MODULE 8: Changes in Mineral Components and Texture of Rocks (Metamorphism)

Metamorphism is the change that takes place within a body of rock as a result of it being subjected to conditions that
are different from those in which it is formed. It is from the Greek word “meta” means change and “morphe” means
form.

[The word “Metamorphism" comes from the Greek: meta = after, morph = form, so metamorphism means the after
form. In geology this refers to the changes in mineral assemblage and texture that result from subjecting a rock to
pressures and temperatures different from those under which the rock originally formed.]

METAMORPHIC ROCK is formed at the surface of the Earth through the process of metamorphism with
recrystallization of minerals in rocks due to changes in pressure and temperature conditions.

[The original rock that has undergone metamorphism is called the protolith.

Protolith can be any type of rock and sometimes the changes in texture and mineralogy are so dramatic that is difficult
to distinguish what the protolith was.]

TWO TYPES OF METAMORPHISM

A. Contact Metamorphism
B. B. Regional Metamorphism

[1.Regional metamorphism - Changes in enormous quantities of rock over a wide area caused by the extreme pressure
from overlying rock or from compression caused by geologic processes.

2. Contact metamorphism - Changes in a rock that is in contact with magma because of the magma’s extreme heat.]

Main Factors:

Heat and Reactive Fluids

Pressure

The three main factors/agents of metamorphism include heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. The heat
perhaps is the most important factors because it provides the energy to drive the chemical changes which results in the
recrystallization of minerals. The heat increases as the depth increases. Pressure just like heat, also increases with depth,
and the buried rocks are subjected to the force or stress. Heat and pressure cause physical changes to buried rocks.
Chemically active fluids enhanced the metamorphic process. Usually, the common fluid which helps the chemical activity
is water containing ions in solution. As the rocks buried deeply, the water is forced out of the rock and becomes
available to aid in chemical reactions.

[Factors that Control Metamorphism]

Temperature

Temperature increases with depth in the Earth along the Geothermal Gradient. Thus higher temperature can occur by
burial of rock. Temperature can also increase due to igneous intrusion.

Pressure

Pressure increases with depth of burial, thus, both pressure and temperature will vary with depth in the Earth. Pressure
is defined as a force acting equally from all directions. It is a type of stress, called hydrostatic stress, or uniform stress. If
the stress is not equal from all directions, then the stress is called a differential stress

There are two kinds of differential stress:

Normal stress causes objects to be compressed in the direction of maximum principal and extended in the direction of
minimal stress. If differential stress is present stress and extended in the direction of minimal stress. If differential stress
is present during metamorphism, it can have a profound effect on the texture of the rock. during metamorphism, it can
have a profound effect on the texture of the rock.

Shear stress causes objects to be smeared out in the direction of applied stress

Fluid Phase

Any existing open space between mineral grains in a rock can potentially contain a fluid. This fluid is mostly H2O, but
contains dissolved ions.

Time

Because metamorphism involves changing the rock while it is solid, metamorphic change is a slow process. During
metamorphism, several processes are at work. Recrystallization causes changes in minerals size and shape.

Grade of Metamorphism

FOLIATED ROCKS:

Regional (slate)

Heat and pressure increase with depth (phyllite, schist, gneiss)

NONFOLIATED ROCKS:

Contact Heat (hornfels)

Regional or contact (quartzite,marble,metaconglomerate)

(see readera and the reporting on gallery for more info)

ACTIVITY B:

1. It has low-grade metamorphism of shale- SLATE

2. Plays mica crystals visible from metamorphism of clay or feldspar.- SCHIST

3. Metamorphism of bituminous coal.-ANTHRACITE

4. High –grade metamorphism- GNEISS

5. Foliation surface is shiny from microscopic mica crystals. – PHYLLITE

The third family of rock is the metamorphic rock formed from either igneous rock or sedimentary rocks that have been
changed due to tremendous heat and pressure.

Metamorphism does not actually melt the rocks but transforms them into denser, more compact rocks. Mineral may
also be rearranged due to chemical reactions involving fluids that enter rocks

Metamorphic Rocks are used for variety of purposes.

Slate is used commercially for your classroom blackboards and for pool tabletops.

Marble is used in the construction of building floors, bathroom walls,nd counter parts (Pavico and Faraon, 2007, 224-
225).
Extreme heat and pressure change the original state of an existing rock. They also change chemical composition and
physical structure of existing rocks. Combinations of minerals in rocks are stable only over specific ranges of pressure
and temperature. At pressure and temperature not within the ranges, the minerals form different combinations call
mineral assemblages (Kasten 2012, 290-291).

