Student 1 of 2

Practical 1 Momentum and momentum conservation – large

trolleys

Purpose Safety

The aim of this experiment is to study momentum Lift the large wooden runway with care.
and its conservation in an inelastic collision. Set up the experiment away from the edges of
the bench so that the trolleys do not fall off.

You will need:

• Two trolleys • Plasticene®
• Two light gates and suitable interface • Drawing pin
• Eight 100 g slotted masses • Adhesive tape
• Wooden runway • Means of tilting the runway

light gate 1 light gate 2

Plasticene®

trolley A trolley B

Figure 1:  Arrangement of large trolleys to investigate momentum and momentum conservation

Experimental instructions
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram with five slotted masses fixed onto trolley A.
Compensate for friction by tilting the runway slightly. Check by giving one trolley a small
push and confirming that it runs down the runway with constant speed.

Soften the Plasticene® and stick it to the front of one of the trolleys. Fix the drawing pin to
the front of the other trolley with the adhesive tape, so it is facing out from the trolley as
shown. Put the two light gates quite close together. This is to minimise the effects of friction
as the trolleys collide.

Set the interface unit to record the speed of trolley A before the collision and the speed of the
two trolleys (A and B joined together) after the collision.

Put trolley A at one end of the runway and trolley B just before light gate 2.

Give trolley A a push (not too large) so that it runs down the track, cutting through the light
beam of light gate 1 and colliding with, and sticking to, trolley B. The two trolleys will now
travel on, the mask on trolley A cutting through the light beam of light gate 2.

Repeat the experiment for differing initial speeds and trolley masses. Do not allow the
trolleys to fall off the bench.

1
 2 of 2 Student

Practical 1 (cont.) Momentum and momentum conservation – large

trolleys

Analysis and conclusions

Use your results to test the law of conservation of momentum.

Calculate the total momentum of both trolleys before and after the collision.

Comment on the most important sources of error in your experiment and how they might
be reduced.

2
 Student 1 of 1

Practical 2 Momentum and momentum conservation – small

trolleys

Purpose Safety

The aim of this experiment is to study momentum Lift the wooden support board with care.
and its conservation in an inelastic collision.

You will need:

• Two trolleys • Eight washers • Two pieces of Velcro® strip
• Two light gates and suitable • Plastic runway • Means of compensating the
interface • Wooden support board runway for friction

light gate 1 light gate 2

mask size 1 cm

trolley A
trolley B

washers

Velcro® strip Velcro® strip

Figure 1:  Arrangement of small trolleys to investigate momentum and momentum conservation

Experimental instructions
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram with four washers on each trolley. Compensate
for friction by tilting the runway slightly. Check by giving one trolley a small push and
confirming that it runs down the runway with constant speed.
Mount a piece of Velcro® on each trolley so that the trolleys stick together when they collide.
Set the interface unit to record the speed of trolley A before the collision and the speed of the
two trolleys (A and B joined together) after the collision.
Put trolley A at one end of the runway and trolley B just before light gate 2.
Give trolley A a push (not too large) so that it runs down the runway, cutting through the
light beam of light gate 1 and colliding with, and sticking to, trolley B. The two trolleys will
now travel on, the mask on trolley A cutting through the light beam of light gate 2.
Repeat the experiment for differing initial speeds and trolley masses.

Analysis and conclusions

Use your results to test the law of conservation of momentum.
Calculate the total momentum of both trolleys before and after the collision.
Comment on the most important sources of error in your experiment and how they might
be reduced.

3
 1 of 2 Student

Practical 3 Momentum and momentum conservation using a

linear air track

Purpose

The aim of this experiment is to study momentum and its conservation in an inelastic collision
between two riders using a linear air track.

