Unit 1 Handout

Ethics: Universal or Relative

1. Ethical/Moral Universalism

Also called moral objectivism, this school of philosophy argues for the existence of a universal ethics. Certain behaviors are simply
wrong regardless of the circumstances. In a 2007 interview, Noam Chomsky defined universalism as If something's right for me,
it's right for you; if it's wrong for you, it's wrong for me.

Universalism is based on the idea of a rational test that can be applied to any ethical dilemma. The exact nature of this test varies
widely among different factions of Universalists. For example, utilitarianism states that the correct rational test is: - Does my action
create the maximum good for the maximum number of people? If the answer is yes, then utilitarianism would say that the action is
morally correct.

Moral universalism in the form of human rights has become widely accepted in the past several decades. The Universal Declaration
of Human Rights, issued by the United Nations in 1948, and the Geneva Conventions (whichdefine fair treatment of prisoners of
war) are based on the theory of moral universalism. In other words, human beings all have certain rights and to deny those rights is
always immoral.

2. Ethical/Moral Relativism

Different cultures and individuals have different standards of right and wrong. Moral standards also change over time in the same
culture. For example, slavery was considered moral in the United States at one time but not anymore.

Moral relativists argue that there is no known universal rule that defines right and wrong. Instead, morality is determined by the
standards of a person's own authorities. These authorities might be a government, a religion or even a family member.

To carry the argument further, if one society believes that slavery is wrong and another believes that slavery is right, a moral relativist
would say that either side may be correct. We have no way of knowing for sure whether slavery is ethically right or wrong, since
human beings have not yet found an absolute moral yardstick with which we can judge.

Criticism of Relativism

1. Many ethicists reject the theory of ethical relativism. Some claim that while the moral practices of societies may differ, the
fundamental moral principles underlying these practices
do not.

For example, in some societies, killing one's parents

after they reached a certain age was common practice,
stemming from the belief that people were better off in
the afterlife if they entered it while still physically active
and vigorous. While such a practice would be
condemned in our society, we would agree with these
societies on the underlying moral principle -- the duty to
care for parents. Societies, then, may differ in their
application of fundamental moral principles but agree
on the principles.

2. Also, it is argued, it may be the case that some moral

beliefs are culturally relative whereas others are not.
Certain practices, such as customs regarding dress and
decency, may depend on local custom whereas other
practices, such as slavery, torture, or political
repression, may be governed by universal moral
standards and judged wrong despite the many other differences that exist among cultures. Simply because some practices are relative
does not mean that all practices are relative.
Ethics by Atul Garg
3. Other philosophers criticize ethical relativism because of its implications for individual moral beliefs. These philosophers assert
that if the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on a society's norms, then it follows that one must obey the norms of one's
society and to diverge from those norms is to act immorally. This means that if I am a member of a society that believes that racial
or sexist practices are morally permissible, then I must accept those practices as morally right. But such a view promotes social
conformity and leaves no room for moral reform or improvement in a society. Furthermore, members of the same society may hold
different views on practices. In the United States, for example, a variety of moral opinions exists on matters ranging from animal
experimentation to abortion. What constitutes right action when social consensus is lacking?

4. Perhaps the strongest argument against ethical relativism comes from those who assert that universal moral standards can exist
even if some moral practices and beliefs vary among cultures. In other words, we can acknowledge cultural differences in moral
practices and beliefs and still hold that some of these practices and beliefs are morally wrong. The practice of slavery in pre-Civil
war U.S. society or the practice of apartheid in South Africa is wrong despite the beliefs of those societies. The treatment of the
Jews in Nazi society is morally reprehensible regardless of the moral beliefs of Nazi society.

For these philosophers, ethics is an inquiry into right and wrong through a critical examination of the reasons underlying practices
and beliefs. As a theory for justifying moral practices and beliefs, ethical relativism fails to recognize that some societies have better
reasons for holding their views than others.

3. Moral Nihilism
Nihilism comes from the Latin nihil, or nothing, which means not anything, that which does not exist. By this view, ethical claims
are generally false. A moral nihilist would say that nothing is morally good, bad, wrong or right because there are no moral truths.
So, murder is not wrong, but neither is it right.

One can also say that in its most extreme form, moral relativism becomes moral nihilism. Also called amorality, this philosophy
takes moral relativism a step further by stating that there is no absolute basis for right and wrong. Therefore, morality is meaningless:
a person's or culture's ethical rules are entirely artificial, created to keep a society running smoothly. To a moral nihilist, if a society
decides that murder is wrong, this is just as arbitrary a decision as if it decided that a red traffic light means stop.