ACTIVITY D

1. Metamorphic rocks which do not have a layered or banded appearance- NONFOLIATED

2. Used as a decorative stone such as cover walls and stair treads-QUARTZITE

3. Occurs from the increasing in both heat and pressure-METAMORPHOSIS

7. It transforms rock into denser and more compact rock-REGIONAL

9. Used in construction of building floor-MARBLE

4. Used commercially classroom blackboards-SLATE

5. Rock formed by heat and pressure changing one type of rock into another-METAMORPHIC

6. Different combination of a mineral formation- ASSEMBLAGES

8. Metamorphic rocks which forms a layer- FOLIATED

10. Changes in a rock that is in contact with magma- CONTACT

WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

1. It is a Greek word which means “change”-META

2. It is one of the factors affecting metamorphic rock which creates lineation- PRESSURE

3. Hornfels, marble and - QUARTZITE

4. It is the main factor of contact metamorphism -HEAT

5. It is a process of changing rock formation - METAMORPHISM

6. It has a foliation surface shiny from microscopic mica crystal- PHYLLITE

7. A rock sample which maybe distorted or stretched- METACONGLOMERATE

8. A rock sample with carbon composition- ANTHRACITE

9. It is formed by great heat and pressure deep within the earth- METAMORPHIC ROCK

10. It takes place when magma introduces great amount of heat into an existing rock resulting in the recrystallization

and mineral reaction in the rock- CONTACT METAMORPHISM

MODULE 9: IGNEOUS ROCKS: HOW THEY ARE FORMED

ACTIVITY 1 (a review)

1. It is the change that takes place within a body of rock as a result of being subjected to conditions. (METAMORPHISM)

3. It is a type of metamorphic rock which is formed due to pressure. (REGIONAL)

2. It is the main factor of regional metamorphism. (PRESSURE)

4. It is a type of metamorphic rock which is formed due to heat. (CONTACT)
5. It is the main factor of contact metamorphism. (HEAT)

What are igneous rocks?

Igneous rocks are one of the three major categories of rocks. The word igneous is derived from the Latin word for fire,
ignis or ignus.
These rocks are commonly found in the surface and beneath the Earth, specifically in divergent boundaries, convergent
boundaries, subduction zones and hotspots. Not all igneous rocks have the same physical and chemical characteristics.
They differ in the origin, process of formation, color, density, size of grains, crystals and many more
How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks are formed through the process of solidification and crystallization of molten rocks; magma and lava.
When hot, molten rocks reach the surface of the earth, they undergo changes in temperature and pressure, causing
them to cool, solidify and crystallize. Moreover, there are also solidification and crystallization magma beneath the
earth.
What are the types of igneous rocks based on their formation?
In terms of formation, igneous rocks can be classified into two: intrusive and extrusive rocks. Below is the comparison
of these two types

Intrusive Rocks

Other terminology: plutonic rocks

Location:beneath the Earth
Process of Formation: plutonic
Origin: formed from magma
Color: usually dark
Density:usually dense
Composition: mafic: magnesium and iron
Rate of Cooling: cools slowly
Size of Grains: large/coarse grains
Size of Crystals: large crystals

Extrusive Rocks

Other terminology: volcanic rocks

Location: surface of the Earth
Process of Formation: volcanic
Origin: formed from lava
Color: usually light colored
Density: usually with low density
Rate of Cooling:cools quickly (with voids/holes)
Size of Grains:fine/small or no grains (fine/glassy)
Size of Crystals: small or no crystals

These are some examples of intrusive and extrusive rocks.

Figure 1. Examples of Intrusive Rocks (Gabbro Diorite Granite)
Figure 2. Examples of Extrusive Rocks (Basalt Obsidian Rhyolite Scoria)

Igneous rocks can also be classified according to their composition. They are composed of SiO2 or silica. Not all igneous
rocks have the same silica content. If there is oversaturation of silica in the magma, its minerals will precipitate. On the
other hand, if there is undersaturation of silica in the magma, its minerals will not precipitate and will not be present in
the igneous rocks. The viscosity of magma is also affected because of silica content.