You will need:

• Linear air track • Additional masses
• Air blower • Pin attachment
• Two riders • Plasticene®
• Two light gates and suitable interface

light gate 1 light gate 2

mask

rider A rider B

pin attachment

Figure 1:  Using a linear air track to investigate momentum and momentum conservation

Experimental instructions
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Compensate for friction by tilting the air track
slightly. Check by giving one rider a small push and confirming that it runs along the air
track with constant speed.

Put some Plasticene® in the hole on one rider and fix the pin attachment to the other rider.

Set the interface unit to record the speed of rider A before the collision and the speed of the
two riders (A and B joined together) after the collision.

Put rider A at one end of the linear air track and rider B just before light gate 2 and switch on
the air blower.

Give rider A a push (not too large) so that it runs along the air track, cutting through the
light beam of light gate 1 and colliding with, and sticking to, rider B. The two riders will now
travel on, the mask on rider A cutting through the light beam of light gate 2.

Repeat the experiment for differing initial speeds and rider masses. The mass of the rider can
be changed by fitting additional masses to it.

4
 Student 2 of 2

Practical 3 (cont.) Momentum and momentum conservation using a

linear air track

Analysis and conclusions

Calculate the total momentum of both riders before and after the collision. Use your results
to test the law of conservation of momentum.

Comment on the most important sources of error in your experiment and how they might
be reduced.

5
 1 of 2 Student

Practical 4 Rate of change of momentum using a linear air track

Purpose

The aim of this experiment is to investigate rate of change of momentum using a linear air track.

You will need:

• Linear air track • Pulley suitable for fixing to the air track
• Air blower • Thread
• Rider • Set of slotted masses (10 g)
• Two light gates and suitable interface

light gate 1 light gate 2

mask

rider

slotted masses

Figure 1:  Using a linear air track to investigate rate of change of momentum

Experimental instructions
Set up your apparatus as shown in the diagram. Compensate the air track for friction by
raising one end slightly. Check by giving the rider a gentle push and measuring its velocity
through both light gates – it should move along the air track at a constant velocity when there
is no accelerating force on it. Set your interface unit to measure velocity at both gates and the
time taken to travel between them.

Start with six of your ten masses on the rider and the other four (including the hanger) on the
thread hanging down. The mass to be accelerated is the mass of the rider and the set of slotted
masses while the accelerating force is the weight of the four suspended slotted masses (0.4 N).

Hold on to the rider. Switch on the air blower and timing devices. Release the rider and allow
it to accelerate down the track. Do not allow it to crash into the end of the track. Record the
velocities of the rider as it passes through light gates 1 and 2 and the time taken for the rider
to travel between the gates. Repeat the readings and take an average.

6
 Student 2 of 2

Practical 4 (cont.) Rate of change of momentum using a linear air

track

Vary the accelerating force but keep the total mass constant by putting masses on the rider
if they are removed from the hanger and vice versa. Record the values of accelerating
force, velocity and momentum values at gates 1 and 2, the momentum change and the time
between the light gates in a table.

Analysis and conclusions

Calculate the rate of change of momentum for each accelerating force.

Plot a graph of rate of change of momentum against accelerating force.

Comment on the shape of graph and deduce the relationship between rate of change of
momentum and accelerating force.

7
 1 of 2 Student

Practical 5 Rate of change of momentum using a trolley

Purpose

The aim of this experiment is to investigate rate of change of momentum using a trolley on a
runway.

You will need:

• Trolley • Thread
• White plastic track • Twelve washers (mass 10 g each) (a set of
• Board slotted masses could be used instead of the
• Two light gates and suitable interface washers)
• Bench pulley • Sponge to put on floor below the masses

mask size 1 cm

trolley light gates

washers

accelerating washers

Figure 1:  Using a trolley to investigate rate of change of momentum

Experimental instructions
Set up your apparatus as shown in the diagram. Compensate the runway for friction by
raising one end slightly. Check by giving the trolley a gentle push and measuring its velocity
through both light gates – it should move along the runway at a constant velocity when there
is no accelerating force on it. Set your interface unit to measure velocity at both gates and the
time taken to travel between them.