Friedrich Nietzsche, a nihilist, criticizes the concept of universality as objectionable because agents are relatively different so a
universal morality must necessarily be harmful to some. He believes that a culture in which moral norms prevail, such as Kantian
respect for persons, utilitarianism, and altruistic behaviour, will be a culture which eliminates the conditions for the realization of
human excellence – the latter requiring concern with the self, struggle, and suffering. So, happiness, according to Nietzsche, is not
an intrinsically valuable end because suffering is positively necessary for the cultivation of individual development and a fulfilling
life.

Particular Fields of Applied Ethics

1. Bioethics
Bioethics is the study of controversial ethics brought about by advances in biology and medicine. Bioethicists are concerned with
the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy.
Bioethics also needs to address emerging bio-technologies that affect basic biology and future humans. Areas of health sciences that
are the subject of bioethical analysis include:
1. Abortion: is the ending of pregnancy by removing a fetus or embryo before it can survive outside the uterus. An abortion which
occurs spontaneously is also known as a miscarriage. Abortion is considered highly unethical especially in catholic countries.
The most prevalent argument that the fetus has a moral status disallowing abortion is:
 A fetus is a member of the biological species homo sapiens (i.e., a human being).To destroy a human being deliberately
is unethical (it's murder).Therefore, abortion is unethical (murder), since it constitutes the deliberate destruction of a
human being.
 Life and death are in the hands of god. Humans should not interfere in them.
 Right to self-determination for pregnant women.
 Right to live a dignified life for children born with disorders.
 State’s responsibility in providing maternity relief.
 Right to life of fetus

Ethics by Atul Garg

 Sonography and amniocentesis also allow parents to determine sex before childbirth. The development of this technology has
led to sex-selective abortion, or the termination of a fetus based on sex. The selective termination of a female fetus is most
common in countries like India.
2. Animal rights: Animal rights is the idea that some, or all, non-human animals are entitled to the possession of their own lives
and that their most basic interests—such as the need to avoid suffering—should be afforded the same consideration as similar
interests of human beings. Biocentrism vs. humano-centrism is one of the central debates in giving rights to animals.
3. Biological patent: A biological patent is a patent on an invention in the field of biology that by law allows the patent holder to
exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing the protected invention for a limited period of time. The scope and
reach of biological patents vary among jurisdictions, and may include biological technology and products, genetically modified
organisms and genetic material. The applicability of patents to substances and processes wholly or partially natural in origin is
a subject of debate. The issue involves:
 Natural resources as a common good
 Rights of local people to avail benefits from environment
 Justice to local people
 Maximum good for maximum number of people
4. Bio-piracy: describes a practice in which indigenous knowledge of nature, originating with indigenous peoples, is used by
others for profit, without permission from and with little or no compensation or recognition to the indigenous people themselves.
For example, when bio-prospectors draw on indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants which is later patented by medical
companies without recognizing the fact that the knowledge is not new, or invented by the patenter, and depriving the indigenous
community to the rights to commercial exploitation of the technology that they themselves had developed. Critics of this
practice, such as Greenpeace, claim these practices contribute to inequality between developing countries rich in biodiversity,
and developed countries hosting companies that engage in 'bio-piracy'. It also includes unequal distribution of benefits and
burdens.
5. Cloning: There are a variety of ethical positions regarding the possibilities of cloning, especially human cloning. While many
of these views are religious in origin, the questions raised by cloning are faced by secular perspectives as well. Perspectives on
human cloning are theoretical, as human therapeutic and reproductive cloning are not commercially used; animals are currently
cloned in laboratories and in livestock production.
Advocates support development of therapeutic cloning in order to generate tissues and whole organs to treat patients who otherwise
cannot obtain transplants, to avoid the need for immunosuppressive drugs, and to stave off the effects of aging.It thus includes right
to dignified life. Advocates for reproductive cloning believe that parents who cannot otherwise procreate should have access to the
technology. Thus empathy and compassion is there.
Opponents of cloning have concerns that technology is not yet developed enough to be safe and that it could be prone to abuse
(leading to the generation of humans from whom organs and tissues would be harvested),as well as concerns about how cloned
individuals could integrate with families and with society at large.
Religious groups are divided, with some opposing the technology as usurping "God's place" and, to the extent embryos are used,
destroying a human life; others support therapeutic cloning's potential life-saving benefits.
Cloning of animals is opposed by animal-groups due to the number of cloned animals that suffer from malformations before they
die, and while food from cloned animals has been approved by the US FDA, its use is opposed by groups concerned about food
safety.
6. Euthanasia (human, non-human animal): Euthanasia or good death is the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to
relieve pain and suffering. There are different euthanasia laws in each country. The British House of Lords Select Committee
on Medical Ethics defines euthanasia as "a deliberate intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life, to
relieve intractable suffering". In the Netherlands and Flanders, euthanasia is understood as "termination of life by a doctor at
the request of a patient".
Euthanasia is categorized in different ways, which include voluntary, non-voluntary, or involuntary. Voluntary euthanasia is legal
in some countries. Non-voluntary euthanasia (patient's consent unavailable) is illegal in all countries. Involuntary euthanasia
(without asking consent or against the patient's will) is also illegal in all countries and is usually considered murder. As of 2006,
euthanasia is the most active area of research in contemporary bioethics.
In some countries there is a divisive public controversy over the moral, ethical, and legal issues of euthanasia. Those who are
against euthanasia may argue for the sanctity of life, duty of doctors, right to self-determination of patients, while proponents
of euthanasia rights emphasize alleviating suffering, and preserving bodily integrity, self-determination, and personal
autonomy. Reasons for opposing euthanasia:
 Hippocratic Oath: it is contrary to the original Hippocratic Oath of 400 B.C.E., stating "I will give no deadly medicine to
anyone if asked, nor suggest any such counsel". The original oath however has been modified many times and, contrary to

