side, and A1OD to the right side:

A1Oˆ C1  B1Oˆ C1  B1Oˆ D  A1Oˆ D

Or:
AOˆ C  BOˆ C  AOˆ B

If the arcs are written for these angles, which are subtended to them; then

ab  c
ca b
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3. Theorem: For any two of the three plane angles which form the solid angle at O are smaller
than the third one by adding 180 degrees.

A  B  180o  C
B  C  180o  A
C  A  180o  B

Proof: If the relationship between spherical triangle and polar triangle are implemented to
the inequations noted at 2nd specifications,

ab  c
180o  A'180o  B'  180o  C '

By re-arranging;
A' B'  180o  C '

4. Theorem: The angles at the base of an isosceles spherical triangle are equal.

Figure 25. The isosceles triangle

If; b  c ; then B  C
Or
If; B  C ; then b  c

Proof: Let ABC be a spherical triangle having AB =AC; let O be the center of the sphere.
Let D be the midpoint of arc BC. Then, the spherical triangles ABD and ACD are
symmetrically equal to each other. Thus, B  C .
If b  c  90o , A will be the pole of the great circle of BC, and moreover B  C  90o and
Aa

Since B  C ; by using the polar triangle specifications given below;

B  b' 180o
C  c' 180o
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It can be noted that: b'  c' , which means this polar spherical triangle is also an isosceles
spherical triangle. It can be also expressed by B'  C' .
bc

5. Theorem: If one angle of a spherical triangle be greater than another, the side opposite the
greater angle is greater than the side opposite the less angle.

If B  C ; then b  c ;
Or:
If b  c ; then B  C

Proof: Let ABC be a spherical triangle having B  C . At B make the angle CBD equal to
the angle BCD; Let D the intersection point on arc AC. The spherical triangle divides into
two namely, ABD and DBC.

Using the second specification for ABD triangle,

BD  DA  AB

Then, from the forth specification; BD is equal to DC; BD=DC

Applying this equation to the BD  DA  AB ;
CD  DA  AB or b  c

Figure 26a. The spherical triangle

Reversely; b  c ; take c on AC arc; then:

Figure 26b. The spherical triangle

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ABD  ADB
BDC  C  DBC  180o
Here, let BDC be 180o  ABD , then
180o  ABD  C  DBC  180o
By arranging;
ABD  DBC  C  B  C

6. Theorem: For a spherical triangle;

If;
.........  ..... .........  .....
a  b  180o then, A  B  180o
.........  ..... .........  .....

Or;

If;
.........  ..... .........  .....
A  B  180o then, a  b  180o
.........  ..... .........  .....

Proof: In case of a  b  180o , on the arc AC starting from C, extend the arc up to a. The
last point of the extended arc is called as A’. The newly formed shape is a spherical lune.
Thus A=A’. the A’BC is an isosceles spherical triangle and the bottom angles are equal to
each other.
Thus,

A'  CBˆ A'  A

If the equation CBˆ A'  180o  B is implemented to the above,

A  180o  B or A  B  180o is obtained.
Engineering Calculations | 26

Figure 27. The spherical triangle

If a  b  180o ,
CA'  BC

7. Theorem: For a spherical triangle;

 A BC
 90o   90o
2
A BC
 90o   90o
2
A B C
 90o   90o
2

Proof: Using the 3rd specification;

B  C  A  180o
According to B  C  A or B  C  A ; the below can be written:
 180o  B  C  A  180o
Engineering Calculations | 27

THEOREMS REGARDING SPHERICAL TRIANGLE

SINE THEOREM
The sines of the angles of a spherical triangle are proportional to the sines of the opposite sides
and proportion is constant.