Start with ten of your twelve washers on the trolley and the other two on the thread hanging
down. The mass to be accelerated is the mass of the trolley and twelve washers while the
accelerating force is the weight of the two suspended washers (0.2 N).

Allow the trolley to accelerate down the runway. Record the velocities of the trolley as it
passes through light gates 1 and 2 and the time take for the trolley to travel between the
gates. Repeat the readings and take an average.

8
 Student 2 of 2

Practical 5 (cont.) Rate of change of momentum using a trolley

Repeat the procedure by taking one washer off the trolley and adding it to the suspended
washers – the accelerating force is now 0.3 N (same total mass). Carry on until you have
only two washers left on the trolley. Record the values of accelerating force, velocity and
momentum values at gates 1 and 2, the momentum change and the time between the light
gates in a table.

Analysis and conclusions

Calculate the rate of change of momentum for each accelerating force.

Plot a graph of rate of change of momentum against accelerating force.

Comment on the shape of graph and deduce the relationship between rate of change of
momentum and accelerating force.

9
 1 of 1 Student

Practical 6 Centripetal force – whirling bung

Purpose Safety

The aim of this experiment is to verify the Do not swing the bungs round too fast and avoid
equation for centripetal force using a whirling collisions between bungs and people!
bung. Keep away from windows.
Wear eye protection.

You will need:

• Rubber bung with a hole through it • Stopwatch or stop clock • Access to a balance
• Length of string (about 1.5 m) • Metre ruler • Eye protection
• Washers or 10 g slotted masses and • Short length of glass tube with the ends
hanger burred over (or a short metal tube)

R Experimental instructions
Tie the piece of string to a rubber bung and then thread
rubber bung it through a short length (10 cm) of glass tube. Fix a small
mass M weight (such as a few washers with a mass a little greater than
glass tube
the mass of the bung) to the lower end of the string.

Whirl the bung round in a horizontal circle (radius

approximately 80 cm) while holding the glass tube so that
washers or the radius of the bung’s orbit is constant. (A mark on the
slotted masses
(weight mg) string will help you see if the radius of the orbit remains the
same.)
Figure 1:  Whirling bung arrangement Measure the mass of the bung (M), the total mass of the
washers (m), the radius of the orbit (R) and the time for ten
orbits (10 3 T   ).

Repeat the experiment with different numbers of washers, different orbit radii and bungs of
different masses.

Analysis and conclusions

(  ​ 2pR
Calculate the period of the orbit (T ), the velocity of the bung in the orbit ​ v 5 ____
T )
​  ​and
  

(  ​ Mv   
then work out the centripetal force ​ F 5 ____
R
2
)
​  ​.

Compare this value with the weight of the washers (mg).

(The centripetal force should be equal to the weight of the washers. This will only be the case
if the system is frictionless.)

Plot a graph of m against v2.

Comment on the most important sources of error in your experiment and how they might
be reduced.

10
 Student 1 of 1

Practical 7 Centripetal force – rotating trolley

Purpose Safety

The aim of this experiment is to verify the Do not allow the rotating table to turn too fast!
equation for centripetal force.

You will need:

• Trolley • Power supply (0–12 V)
• Spring • Ruler
• Plastic runway • Stop clock
• Wooden support • Newtonmeter
• Washers • Balance
• Rotating table • G clamps

spring

washers

trolley

R
rotating table runway

Figure 1:  Rotating trolley setup

Experimental instructions
Set up the apparatus as shown, clamping the rotating table firmly to the bench. Carefully increase
the speed of the motor until the trolley just touches the stop at the end of the runway. Measure
the rotation rate and use it to calculate the speed (v) of the trolley in a circle of radius R.
Measure the mass of the trolley and its load (m) and hence calculate the theoretical value of
(  ​ mv   
the centripetal force needed to keep it in the orbit at that speed ​ centripetal force 5 ____
R
2
)
​  ​.
 