Ethics by Atul Garg

 popular belief, is not required by most modern medical schools, although some have adopted modern versions that suit
many in the profession in the 21st century.
 The Declaration of Geneva: The Declaration of Geneva is a revision of the Hippocratic Oath, first drafted in 1948 by the
World Medical Association in response to euthanasia, eugenics and other medical crimes performed in Nazi Germany. It
contains, "I will maintain the utmost respect for human life."
 The International Code of Medical Ethics: The International Code of Medical Ethics, last revised in 2006, includes "A
physician shall always bear in mind the obligation to respect human life" in the section "Duties of physicians to patients".
 Buddhism: Because assisted suicide and euthanasia constitute deliberate killing of another person, these practices
contradict the fundamental religious principle of refraining from killing a living being. According to Buddhism, suicide is
an uncompassionate act as it causes grief to others and is believed to deprive them of spiritual development.
7. Exorcism: is the religious or spiritual practice of purportedly evicting demons or other spiritual entities from a person or an area
they are believed to have possessed. Depending on the spiritual beliefs of the exorcist, this may be done by causing the entity to
swear an oath, performing an elaborate ritual, or simply by commanding it to depart in the name of a higher power. The practice is
ancient and part of the belief system of many cultures and religions. Ethical issues involve rights of mentally ill patients to get proper
treatment, right to live a dignified life, discrimination and justice.
8. Stem cell research: The stem cell controversy is the consideration of the ethics of research involving the development, usage,
and destruction of human embryos. Most commonly, this controversy focuses on embryonic stem cells. Not all stem cell research
involves the creation, usage and destruction of human embryos. For example, adult stem cells, amniotic stem cells and induced
pluripotent stem cells do not involve creating, using or destroying human embryos and thus are minimally, if at all, controversial.
Many less controversial sources of acquiring stem cells include using cells from the umbilical cord, breast milk, and bone marrow.
World Bioethics Day
It is celebrated every year on October 19, to mark universal declaration of human rights by UNESCO. The UNESCO bioethical
principles are:
 Respect for human dignity and human rights (Article 3.1)
 Priority of the individual’s interests and welfare over the sole interest of science or society (Article 3.2)
 Beneficence and non‐maleficence (Article 4)
 Autonomy (Article 5)
 Informed consent (Article 6)
 Protection of persons unable to consent (Article 7)
 Special attention to vulnerable persons (Article 8)
 Privacy and confidentiality (Article 9)
 Equality, justice and equity (Article 10)
 Non‐discrimination and non‐stigmatization (Article 11)
 Respect for cultural diversity and pluralism (Article 12)
 Solidarity and cooperation (Article 13)
 Access to healthcare and essential medicines (Article 14)
 Benefit sharing (Article 15)
 Protection of future generations (Article 16)
 Protection of the environment, the biosphere and biodiversity (Article 17)

9. Surrogacy: Surrogacy is Assisted Reproductive Technology, whereby a woman agrees to become pregnant and give birth to a
child for another person who is or will become the parent of the child. The ethical aspect of surrogacy can be judged by the manner
in which the process of surrogacy is conducted.
It can bring happiness in the life of couple who don’t have children. Surrogate mothers, who are generally poor, get good medical
attention, nutrition and financial help from the commissioning parents. If we apply utilitarian principle of J.S. Mill, then surrogacy,
if conducted with integrity, can be considered ethical.
However there have been cases of misuse of technology, lack of bioethics, and violation of rights of surrogate mothers.
 A large share of surrogate mothers’ payment is taken off by middlemen.
 After delivery no attention is given to surrogate mother’s health.
 Many a times commissioning parents refuse to take the new born, if he/she is born with some deformity.
 It may also lead to issues of selective breeding and designer babies.
 It can also disturb the institution of marriage.
In such cases, it can be considered as inhuman act against the will of god. Due to absence of integrity in the process of surrogacy,
government of India has banned commercial surrogacy. Technology is always value neutral. Same goes for surrogacy. It must be
used taking care of rights and justice for all stakeholders.
Ethics by Atul Garg
2. Business ethics

Business ethics (also corporate ethics) is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics that examines ethical principles and moral
or ethical problems that arise in a business environment in private sector. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant
to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations.