sin a sin b sin c

   M  cons tan t
sin A sin B sin C

Figure 28. The sine theorem

COSINE of a SIDE THEOREM

To express the cosine of a side of a triangle in terms of sines and cosines of the angles:

cos a  cosb. cosc  sin b. sin c. cos A

cosb  cosa. cosc  sin a.sin c. cos B
cosc  cosa. cosb  sin a.sin b. cosC

Reminder: In the plane geometry;

a 2  b 2  c 2  2.b.c. cos A

COSINE of an ANGLE THEOREM

To express the cosine of a side of a triangle in terms of sines and cosines of the angles:

cos A   cos B. cosC  sin B.sin C. cosa

cos B   cos A. cosC  sin A.sin C. cosb
cosC   cos A. cos B  sin A.sin B. cosc
Engineering Calculations | 28

SINE - COSINE THEOREM

sin a. cos B  cosb. sin c  sin b. cosc. cos A

sin b. cosC  cosc. sin a  sin c. cos a. cos B
sin c. cos A  cos a. sin b  sin a. cosb. cosC

sin a. cosC  cosc.sin b  sin c. cosb. cos A

sin b. cos A  cos a. sin c  sin a. cosc. cos B
sin c. cos B  cosb. sin a  sin b. cos a. cosC

sin A. cosb  cos B.sin C  sin B. cosC. cosa

sin B. cosc  cosC. sin A  sin C. cos A. cosb
sin C. cosa  cos A.sin B  sin A. cos B. cosc

sin A. cosc  cosC. sin B  sin C. cos B. cos a

sin B. cosa  cos A.sin C  sin A. cosC. cosb
sin C. cosb  cos B.sin A  sin B. cos A. cosc

COTANGENT THEOREM
cosc. cos A  sin c. cot b  sin A. cot B
cos a. cos B  sin a. cot c  sin B. cot C
cosb. cosC  sin b. cot a  sin C. cot A

cosb. cos A  sin b. cot c  sin A. cot C

cosc. cos B  sin c. cot a  sin B. cot A
cos a. cosC  sin a. cot b  sin C. cot B

To generalize the formulas given above; the numbered spherical triangle may be used as follow
as starting from side element:

cos III . cos II  sin III . cot I  sin II . cot IV

 Engineering Calculations | 29

Other Spherical Triangle Formulas

Half-Angle Formulas:
According to Cosine of a side theorem;

cos a  cosb. cosc  sin b. sin c. cos A

Put cosA to the left side of the equation,

cos a  cos b. cos c

cos A 
sin b. sin c

Subtract both sides from 1 of the equation,

cos a  cos b. cos c

1  cos A  1 
sin b. sin c

A
Write 2. sin 2 instead of 1 cos A ,
2

A sin b. sin c  cos b. cos c  cos a

2. sin 2 
2 sin b. sin c
The two terms of the numerator seen above is the function of differences of two angles of cosine,
A cos(b  c)  cos a
2. sin 2 
2 sin b. sin c

Then,
bca bca
 2. sin . sin
A 2 2
2. sin 2 
2 sin b. sin c

(b  c  a) ( a  c  b)
sin . sin
A 2 2
sin 2 
2 sin b. sin c

Considering a  b  c  2.u

A sin(u  b).sin(u  c)
sin 
2 sin b. sin c
B sin(u  a).sin(u  c)
sin 
2 sin a. sin c
 Engineering Calculations | 30

C sin(u  a).sin(u  b)
sin 
2 sin b. sin c

For the cosine functions of half-angle formulas, leave cosA alone at the left side and add 1 to both sides.