Using a newtonmeter, measure the force required to extend the spring by the amount needed
for the trolley to touch the end of the runway. Compare your two values and comment on
your findings.
Repeat the experiment for different values of the load on the trolley.

Analysis and conclusions

Plot a graph of the measured force against mv2. Use the graph to verify the equation for
centripetal force.
Comment on the most important sources of error in your experiment and how they might
be reduced.

11
 1 of 1 Student

Practical 8 Measuring the charge stored by a capacitor

Purpose Safety

The aim of this experiment is to measure the charge stored by a If you are using an electrolytic
capacitor using a coulombmeter and to investigate the formula capacitor, take care to connect
charge
capacitance 5 ​ ________
 
potential ( 
 ​ ​
  )
Q
C 5 ​ __ ​   ​.
V
it with the correct polarity.

You will need:

• Capacitors (0.1 mF, 0.22 mF, • Power supply (0–6 V dc) (or • Digital coulombmeter
0.047 mF) 6 V battery pack and a 10 V • Digital voltmeter
rheostat) • SPDT switch

1 2

Circuit using battery

V C Q pack and rheostat

1 2

dc power supply
(0–6 V)

Circuit using variable

V C Q voltage power supply

Figure 1:  Circuit for measuring the charge stored by a capacitor

Experimental instructions
Connect up the circuit shown in the diagram using the 0.1 mF capacitor, with the switch in
position 1. Switch on the power supply and adjust the output so that the voltmeter reads 0.5  V.

Move the switch to position 2 and record the reading of charge on the coulombmeter.

Return the switch to position 1, and adjust the voltmeter to read 1.0  V. Move the switch to
position 2 and again record the charge.

Repeat the procedure in 0.5  V steps up to a maximum of 6.0  V. Record all your results in a
table showing capacitor voltage and charge.

Repeat for different values of capacitance.

Analysis and conclusions

For each capacitor plot a graph of capacitor voltage against charge. Calculate the gradient of
each of your graphs and compare this with the stated value of the capacitor.

12
 Student 1 of 2

Practical 9 Effect of length and current on the force on a wire in a

magnetic field

Purpose

The aim of this experiment is to investigate how the force experienced by a current-carrying wire
in a magnetic field depends on the length of the wire and the current passing through it.

You will need:

• Electronic balance • Two crocodile clips
• Length of thin copper rod • Ammeter (0–5 A dc)
• Power supply (0–12 V dc, 0–5 A) • 30 cm ruler
• 4 mm connecting leads • Two retort stands
• Strong U-shaped magnet (two magnadur • Bosses and clamps
magnets on a yoke can be used if the
balance is sufficiently sensitive)

to power supply

copper rod

magnets fixed
to metal yoke

245

side view

front view

Figure 1:  The experimental arrangement

Experimental instructions
Set up the apparatus as shown with the crocodile clips a measured distance apart (say 4 cm).
Take the reading on the balance and then switch on the power supply so that a current of 5 A
flows through the rod. If necessary, change the direction of the current flow so that it causes
an increase in the balance reading. Record the new reading of the balance.
Change the separation of the crocodile clips and repeat the reading, keeping the current
constant. Note that the separation of the crocodile clips must not be greater than the length
of the magnet poles. Repeat for a number of different crocodile clip separations.
Return the crocodile clips to their original separation and repeat the experiment with a new
value of the current. Repeat this for a number of different currents.

13
 2 of 2 Student

Effect of length and current on the force on a wire

Practical 9 (cont.)
in a magnetic field

Analysis and conclusions

Calculate the force on the current using the equation F 5 BIl (if B is known) and compare it
with the increase in the balance reading.

If the value of B is not known, use the increase in balance reading (5 mg) to calculate it.

Plot graphs of force against crocodile clip separation and force against current. Comment on
your graphs.

14
 Student 1 of 2

Practical 10 Specific heat capacity of a liquid

Purpose Safety

The aim of this experiment is to measure the Do not heat the contents of the calorimeter
specific heat capacity of a liquid using an electrical above 50 °C.
method.