Note: this topic will be discussed later in unit-6.

3. Military ethics
Military ethics are concerned with questions regarding the application of force and the ethos of the soldier and are often understood
as applied professional ethics. Just war theory is generally seen to set the background terms of military ethics. However individual
countries and traditions have different fields of attention. Military ethics involves multiple subareas, including the following among
others:

 what, if any, should be the laws of war

 justification for the initiation of military force
 decisions about who may be targeted in warfare
 decisions on choice of weaponry, and what collateral effects such weaponry may have
 standards for handling military prisoners
 methods of dealing with violations of the laws of war
Note: this topic will be discussed further under international ethics.

4. Political ethics
Politics (from Greek word Politika which means "affairs of the cities") is the process of making decisions applying to all members
of each group. It also refers to an organized control over a human community, particularly a state.

Politics is an essential human activity – essential in building societies and communities based on rules, laws and a balance of
conflicting interests. Politics is complex and difficult. It requires a high level of responsibility and commitment from citizens,
political parties, parliamentarians, government executives, the judiciary, the media, business, non-governmental organizations, and
religious and educational institutions.
But polls on all continents on the confidence of people in institutions show that people do not place much trust in politics and
politicians. They are often seen as selfish and corrupt power-players, defending special interests instead of the common good.
“Ethics in politics” seems to many a contradiction in terms, even though many politicians try to give their best for the common
cause of a country or the international community. Trust in and respect for politics and politicians is vital for living to gather in
communities and societies – especially in democracies. Where it is missing, populist, fascist or dictatorial tendencies can easily
grow.

However, the literature in political ethics is much less developed and the profound skepticism that ethics in politics is feasible
remains strong. At the same time, many movements show the thirst for credible politics: The Arab spring with its call for freedom
and democracy, the Indian broad movement against corruption in politics, the European replacement of governments in Greece and
Italy by technocrats and intellectuals whose mandate is to rebuild national unity, African initiatives for responsible leadership, Latin
American movements for peoples’ participation and citizenship, North American social network campaigns and many others.
Ethics in politics cover two areas. The first is the ethics of process (or the ethics of office), which deals with public officials and the
methods they use. The second area, the ethics of policy (or ethics and public policy) concerns judgments about policies and laws.
Principles of politics: Politics can evolve in a virtuous way once political actors adopt three basic principles:
1. Power should be limited by institutions and procedures, the rule of law, power sharing, devolution and mandates, open and fair
competition, and a sense of modesty;
2. Power should be accountable to the common good, the community and its representatives, setting the ground for wider
acceptance and commitment, securing smooth change and reducing retribution;
3. Power should be effective and efficient, results-driven, turning assets into benefits for all and containing the corruption that
captures common wealth for particular interests.
Power exercised in these ways serves sound governance, preventing populism, autocracy and dictatorial rule.
In meeting the challenges of a globalized, interdependent world, six ethical values in politics are cardinal:
1. Identity with diversity: combining national sovereignty, pride, and independence with diversity of cultures and backgrounds,
avoiding the traps of ethnic purity and populism.

Ethics by Atul Garg

2. Peace and security: maintaining a state monopoly on violence and managing conflicts through the regulated use of force,
fostering self-rule, backing a culture of peace, respect, dialogue, reciprocal commitment, and reconciliation.
3. Responsibility and freedom: focusing on the interaction between freedom and responsibility, promoting initiative and risk-
taking, acknowledging human rights, being committed to open reporting.
4. Equity: abiding by the rule of law, promoting equal access to resources, information and influence, tackling any tendency
towards privilege or discrimination.
5. Solidarity: developing fair mechanisms of cooperation with impoverished regions and underprivileged minorities or social
groups, without paternalism or creating lasting dependency.
6. Sustainability: securing an effective respect towards the earth and the future by refraining from overexploiting natural
resources, limiting environmental damage and fining polluters, managing public goods prudently, and looking for reasonable
trade-offs between immediate, long-term and earth-wide interests.