A sin u. sin(u  a)
cos 
2 sin b. sin c
B sin u. sin(u  b)
cos 
2 sin a. sin c
C sin u. sin(u  c)
cos 
2 sin a. sin b

A sin(u  b).sin(u  c)
tan 
2 sin u. sin(u  a)
B sin(u  a).sin(u  c)
tan 
2 sin u. sin(u  b)
C sin(u  a).sin(u  b)
tan 
2 sin u. sin(u  c)

A A
sin A  2. sin . cos
2 2
sin(u  b).sin(u  c) sin u. sin(u  a)
sin A  2. .
sin b. sin c sin b. sin c

2
sin A  . sin u. sin(u  a).sin(u  b).sin(u  c)
sin b. sin c
S  sin u. sin(u  a).sin(u  b).sin(u  c) Spherical amplitude

2.S
sin A 
sin b. sin c
2.S
sin B 
sin a. sin c
2.S
sin C 
sin a. sin b
 Engineering Calculations | 31

Half-Side Formulas:

According to cosine angle theorem;

cos A   cos B. cosC  sin B.sin C. cosa

Put cosa to the left side of the equation,

cos B. cos C  cos A

cos a 
sin B. sin C

Add 1 to both sides,

sin B. sin C  cos B. cos C  cos A

1  cos a 
sin B. sin C
Use half angle formula for 1+cosa,

a cos(B  C )  cos A
2. cos2 
2 sin B. sin C

B C  A B C  A
2. cos . cos
a 2 2
2. cos2 
2 sin B. sin C

A  B  C  2.v

a cos(v  B). cos(v  C )

cos 
2 sin B. sin C
b cos(v  A).cos(v  C )
cos 
2 sin A. sin C
c cos(v  A).cos(v  B)
cos 
2 sin A. sin B
 Engineering Calculations | 32

cos B. cos C  cos A

If we add 1 to both sides of cos a  ,
sin B. sin C

a  cos v. cos(v  A)
sin 
2 sin B. sin C
b  cos v. cos(v  B)
sin 
2 sin A. sin C
c  cos v. cos(v  C )
sin 
2 sin A. sin B

a  cos v. cos(v  A)
tan 
2 cos(v  B). cos(v  C )
b  cos v. cos(v  B)
tan 
2 cos(v  A). cos(v  C )
c  cos v. cos(v  C )
tan 
2 cos(v  A). cos(v  B)

a a
sin a  2. sin . cos
2 2
Re-arranging the formula as follow,
2
sin a  .  cos v. cos(v  A). cos(v  B). cos(v  C )
sin B. sin C
Let T be T   cos v. cos(v  A).cos(v  B).cos(v  C )  called as co-amplitude of spherical triangle

2T
sin a 
sin B. sin C
2T
sin b 
sin A. sin C
2T
sin c 
sin A. sin B

2S  sin A. sin b. sin c

2T  sin a.sin B.sin C
Engineering Calculations | 33

S sin A. sin b. sin c


T sin a. sin B. sin C

According to sine theorem,

sin a sin b sin c
  M
sin A sin B sin C

The below can be written,

S
M
T

Delambre (Molweide) Formulas

𝐴+𝐵 𝑐 𝐶 𝑎−𝑏
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2 2 2

𝐴−𝐵 𝑐 𝐶 𝑎−𝑏
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2

𝐴+𝐵 𝑐 𝐶 𝑎+𝑏
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2

𝐴−𝐵 𝑐 𝐶 𝑎+𝑏
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2 2 2

Napier’s Rules

a b
sin
A B 2 . cot C
tan 
2 a  b 2
sin
2

ab
cos
A B 2 . cot C
tan 
2 ab 2
cos
2

A B
sin
a b 2 . tan c
tan 
2 A B 2
sin
2
Engineering Calculations | 34

A B
cos
ab 2 . tan c
tan 
2 A B 2
cos
2

SPECIAL SPHERICAL TRIANGLES

SOLUTION OF RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES

In every spherical triangle there are six elements, namely, the three sides and the three angles,
besides the radius of the sphere, which is supposed constant. The solution of spherical triangles is
the process by which, when the values of a sufficient number of the six elements are given, we
calculate the values of the remaining elements. It will appear, as we proceed, that when the values
of three of the elements are given, those of the remaining three can generally be found. We begin
with the right-angled triangle: here two elements, in addition to the right angle, will be supposed
known.