There are four classifications of igneous rocks based on silica content: ultramafic, mafic, intermediate, and felsic.
1. Ultramafic Igneous Rocks
● They have a very low silica content; less than 45% of SiO2.
● Before forming into igneous rocks, its magma has very low viscosity.
● Its color is ranged too black (peridotite) to olive green (dunite).
● Their density is very high.
● They are rich in pyroxene and olivine minerals.
● Examples of these rocks are peridotite and dunite.
2. Mafic Igneous Rocks
● They have a low silica content; 45-52% of SiO2.
● Before forming into igneous rocks, its magma has low viscosity; more viscous than ultramafic magma.
● They have black color.
● Their density is high.
● They are composed of pyroxene, calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar
● Examples of these rocks are gabbro and basalt.
3. Intermediate Igneous Rocks
● They have a high silica content; 53-65% of SiO2.
● Before forming into igneous rocks, its magma has intermediate viscosity; more viscous than the mafic magma.
● Their color is gray.
● Their density is intermediate.
● They are composed of biotite, alkali feldspar and quartz.
● Examples of these rocks are diorite and andesite.
4. Felsic Igneous Rocks
● They have a very high silica content; more than 65% of SiO2
● Before forming into igneous rocks, its magma has high viscosity; more viscous than the intermediate magma.
● They have light color.
● Their density is very low.
● They are composed of quartz and alkali feldspar.
● Examples of these rocks are granite and rhyolite.

To sum, the higher the silica content is, the lighter its color while the lower the silica content is, the darker its color.
Thus, the amount of silica affects the color of the rocks.

Felsic has the highest silica content while ultramafic has the lowest silica content. On the other hand, felsic is exposed to
700 degree Celsius and ultramafic is exposed to 1200 degree Celsius. It means when igneous rock is exposed to extreme
high temperature, its color is darker, while if it is exposed to lower temperature, its color is light.

What are the types of igneous rocks based on texture?

Igneous rocks have different textures. The texture of a rock is the size and arrangement of the minerals it contains.
● Phaneritic texture. Rocks have large minerals (example: granite)
● Aphanitic texture. The mineral grains are too small to see with the unaided eye (example: basalt)
● Vesicular texture. Rocks have many pits from gas escape (example: basalt)
● Porphyritic texture. Rocks have two (2) distinct grain sizes, large and small (example: andesite porphyry)
● Glassy texture. Rocks do have obvious minerals (example: obsidian)
BASED ON THE REPORT:
How are Igneous rocks classified based on silica content?
In a widely accepted silica content classification scheme, rocks with more than 65 percent silica are called Felsic. Those
with between 55 and 65 percent are intermediate. Those with between 45 and 55 percent silica are mafic. And those
with less than 45 percent are ultramafic. Most Igneous rocks contain between 45 and 65 percent silica.

6 MAIN TYPES OF TEXTURES

1. Phaneritic texture is sometimes referred to as coarse-grained igneous texture (GRANITE)
2. Apahanitic texture describes very fine grained rock where individual crystals can be seen only with the aid of a
microscope (BASALT)
3. Porphytric texture describes a rock that has well-formed crystals visible to the naked eye, called phenocrysts, set in a
very fine grained or glassy matrix (PUMICE)
4. Glassy texture consists of dense volcanic glass (OBSIDIAN)
5. Pyroclastic texture shows a mixture of rock fragments, pumice, and volcanic ash. (RHYOLITE)
6. Pegmatitic texture is one in which the mineral grains are exceptionally large. (DIORITE)

ACTIVITY 7
1. The word igneous is derived from the Latin word for FIRE ignis or ignus.
2. Igneous rocks are commonly found in the SURFACE and BENEATH the Earth, specifically in divergent boundaries,
convergent boundaries, subduction zones and hotspots.
3. Igneous rocks are formed through the process of SOLIDIFICATION and CRYSTALLIZATION of molten rocks; magma and
lava.
4. When hot, molten rocks reach the surface of the earth, they undergo changes
in TEMPERATURE and PRESSURE causing them to COOL, SOLIDIFY and CRYSTALLIZE.
5. In terms of formation, igneous rocks can be classified into two; INTRUSIVE and EXTRUSIVE rocks.
6. Intrusive rocks are formed solidified MAGMA while extrusive rocks are formed from solidified LAVA.
7. Intrusive rocks cool SLOWLY while extrusive rocks cool QUICKLY.
8. Intrusive rocks have LARGE grains and crystals while extrusive rocks have SMALL OR NO grains and crystals.
9. Examples of intrusive rocks are GABBRO, DIORITE, and GRANITE.
10.Examples of extrusive rocks are BASALT, OBSIDIAN, RHYOLITE, and SCORIA.
11.Igneous rocks can also be classified according to their composition. They are composed of SILICA.
12.If there is OVERSATURATION of silica in the magma, its minerals will precipitate.
13.If there is UNDERSATURATION of silica in the magma, its minerals will not precipitate and will not be present in the
igneous rocks.
14.There are four classifications of igneous rocks based on silica content; ULTRAMAFIC, MAFIC, INTERMEDIATE and
FELSIC.
15.FELSIC has the highest amount of silica while ULTRAMAFIC has the lowest.
16.FELSIC is the most viscous while ULTRAMAFIC is the least.
17.ULTRAMAFIC has the darkest color while FELSIC has the lightest
18.ULTRAMAFIC is the densest while FELSIC is the lightest.
19.ULTRAMAFIC is exposed to the highest temperature while FELSIC is exposed to the lowest temperature.
20.The higher the silica content is, the LIGHTER the color is and the LOWER the silica content is, the darker the color is.