5. Public sector ethics

Ethics in the public sector is a broad topic that is usually considered a branch of political ethics. In the public sector, ethics addresses
the fundamental premise of a public administrator's duty as a "steward" to the public. In other words, it is the moral justification and
consideration for decisions and actions made during the completion of daily duties when working to provide the general services of
government and nonprofit organizations.
Note: this section will be discussed later in detail.

6. Publication ethics
Publication ethics is the set of principles that guide the writing and publishing process for all professional publications. In order to
follow the set of principles, authors should verify that the publication does not contain plagiarism or publication bias. As a way to
avoid misconduct in research these principles can also be applied to experiments which are referenced or analyzed in publications
by ensuring the data is recorded, honestly and accurately.
Plagiarism is the failure to give credit to another author’s work or ideas, when it is used in the publication. It is the obligation of the
editor of the journal to ensure the article does not contain any plagiarism before it is published. If a publication which has already
been published is proven to contain plagiarism, then the editor of the journal can proceed to have the article retracted.

Publication bias occurs when the publication is one-sided or "prejudiced against results". In best practice, an author should try to
include information from all parties involved, or affected by the topic. If an author is prejudiced against certain results, then it can
"lead to erroneous conclusions being drawn.”

Misconduct in research can occur when information from an experiment is falsely recorded or altered. Falsely recorded information
occurs when the researcher "fakes" information or data, which was not used when conducting the actual experiment. By faking the
data, the researcher can alter the results from the experiment to better fit the hypothesis they originally predicted. When conducting
medical research, it is important to honor the healthcare rights of a patient by protecting their anonymity in the publication.

7. Environmental ethics

Environmental ethics is the part of environmental philosophy which considers extending the traditional boundaries of ethics from
solely including humans to including the non-human world. It exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including
environmental law, environmental sociology, Eco theology (interrelationships of religion and nature), ecological economics,
ecology and environmental geography.

There are many ethical decisions that human beings make with respect to the environment. For example:

 Should we continue to clear cut forests for the sake of human consumption?
 Why should we continue to propagate our species, and life itself?
 Should we continue to make gasoline powered vehicles?
 What environmental obligations do we need to keep for future generations?
 Is it right for humans to knowingly cause the extinction of a species for the convenience of humanity?
 How should we best use and conserve the space environment to secure and expand life?
 Questions related to sustainable development.

Environmental Ethics in Indian Tradition

Ethics by Atul Garg

Since Vedic times, the main motto of social life was “to live in harmony with nature”. Sages, saints and great teachers of India lived
in forests, mediated and expressed themselves in the form of Vedas, Upanishads, Smritis and Dharma. Thus, we can imply that all
the divine thoughts and literature which served as ideal for living life and taught guidelines how to live life came up when these
saints and great thinkers were in touch with the nature. This literature of Olden times preached in one form or the other a worshipful
attitude towards plants, trees, mother earth, sky (akash), air (vayu), water(jal) and animals and to keep benevolent attitude towards
them. It was regarded a sacred of every person to protect them. The Hindu religion enshrines a respect for nature, environmental
harmony and conservation. It instructed man to show reverence of divinity in nature. Therefore, trees, animals, hills, mountains,
rivers are worshiped as symbol of reverence to these representative sample of nature. A perusal of Hindu religious scriptures reveals
that the principles.

1. To respect nature and protect it,

2. Nonviolence is the dharma of highest order (Ahinsa parmo dharma) one should be non-violent towards animals, trees and other
organisms.
3. Hinsa was considered as sin therefore not eating of meet in Hinduism is considered both as conduct and a duty.

Purity of thought and expression, and cleanliness of the environment around us should be observed. All lives, human and non-
human including trees are of equal value and all have same right to existence. It shows that the principle of sanctity of life is clearly
ingrained in Hindu religion.

In Current scenario people have forgotten their age-old traditions of living in harmony with nature and conserving natural
environment and natural resources. In the mad rush for industrialization and industrial development we are forgetting the importance
of environment. Earlier man coexisted with nature like other creatures but slowly he started thinking that whole universe is meant
for man and he is the master of whole universe. Previously he cared for the environment in which he lives in because he had place
in his heart for everything and he was sensitive towards other organism but as civilization progressed the sensitive attitude of man
towards nature started deteriorating and he had totally forgotten the importance of nature and he though is well aware of the fact
that Industrialization brings with it problems of environmental pollution but doesn’t at all wants to understand this simple fact.

Environmental Ethics and Constitution of India: “India has age old tradition of tolerance, non-violence, equity and compassion
for animate objects. In olden times they were part of daily life and synthesized with religion. Religious teachings social and political
norms and economic policies treated as a part of nature not as molder or superior. All the living beings are creatures of one superior
power –GOD”.