Let ABC be a spherical triangle having a right angle at C (90o); let O be the centre of the sphere.
The sum of the spherical triangle is changed between 180 o and 540 o, thus more than one angle
may be right angled.
Suppose one of the angles a right angle, as C=90o for example.

For C=90o;

sin C=1

cos C=0

Sine Theorem:

sin a sin c

sin A sin C

 sin a  sin c. sin A

Similarly;
Engineering Calculations | 35

sin b sin c

sin B sin C

 sin b  sin c.sin B

From Cosine-Side theorem:

cosc  cos a. cosb  sin a. sin b. cosC

 cosc  cos a. cosb

This formula is called as Pythagorean Theorem rule for right angled triangle. If cosine of an angle
theorem is implemented;

cos A   cos B. cosC  sin B.sin C. cosa

cos B   cosC. cos A  sin C. sin A. cosb

cosC   cos A. cos B  sin A. sin B. cosc

Then, the following equations may be obtained;

 cos A  sin B. cos a

 cos B  sin A. cosb
 cosc  cot A. cot B

From the cotangent theorem;

sin C. cot A  cot a. sin b  cosb. cosC

sin C. cot B  cot b.sin a  cosa. cosC

Then,

 sin b  tan a. cot A

 sin a  tan b. cot B

From the sine-cosine theorem;

sin a. cosC  cosc. sin b  sin c. cosb. cos A

sin b. cosC  cosc. sin a  sin c. cos a. cos B

Then,

 cos A  cot c. tan b

Engineering Calculations | 36

 cos B  cot c. tan a

There are 10 formulas for right angled spherical triangles as given above. So, generalization with two
formulas may be seen below. To do this, the elements of right-angled spherical triangle should be
numbered in a regular way. Due to a condition that taking the complementary instead of leg;

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐼. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑉

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐼𝐼. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐼𝑉

According to the figure:

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = sin(90 − 𝑏) . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = cot(90 − 𝑎) . 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑐

By arranging;

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑎. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑐

Using these two formulas for each elements in two ways (clockwise & counter clockwise), ten formulas
can be generated.

Napier’s Rules
Napier’s Rules: The formulas are comprised in two rules, which are called, from their inventor,
Napier’s Rules of Circular Parts. Napier was also the inventor of Logarithms, and the Rules of
Circular Parts were first published by him in a work entitled “Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis
Descriptio”.
The right angle is left out of consideration; the two sides which include the right angle, the
complement of the hypotenuse, and the complements of the other angles are called the circular
parts of the triangle.
Engineering Calculations | 37

On the Napier circle, (see right figure above): cosine value of any element is equal to multiplication
of the cotangent values of two adjacent elements; and equal to multiplication of the sine values of
two opposite elements.

Let the rule be applied to side c:

Having given the two angles A and B;

cosc  cot A. cot B

Having given the two sides a and b;

cosc  cos a. cosb

Specifications of Right angled spherical Triangles

 90o  A  B  270o
 90o  A  B  90o
 For the leg and the opposite angle; either both of them are acute angles or obtuse angles.
 Hypotenuse is closer to 90o than other legs.
 If we consider the leg and the opposite angle; angle is closer to 90o then leg.
 If both legs are obtuse angles or acute angles; hypotenuse is acute angle; if one of the legs
is acute angle and the other one is obtuse angle; hypotenuse is obtuse angle.

Solutions of Right-angled spherical Triangles

To know 3 elements is enough to solve a spherical triangle. For right angled spherical triangles,
one element has right angle, thus it is enough to know 2 elements at all to provide the solution. To
solve the right angled spherical triangles, there are 6 cases:

1. Solving the right angled spherical triangles with given hypotenuse and a leg,
2. Solving the right angled spherical triangles with given two legs,
3. Solving the right angled spherical triangles with given hypotenuse and an angle,
4. Solving the right angled spherical triangles with given leg and adjacent angle,
Engineering Calculations | 38

5. Solving the right angled spherical triangles with given leg and opposite angle,
6. Solving the right angled spherical triangles with given two angles,

For solving them, Napier’s rule is implemented and Napier circle is drawn.