MODULE 10: MOVEMENT OF PLATES AND FORMATION OF FOLDS AND FAULTS

• Earth's surface is composed of tectonic plates that are constantly moving
• Tectonic plates experience different types of forces ; tension and compression
Tension- it occurs when the plates are pulled apart causing either an elongation or a breakage in the crust
Compression- occurs when the plates are pushed toward each other causing them to crash
•Folding- occurs when the Earth's crust bends away from a flat surface
Anticline-upward bend
Syncline-downward bend
•Faulting-happens when the earths crust completely breaks and slides past each other causes earthquakes to occur

TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES:

1.Convergent Plate Boundaries- The heavier oceanic crust sinks below the lighter continental crust. It happens along
convergent boundaries where plates are moving toward each other and sometimes one plate sinks under another
(subduction)
-2 plates move towards each other
oceanic-oceanic- In a collision of two pieces of oceanic crust, the result is a chain of volcanic islands, of which
Indonesia is a prime example
oceanic-continental-when the oceanic crust collides with a plate carrying the continent, the result is a chain of
volcanoes on the continent, such as the Cascade of volcanic chain in Pacific Northwest of the US and the Andes
Mountains of South America
continental-continental- When two continental crusts collide, the result is a range of mountains such as the
Himalayan Mountain
Subduction-denser plate sinks over the other
-Formation of trenches and volcanoes particularly Marianas Trench marks where the fast-moving Pacific Plate
converges against the slower moving Philippine Plate. This boundary is often where major volcanoes such as Mount Fuji
in Japan can be located.
2.Divergent Plate Boundaries- are boundaries where the earth’s tectonic plates are moving apart. For the most part,
these boundaries are located on the ocean floors, where they form a continuous chain of volcanic mountains and rift
called mid-ocean ridges that extend throughout the earth’s oceans As the plates move apart, magma wells up to fill the
space between them, and this is why divergent plate boundaries are the sites of volcanic activity. It is also a set where
the earth’s crust is growing.
-2 plates move away from each other
-Magma rises forming new land
-older rocks are pushed aside
-Formation of ridges. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a good example, which runs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean.
3. Transform Plate Boundary- It is also called as strike slip fault boundary, the plates slide past each other
horizontally.
-when plates move slide past each other; two plates move slide in opposite direction
-Formation of faults This is a type of boundary that cuts through California, the well known San Andreas Fault. The San
Andreas Fault Zone, which is about 1300 km long and is tens of kilometer wide, slice through two thirds of the length of
California. Along with it, the Pacific Plate has been moving for 10 million years, at an average rate of about 5 cm/yr

• Continents rest on massive slabs of rock called tectonic plates

• Tectonic plates are always moving due to the motion of the region in the upper mantle called asthenosphere
• Some of the most dynamic sites of tectonic activity are seafloor spreading zones and giant rift valleys

Studying plate boundaries is important because along these boundaries, the deformation of the lithosphere is
happening. Divergent plate movement occurs when plates pull apart from each other. When two (2) plates diverge,
pieces from such plates sink towards the Earth’s mantle. On the other hand, convergent movement occurs when plates
crush into each other and land crumples, forming trenches and mountains. Lateral or transform fault movement occurs
when plates move alongside each other in different directions.