The above philosophy of peaceful coexistence with nature got mentioned in the Constitution in one way or the other in following
articles:
1. Articl48-A: State shall endeavor to protect and improve environment and to safeguard forest and wildlife of the country.
2. Article51-a (g): It is the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve natural environment including forest, lake, rivers
and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.

8. Ethics in Journalism

Freedom of the press and journalistic ethics is an important topic today in India — with the word ‘press' encompassing the electronic
media also. The discussion under this topic includes issues of the responsibilities of the press, since the media have become very
prominent and very powerful.

In India, freedom of the press has been treated as part of the freedom of speech and expression guaranteed by Article 19(1)(a) of the
Constitution. However, as mentioned in Article 19(2), reasonable restrictions can be placed on this right, on different counts. Hence,
freedom of the media is not an absolute freedom.
The importance of the freedom of the press lies in the fact that it is the means by which people receive free flow of information and
ideas, which is essential to intelligent self-governance, that is, democracy.
Some of the ethical issues involved are:

1) Paid news: One can trace the origins of the unethical practice of paid news back to the liberalization of the Indian economy in
1991. With market forces at play and public investment in private companies, journalists found it sometimes lucrative to write only
partially true stories of companies waiting to list on the stock exchanges.
The mid-2000s saw business schemes that swapped ad space in newspapers for equity in companies. During the 2008 assembly
elections, Hindi dailies published stories about candidates who had no particular news value, even predicting record victories for
them. In 2003 Bennett Coleman and Company Ltd (BCCL), publisher of The Times of India, started a paid content service to
send journalists out to cover events for a fee.
Ethics by Atul Garg
2) Opaque private treaties: Another questionable BCCL scheme involved private treaties by which a company would allot equity
to BCCL in return for ad space. P Sainath was one journalist who exposed the nexus of political and corporate entities in the news
media through such schemes. In 2008, in the midst of stiff opposition to the government granting permission to trial runs of
genetically-modified crops, The Times of India ran a story about how no farmer suicides were reported from two villages that had
switched to GM seeds. The same story was later republished in 2011 followed by a barrage of advertisement by GM giant Mahyco-
Monsanto Biotech India. The 2011 reprint was a frantic lobbying response to the government’s failure to table the GM bill in
parliament.

3) Blatant blackmail: In 2012 senior editors of the television channel Zee News were arrested for allegedly demanding Rs 100
crore from Jindal Power and Steel Ltd. In return for this pay-off, they offered to dilute their network’s campaign against the company
in the coal scam. The blackmail was exposed when JSPL chairman and Congress MP Naveen Jindal conducted a reverse sting on
the network’s executives.

4) Widening legal regulatory gap: The Press Council of India has dragged its feet on addressing paid news and other unethical
practices. In 2003, a photojournalist tipped the Council off on the practice of advertisements being published as news for a fee.
Instead of investigating the matter, the Council merely asked media companies to consider how their credibility is affected, and
issued guidelines they should follow to distinguish news from advertisements.

5) Flawed measurements of audience reach and readership: The yardsticks to measure the reach and impact of the Indian media
are dubious at best. One example is of the Indian Readership Survey of 2013, which claims that the readership of English newspapers
fell by a whopping 20% without attributing any reasons to the fall. Moreover, the survey found that the leading English paper in
Nagpur Hitvada didn’t appear to have a single reader while it had a certified circulation of more than 60,000.

Television ratings also fail to tell the real picture. Ratings consultants are paid off by TV channels to tamper with the system and
they do so in ingenious ways. New TVs are gifted to homes in which the supposedly-secret meters are located and residents are told
that they can watch anything on it as long as they are tuned into certain channels on the TV connected to the meter.

6. Use of deception: Also, sometimes the media present twisted or distorted news that may contain an element of truth but also an
element of untruth. This, too, should be avoided because a half-truth can be more dangerous than a total lie. The media should avoid
giving any slant to news, and avoid sensationalism and yellow journalism. Only then will they gain the respect of the people and
fulfil their true role in a democracy.
Yellow journalism, or the yellow press, is a type of journalism that presents little or no legitimate well-researched news and instead
uses eye-catching headlines to sell more newspapers. Techniques may include exaggerations of news events, scandal-mongering or
sensationalism.

7. Media trials: Media comments on pending cases, especially on criminal cases where the life or liberty of a citizen is involved,
are a delicate issue and should be carefully considered. After all, judges are human beings too, and sometimes it may be difficult
for them not to be influenced by such news. The British law is that when a case is sub-judice, no comment can be made on it,
whereas U.S. law permits such comment. In India we may have to take an intermediate view on this issue: while on the one hand
we have a written Constitution that guarantees freedom of speech in Article 19(1)(a) — which the unwritten British Constitution
does not — the life and liberty of a citizen is a fundamental right guaranteed by Article 21 and should not lightly be jeopardized.
Hence, a balanced view has to be taken on this.