For; C=90o:

1. Solving the right angled spherical triangles with given hypotenuse and a
leg,
Given: c,b

To be computed: A, B, a

Solution: Implement the Napier’s Rule

1- 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑐. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑏

2- 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏/𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐
3- 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐/𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏
Engineering Calculations | 39

2. Solving the right angled spherical triangles with given two legs

Given: a,b

To be computed: A, B, c

Solution: Implement the Napier’s Rule

1- 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎

2- 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐵 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑏
3- 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑎

3. Solving the right angled spherical triangles with given hypotenuse and an
angle

Given: c, A

To be computed: B, b, a

Solution: Implement the Napier’s Rule

1- 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴

Engineering Calculations | 40

2- 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐

3- 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐

4. Solving the right angled spherical triangles with given leg and adjacent
angle

Given: a, B

To be computed: A, c, b

Solution: Implement the Napier’s Rule

1- 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑎

2- 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎
3- 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑏 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵

5. Solving the right angled spherical triangles with given leg and opposite
angle

Given: a, A

To be computed: B, c, b
Engineering Calculations | 41

Solution: Implement the Napier’s Rule

1- 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑎

2- 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴/𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎
3- 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎/𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

6. Solving the right angled spherical triangles with given two angles

Given: A, B

To be computed: a, b, c

Solution: Implement the Napier’s Rule

1- 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴/𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
2- 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐵
3- 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵/𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

SOLUTION OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLE with A LEG

If one side is 90o in a spherical triangle, it is so called spherical triangle with leg. For example, let
c=90o be one leg of spherical triangle, then polar triangle of this may be written as;

𝑐 + 𝐶′ = 180𝑜

𝐶′ = 90𝑜  It will be a right- angled spherical triangle.

If the equations can be written for this polar triangle as per actual spherical triangle elements, the
below can be obtained for leg-spherical triangle:

𝐴′ = 180𝑜 − 𝑎

𝐵 ′ = 180𝑜 − 𝑏
Engineering Calculations | 42

𝑎′ = 180𝑜 − 𝐴

𝑏 ′ = 180𝑜 − 𝐵

𝑐 ′ = 180𝑜 − 𝐶

Or, c=90o can be implemented to the general spherical triangle formulas and the same formulas
can be gained as well and with same manner, Napier’s rule is implemented. However, the below
figure is used for Napier’s circle.

SOLUTION OF ISOSCELES and EQUILATERAL SPHERICAL TRIANGLES

If two sides are equal to each other on spherical triangle, it is so called isosceles spherical triangle,
e.g. if b=a; thus, then B=A.

SOLUTION OF OBLIQUE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE Involves 6 cases

To solve a spherical triangle, which has totally 6 elements-3 sides and 3 angles, three elements
should be known. The solutions as per known elements can be listed as follow into the four cases.

Case 1: 1.a. Two angles and the included side (ASA)

Engineering Calculations | 43

Case 2: 1.b. Two angles and a side opposite one of them (AAS)

Case 3: 2.a. Two sides and included angle are given (SAS)

Case 4: 2.b. Two sides and an angle opposite one of them (SSA)

Case 5: 3. Three sides are given (SSS)

Case 6: 4. Three angles are given (AAA)

1: a. Two angles and a side between these angles (ASA)

Given: A, B, c

To be computed: C, a, b

Solution 1:

 According to Cosine of an Angle Theorem

cosC   cos A. cos B  sin A.sin B. cosc  Angle C is computed.
 According to Sine Theorem
sin c sin c
sin a  sin A and sin b  sin B  sides a and b are computed.
sin C sin C

Solution 2:

 According to Cotangent Theorem

cosc. cos A  sin c. cot b  sin A. cot B
 By re-arranging the above formula, leaving cotb alone on one side;
cos c. cos A  sin A. cot B
cot b   Side b is computed.
sin c
 According to Sine Theorem
sin b
sin a  sin A  Side a is computed.
sin B
sin B
sin C  sin c  Angle C is computed.
sin b

Solution 3:

 According to Napier’s Rule

Engineering Calculations | 44

A B
cos
ab 2 . tan c
tan 
2 A B 2
cos
2
 Sides a and b are computed.
A B
sin
a b 2 . tan c
tan 
2 A B 2
sin
2
 According to Sine Theorem
sin A sin B
sin C  sin c  sin c Angle C is computed.
sin a sin b

Solution 4: Spherical triangle can be divided into right angled triangles for solution. For ABC
spherical triangle, from B, a perpendicular line is drawn to AC.

 According to AHB triangle:

tan AH  cos A. tan c
sinh  sin A.sin c
cot B1  tan A. cosc
B2  B  B1
 According to CHB triangle:
cot a  cos B2 . coth
cosC  sin B2 . cosh
tan CH  sinh . tan B2
b  AH  CH

1: b. Two angles and a side opposite to one of these angles (AAS)

Given: A, B, b
Engineering Calculations | 45

To be computed: C, a, c

Solution 1:

 According to Sine Theorem

sin b
sin a  sin A Side a is computed.
sin B
 According to Napier’s Rule
A B A B
cos cos
ab c c
2 . tan  tan  tan a  b 2
tan  .
2 A  B 2 2 2 A  B
cos cos
2 2

 Side c and Angle C are computed.

ab ab
cos cos
A B C C
2 . cot  cot  tan A  B 2
tan  .
2 a  b 2 2 2 a  b
cos cos
2 2

Solution 2:

 According to Cotangent Theorem

cos A. cosc  cot b.sin c  sin A. cot B
 Multiple both sides by “ tan b ”
sin c  cos A. tan b. cosc  sin A. cot B. tan b  0
 Here, to determine c, trigonometric equation should be solved.
 Transformation of tan   cos A. tan b is implemented to the equation
sin c  tan  . cos c  sin A. cot B. tan b  0
 Write sin  / cos Multiple both sides by “ tan  ”
sin c  (sin / cos ). cos c  sin A. cot B. tan b  0
 Multiple both sides by “ cos ”
sin c. cos  cos c. sin   sin A. cot B. tan b. cos  0
sin(c   )  sin A. cot B. tan b. cos  Side c is computed.
 Continue to the solution with sine theorem
Engineering Calculations | 46

Solution 3: Spherical triangle can be divided into right angled triangles for solution.

 From AHC right angled spherical triangle:

sinh  sin A.sin b
tan AH  cos A. tan b
cot C1  cosb. tan A
 From BHC right angled spherical triangle:
sin a  sinh/ sin B
sin BH  cot B. tanh
c  AH  BH
sin C2  cos B / cosh

2: a. Two sides and an angle between these sides (SAS)

Given: a, b, C

To be computed: c, A, B

Solution 1:

 According to Cosine of a side Theorem

 cosc  cosa. cosb  sin a.sin b. cosC  Side c is computed.
 According to Sine Theorem
sin C
sin A  sin a  Angle A is computed.
sin c
sin C
sin B  sin b  Angle B is computed.
sin c
 For side c, there is unique solution. However, for Angles B and C, due to using sine
function, the operation will give two solutions. So, we should find out unique values of
them by using below inequations:
 These comparisons should be done:
If a>c, or a<c, then A>C or A<C and if b>c, or b<c, then B>C or B<C
Engineering Calculations | 47

Solution 2:

 According to Cotangent Theorem

sin a cot b  cosC. cos a
cot B   Angle B computed.
sin C
sin b cot a  cos C. cos b
cot A   Angle A computed.
sin C
 According to Sine Theorem
sin b sin a
sin c  sin C  sin C  Side c computed.
sin B sin A
 Here, For A and B, there is unique solution. However, for c, due to using sine function, the
operation will give two solutions. So, we should find out unique values of them by using
below inequations:
 These comparisons should be done:
If C>A, or C<A, then c>a or c<a and if C>B, or C<B, then c>b or c<b

Solution 3:

 According to Napier’s Rule

a b
cos
A B 2 . cot C
tan 
2 ab 2
cos
2
a b
sin
A B 2 . cot C
tan 
2 ab 2
sin
2
A B A B
cos sin
c ab 2  tan a  b . 2
tan  tan .
2 2 A B 2 A B
cos sin
2 2
 Angles “A” and “B”, and side c are computed.
Engineering Calculations | 48

Solution 4: Spherical triangle can be divided into right angled triangles for solution.

 From AHC right angled spherical triangle:

tan CH  cosC. tan b
cot A1  cosb. tan C
BH  a  CH
 From AHB right angled spherical triangle:
cosc  cos BH . cosh
cot B  sin BH . coth
cot A2  sinh . cot BH
A  A1  A2

2: b. Two sides and an angle opposite to one of these sides (SSA)

Given: a, b, B

To be computed: A, C, c

Solution 1:

 According to Sine Theorem and Napier’s equations

sin B
sin A  sin a  Angle A is computed.
sin b
A B
cos
c ab 2
tan  tan .  Side c is computed.
2 2 A  B
cos
2
ab
cos
C A B 2  Angle C is computed.
cot  tan .
2 2 a  b
cos
2
Engineering Calculations | 49

Solution 2:

 According to Cotangent Theorem (Trigonometric equation solution)

cosC. cos a  cot b.sin a  sin C. cot B
 Multiple both sides by “ tan B ”
sin C  cosa. tan B. cosC  sin a. cot b. tan B
 Here, to determine c, trigonometric equation should be solved.
 Transformation of tan   cos a. tan B is implemented to the equation
sin C  tan  . cos C  sin a. cot b. tan B
 Write sin  / cos Multiple both sides by “ tan  ”
sin C  (sin / cos ). cos C  sin a. cot b. tan B
 Multiple both sides by “ cos ”
sin C. cos  cos C. sin   sin a. cot b. tan B. cos
sin(C   )  sin a. cot b. tan B. cos  C is computed.
 Continue to the solution with sine theorem

Solution 3: Spherical triangle can be divided into right angled triangles for solution.

3: Three sides (SSS)

Given: a, b, c

To be computed: A, B, C

Solution 1:

 According to Cosine of a side Theorem

cos a  cos b. cos c
cos A 
sin b. sin c
cos b  cos a. cos c
cos B 
sin a. sin c
cos c  cos a. cos b
cos C 
sin a. sin b

Solution 2:

 According to Half-Angle Formulas

Engineering Calculations | 50

A sin(u  b).sin(u  c)
tan 
2 sin u. sin(u  a)
B sin(u  a).sin(u  c)
tan 
2 sin u. sin(u  b)
C sin(u  a).sin(u  b)
tan 
2 sin u. sin(u  c)

Solution 3: Spherical triangle can be divided into right angled triangles for solution.

 From CHA and CHB right angled spherical triangles:

cosb  cos x. cosh
cos a  cos y. cosh
 Proportion the above two equations
cos x cos b

cos y cos a
 And considering c  x  y
cos x  cos y cos b  cos a

cos x  cos y cos b  cos a
 According to transformation equations
x y x y ba ba
 2. sin . sin  2. sin . sin
2 2  2 2
x y x y ba ba
2. cos . cos 2. cos . cos
2 2 2 2
 Arranging the equation, then
x y x y ba ba
tan . tan  tan . tan
2 2 2 2
Engineering Calculations | 51

x y ba ba c
tan  tan . tan . cot ”x” and “y” are computed.
2 2 2 2
 From CHA right angled spherical triangle:
cos A  cot b. tan x  A is computed.
sin C1  sin x / sin b C1 is computed.
 From CBH right angled spherical triangle:
cos B  cot a. tan y  B is computed.
sin C2  sin y / sin a C2 is computed.
C  C1  C2