You will need:

• A copper or aluminium calorimeter with a • Low-voltage power supply (0–12 V)
volume of between 250 and 400 ml • Thermometer (0–50 °C)
• Insulating jacket with a hole for the • Stop clock
thermometer or sensor (A temperature sensor and data logger can
• Electrical immersion heater be used instead of the thermometer and stop
• Voltmeter clock.)
• Ammeter

Stirrer

insulating muff

heater

water

Figure 1:  Calorimeter setup for measuring the specific

heat capacity of a liquid

Experimental instructions
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Measure the mass of the calorimeter (mC) and
fill it with a known mass of water (mW). There must be enough water to cover the immersion
heater when it is put in the calorimeter. Place the muff over the calorimeter.

Switch on the heater. Set the voltage (V  ) to a convenient value and record this with the value
of the current (I  ). Measure the initial water temperature (u ) using a thermometer and start
the stop clock (or use a temperature sensor and data logger). Record the temperature at one-
minute intervals, stirring just before the thermometer is read. Switch off the heater when the
temperature reaches 50 °C.

(You may need to adjust the value of V during the experiment so that the power input
remains constant.)

15
 2 of 2 Student

Practical 10 (cont.) Specific heat capacity of a liquid

Analysis and conclusions

Plot a graph of temperature against time and choose a section of the graph where the
temperature is rising steadily. In this area find the temperature rise ∆u in a time ∆t.

Calculate the electrical energy supplied to the heater (VI∆t).

Assume that there are no heat losses during the experiment.

Calculate the specific heat capacity of water (cW) from the equation:

VI∆t 5 mCcC∆u 1 mWcW∆u

where cC is the specific heat capacity of the material of the calorimeter. (The value of cC can
be found from a data book.)

Repeat the experiment with other liquids.

Record any sources of error which you consider will affect your result.

Predict the effect on your answer of significant heat loss.

16
 Student 1 of 2

Practical 11 Specific heat capacity of a solid

Purpose

The aim of this experiment is to measure the specific heat capacity of a solid using an electrical
method.

You will need:

• Aluminium (or other metal block) with a • Stop clock
mass of 1 kg • Insulating jacket with a hole for the
• Heat-resistant mat thermometer or sensor
• Low-voltage heater and suitable power • Silicone grease
supply (A temperature sensor and data logger can
• Ammeter and voltmeter be used instead of the thermometer and stop
• Thermometer (0–50 °C) clock.)

immersion heater

heat-resistant mat

metal block
insulating jacket

Figure 1:  Setup for measuring the specific heat capacity of a solid

Experimental instructions
Measure the mass of the metal block (m). Put the thermometer in the small hole in the metal
block. Place the heater in the large hole in the block and switch it on. A small amount of
silicone grease in the holes in the block can improve thermal contact. Place the insulating
jacket around the apparatus.

Set the voltage (V) to a convenient value and record this with the value of the current (I).

17
 2 of 2 Student

Practical 11 (cont.) Specific heat capacity of a solid

Measure the initial temperature (u) and start the stop clock (or use a temperature sensor and
data logger). Record the temperature at one-minute intervals. Switch off the heater when the
temperature reaches 50 °C.

(You may need to adjust the value of V during the experiment so that the power input
remains constant.)

Analysis and conclusions

Plot a graph of temperature against time and choose a section of the graph where the
temperature is rising steadily. In this area find the temperature rise ∆u in a time ∆t.

Calculate the electrical energy supplied to the heater (VI∆t).

Calculate the specific heat capacity (c) of the metal of your block using the formula:
VI∆t ​ 
c 5 ​ ______ 
m∆u
where m is the mass of the block.

Assume that there are no heat losses during the experiment.

Predict the effect on your answer of significant heat loss.

Suggest the most likely sources of error in your experiment and how they might be reduced.

18