8. Content of news: Also, often the media publish correct news but place too much emphasis on frivolous news such as those
concerning the activities of film stars, models, cricketers and so on, while giving very little prominence to much more important
issues that are basically socio-economic in nature.

What do we see on television these days? Some channels show film stars, pop music, disco-dancing and fashion parades (often with
scantily clad young women), astrology, or cricket. Is it not a cruel irony and an affront to our poor people that so much time and
resources are spent on such things? What have the Indian masses, who are facing terrible economic problems, to do with such
things?

9. Cross-ownership of media: The absence of restrictions on cross-media ownership in India implies that particular companies or
groups or conglomerates dominate markets both vertically (that is, across different media such as print, radio, television and the
internet) as well as horizontally (namely, in particular geographical regions). It is also well-known that political parties and persons
with political affiliation own/control increasing sections of the media in India.

Ethics by Atul Garg

Therefore, some big newspapers and TV news channels are partisan in the presentation of news in respect of the financial interests
with which they are allied. There is a certain timidity to expose courageously the shortcomings of those who are in a position of
power and authority. There is a tendency to suppress facts which are unfavourable to their own interests or to the financial interests
with which they are associated.

What should be the role of Media: Historically, the media have been organs of the people against feudal oppression. In Europe,
the media played a major role in transforming a feudal society into a modern one. The print media played a role in preparing for,
and during, the British, American and French Revolutions. The print media were used by writers such as Rousseau, Voltaire, Thomas
Paine, Junius and John Wilkes in the people's fight against feudalism and despotism. Everyone knows of the great stir created by
Thomas Paine's pamphlet ‘Common Sense' during the American Revolution, or of the letters of Junius during the reign of the
despotic George III.

The media became powerful tools in the hands of the people then because they could not express themselves through the established
organs of power: those organs were in the hands of feudal and despotic rulers. Hence, the people had to create new organs that
would serve them. It is for this reason that that the print media became known as the Fourth Estate. In Europe and America, they
represented the voice of the future, in contrast to the feudal or despotic organs that wanted to preserve the status quo in society. In
the 20th century, other types of media emerged: radio, television and the Internet.

In underdeveloped countries like India the media have a great responsibility to fight backward ideas such as casteism and
communalism, and help the people in their struggle against poverty and other social evils. Since a large section of the people is
backward and ignorant, it is all the more necessary that modern ideas are brought to them and their backwardness removed so that
they become part of enlightened India. The media have a great responsibility in this respect.

9. Ethics in Sports

To understand the role ethics plays in sport and competition, it is important to make a distinction between gamesmanship and
sportsmanship.

Gamesmanship is built on the principle that winning is everything. Athletes and coaches are encouraged to bend the rules wherever
possible in order to gain a competitive advantage over an opponent, and to pay less attention to the safety and welfare of the
competition. Some of the key tenants of gamesmanship are:
 Winning is everything
 It's only cheating if you get caught
 It is the referee's job to catch wrongdoing, and the athletes and coaches have no inherent responsibility to follow the rules
 The ends always justify the means

Some examples of gamesmanship are:

 Faking a foul or injury
 Attempting to get a head start in a race
 Tampering with equipment, such as cricket bat in order to hit the ball farther
 The use of performance-enhancing drugs
 Taunting or intimidating an opponent

Sportsmanship: Under a sportsmanship model, healthy competition is seen as a means of cultivating personal honor, virtue, and
character. It contributes to a community of respect and trust between competitors and in society. The goal in sportsmanship is not
simply to win, but to pursue victory with honor by giving one's best effort.Ethics in sport requires four key virtues: fairness, integrity,
responsibility, and respect.
The sportsmanship model is built on the idea that sport both demonstrates and encourages character development, which then
influences the moral character of the broader community. How we each compete in sports can have an effect on our personal moral
and ethical behavior outside of the competition.
Some argue for a "bracketed morality" within sports. This approach holds that sport and competition are set apart from real life, and
occupy a realm where ethics and moral codes do not apply. Instead, some argue, sports serve as an outlet for our primal aggression
and a selfish need for recognition and respect gained through the conquering of an opponent. In this view, aggression and victory
are the only virtues. For example, a football player may be described as mean and nasty on the field, but kind and gentle in everyday
life. His violent disposition on the field is not wrong because when he is playing the game he is part of an amoral reality that is
dictated only by the principle of winning.