4: Three angles (AAA)

Given: A, B, C

To be computed: a, b, c

Solution 1:

 According to Cosine of an angle Theorem

cos A  cos B. cos C
 cos a 
sin B. sin C
cos B  cos A. cos C
 cos b 
sin A. sin C
cos C  cos A. cos B
 cos c 
sin A. sin B

Solution 2:

 According to Half-side formula

a cos(v  B) cos(v  C )
 cot 
2  cos v. cos(v  A)
b cos(v  A) cos(v  C )
 cot 
2  cos v. cos(v  B)
c cos(v  A) cos(v  B)
 cot 
2  cos v. cos(v  C )
Engineering Calculations | 52

Solution 3: Spherical triangle can be divided into right angled triangles for solution.

 From CHA and CHB right angled spherical triangles:

cos A  cosh. sin C1
cos B  cosh. sin C2
 Proportion the above two equations
sin C1 cos A

sin C 2 cos B
 And considering C  C1  C2
sin C1  sin C 2 cos A  cos B

sin C1  sin C 2 cos A  cos B
 According to transformation equations
C  C2 C  C2 A B A B
2. sin 1 . cos 1  2. sin . sin
2 2  2 2
C  C2 C  C2 A B A B
2. sin 1 . cos 1 2. cos . cos
2 2 2 2
 Arranging the equation, then
C  C2 C  C2 A B A B
tan 1 . cot 1   tan . tan
2 2 2 2
C  C2 A B B A C
tan 1  tan . tan . tan ” C1 ” and “ C2 ” are computed.
2 2 2 2
 From CHA right angled spherical triangle:
Engineering Calculations | 53

cosb  cot C1 . cot A  b is computed.

cos x  cosC1 / sin A x is computed.
 From CBH right angled spherical triangle:
cos a  cot C2 . cot B  a is computed.
cos y  cosC2 / sin B y is computed.
c  x y

Solutions of the Other Elements on Spherical Triangle

Height of the Spherical Triangle

sinh a  sin c. sin B  sin b. sin C

sinh b  sin a. sin C  sin c. sin A

sinh c  sin a. sin B  sin b. sin A

2.S
sin A 
sin b. sin c

2.S
sin B 
sin a. sin c

2.S
sin C 
sin a. sin b
 Engineering Calculations | 54

2.T
sin a 
sin B. sin C

2.T
sin b 
sin A. sin C

2.T
sin c 
sin A. sin B

2S 2T
sinh a  
sin a sin A

2S 2T
sinh b  
sin b sin B

2S 2T
sinh c  
sin c sin C

From the 1st and 3rd equations, unique values for each element can be computed. For the 2nd equation,
there are two solutions. Even either B and b should be acute angles or obtuse angles at the same time,
unique solution can then be obtained.

If A is close to “0” or “180”, It can be computed as follow;

𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵 or 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑎

If any side is close to “0” or “180”, It can be computed as follow;

tan 𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐 or 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑎 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴

If b, c or B is close to “0” or “180”, It can be computed as follow;

Engineering Calculations | 55

References:
Prof. Dr. Yuji Murayama Surantha Dassanayake, “Fundamentals of Surveying Theory and
Samples Exercises”, Division of Spatial Information Science Graduate School Life and
Environment Sciences University of Tsukuba,

available at: http://giswin.geo.tsukuba.ac.jp/sis/tutorial/fundamentals_of_surveying.pdf

URL: http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1112/notes/project_3/traverse/Surveying_angles.pdf