Ethics by Atul Garg

An ethical approach to sport rejects this bracketed morality and honors the game and one's opponent through tough but fair play.
This means understanding the rules and their importance in encouraging respect for your opponent, which pushes you to be your
best.

10. Cyber-ethics
Cyber-ethics is a branch of applied ethics that examines moral, legal, and social issues at the intersection of computer/information
and communication technologies. Some of the issues involved in cyber-ethics are:

Privacy
Privacy is central to dignity and individuality. Privacy is also indispensable to a sense of autonomy — to 'a feeling that there is an
area of an individual's life that is totally under his or her control, an area that is free from outside intrusion.' The deprivation of
privacy can even endanger a person's health. Credit card information, social security numbers, phone numbers, mothers' maiden
names, addresses and phone numbers freely collected and shared over the internet may lead to a loss of Privacy.

Fraud and impersonation are some of the malicious activities that occur due to the direct or indirect abuse of private information.
Identity theft is rising rapidly due to the availability of private information in the internet. Public records search engines and
databases are the main culprits contributing to the rise of cybercrime.

Property

Property has created many clashes in the world of cyber-ethics. One philosophy of the internet is centered around the freedom of
information. The controversy over ownership occurs when the property of information is infringed upon or uncertain.

Intellectual property rights: The ever-increasing speed of

the internet and the emergence of compression technology,
such as mp3 opened the doors to Peer-to-peer file sharing, a
technology that allowed users to anonymously transfer files
to each other.

Proponents of unrestricted file sharing point out how file

sharing has given people broader and faster access to media,
has increased exposure to new artists, and has reduced the
costs of transferring media (including less environmental
damage). Supporters of restrictions on file sharing argue that
we must protect the income of our artists and other people
who work to create our media. This argument is partially
answered by pointing to the small proportion of money artists
receive from the legitimate sale of media.

We also see a similar debate over intellectual property rights in respect to software ownership. The two opposing views are for
closed source software distributed under restrictive licenses or for free and open source software. The argument can be made that
restrictions are required because companies would not invest weeks and months in development if there were no incentive for
revenue generated from sales and licensing fees. A counter argument to this is that standing on shoulders of giants is far cheaper
when the giants do not hold IP rights. Some proponents for open source believe that all programs should be available to anyone who
wants to study them.

Freedom of information
Freedom of information, that is the freedom of speech as well as the freedom to seek, obtain and impart information brings up the
question of who or what, has the jurisdiction in cyberspace. The right of freedom of information is commonly subject to limitations
dependent upon the country, society and culture concerned.

Generally, there are three standpoints on the issue as it relates to the internet. First is the argument that the internet is a form of
media, put out and accessed by citizens of governments and therefore should be regulated by each individual government within the
borders of their respective jurisdictions. Second, is that, "Governments of the Industrial World... have no sovereignty [over the
Internet] ... We have no elected government, nor are we likely to have one, ... You have no moral right to rule us nor do you possess
any methods of enforcement we have true reason to fear." A third party believes that the internet supersedes all tangible borders

Ethics by Atul Garg

such as the borders of countries, authority should be given to an international body since what is legal in one country may be against
the law in another.

Digital divide: An issue specific to the ethical issues of the freedom of information is what is known as the digital divide. This
refers to the unequal socio-economic divide between those who have had access to digital and information technology, such as
cyberspace, and those who have had limited or no access at all. This gap of access between countries or regions of the world is
called the global digital divide.

Sexuality and pornography: Sexuality in terms of sexual orientation, infidelity, sex with or between minors, public display and
pornography has always stirred ethical controversy. The availability of pornography online calls into question jurisdiction as well
as brings up the problem of regulation in particular over child pornography, which is illegal in most countries, as well as pornography
involving violence or animals, which is restricted within most countries.

Online gambling: The accessibility of the internet and its ability to cross geographic-borders have led to illegal online gambling,
often offshore operations. Over the years online gambling, both legal and illegal, has grown exponentially which has led to
difficulties in regulation.

Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics

The ethical values as defined in 1992 by the Computer Ethics Institute; a nonprofit organization whose mission is to advance
technology by ethical means, lists these rules as a guide to computer ethics:
1. Thou shall not use a computer to harm other people.
2. Thou shall not interfere with other people's computer work.
3. Thou shall not snoop around in other people's computer files.
4. Thou shall not use a computer to steal.
5. Thou shall not use a computer to bear false witness.
6. Thou shall not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
7. Thou shall not use other people's computer resources without authorization or proper compensation.
8. Thou shall not appropriate other people's intellectual output.
9. Thou shall think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system you are designing.
10. Thou shall always use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect for your fellow humans.

*****

Ethics by Atul Garg