ACTIVITY A
2. Fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rocks. FAULT
4. Plates are moving away from each other. DIVERGENT
6. Horizontal motion movement of plates .TRANSFORM
9. A chain of mountains. RIDGE
1. Earth’s crust and uppermost mantle. PLATE
3. A chain of volcanoes formed from subducting plates. VOLCANIC ARC
5. Plates are moving toward each other and collide. CONVERGENT
7. Occur when flat surface bent or curved. FOLD
8. A large landform formed from tectonic forces. MOUNTAIN
10. Low area between hills and mountain VALLEY

Plates move relative to each other and to fixed locations in the mantle of the Earth. The absolute motion of the plates
can lead to the formation of strings of volcanoes. On the other hand, their relative motion can lead to the different
types of plate boundaries. If three plates meet in one place, they form a triple junction (Kasten 2012, 241)
Currently, the size of oceans and shape of continents are changed due to the movement of plates. Because of the
movement of plates in North and South America, the Pacific Ocean is becoming smaller. However, the Atlantic Ocean is
becoming larger as North and South America move away from Europe and Africa. The Himalayas Mountains are
becoming taller. The plate that includes Australia is now beginning to collide with the plate that includes Southeast
Asia. India’s plate is also colliding with Asia, while Australia is moving farther away from Antarctica (Kasten 2012, 241).

1. This phenomenon is created during transformation of plate’s movement, and it is a kinematic phenomenon caused by
the relative density of oceanic lithosphere and relative weakness of asthenosphere. TRANSFORM FAULT
2. This plate’s movement creates mountain and volcanic arc. Marianas Trench is also created by this movement.
CONVERGENT
3. The movement of this plate is towards the opposite direction or moving away from each other. DIVERGENT
4. It is a process of rising up hot, dense liquid materials and creates new seafloor. SEAFLOOR SPREADING
5. This is a theory that supports continental drift theory and seafloor spreading PLATE TECTONIC

MODULE 11: FORMATION OF ROCK LAYERS

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. describe how layers of stratified rocks are formed.

2. describe the different laws of stratigraphy.
3. determine how geologists correlate rock layers.
4. reflect on human environmental practices that may contribute to the
alteration on the Earth surface, particularly the rock layers; and
5. illustrate an outcrop of rock layers applying the law of stratigraphy.

Lesson1: Rock Layers

Are the current features of the Earth the same as they were 4.6 billion years ago? Well, the answer is no. The Earth had
undergone geological alterations and evolutionary processes that changed its features. The exogenic and endogenic
processes that happened on the surface and within the inner portion of the Earth may contribute to these alterations
that occurred. The rocks are being studied by geologists because they contain clues of what the Earth had been in the
past.
In this module, the formation of rock strata will be determined including the order of rock layers, the manner on how
rock layers are formed or deformed due to physical factors and the age of rocks using the relative and absolute dating
method

The idea behind the concept that the Earth is billions of years old originated in the work of James Hutton. Hutton
concluded that there are forces that change the landscape of the Earth in the past. This conclusion is based on his
observation in the geological processes that were taking place in his farm. His Principle of Uniformitarianism states
that the current geologic processes, such as volcanism, erosion, and weathering, are the same processes that were at
work in
the past. This idea was refined by other geologists that although the process of the past and the present are the same,
the rates of this process may vary over time. The Earth’s history was studied using the different records of past events
preserved in rocks. The layers of rocks are like the pages in our history books.

How are rock layers formed?

Stratified rocks, also known as derivatives rock, may be fragmental or crystalline. These rocks are products of
sedimentary processes. These are made of visible layers of sediments. The formation of rock layers depends on its
stratigraphy and stratification.
Stratigraphy -It is the branch of geology that deals with the description, correlation, and interpretation of
stratified sediments and stratified rocks on and within the Earth. It is the study of the rock layers (strata).
Likewise, it will give you clues to the location of ancient seas, mountains, plateaus and plains.
Stratification-It is also known as bedding, which is the layering that happens in sedimentary and igneous rocks
formed at the surface of the Earth that comes from lava flows or other volcanic activity. It is expressed by rock layers
(units) of a general tabular or lenticular form that differ in rock type.

As early as the mid 1600s, Danish scientist Nicholas Steno studied the relative position of sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are formed particle by particle, bed by bed, and the layers are piled one on top of the other. These
rock layers are also called strata.

Stratigraphic Laws
Stratigraphic laws are basic principles that all geologists use in decoding or deciphering the spatial and temporal
relationships of rock layers. These include the following: Original Horizontality, Lateral Continuity, Superposition, Cross
Cutting, Law of Inclusions and the Law of Faunal Succession

LAWS OF STRATIGRAPHY

Law of Superposition-The largest and heaviest rock layer that settled first at the bottom is the oldest rock layer.
The lightest and smallest that settled last is the youngest rock layer.
Law of Inclusions-A rock mass that contains pieces of rocks called inclusions are younger than the other rock masses.
Law of Cross Cutting Relationship a fault or dike- a slab rock cuts through another rock when magma intrudes to the
rock, that fault or magma is younger than the rock
Law of Original Horizontality -sediments are deposited in flat layers, if the rock maintains in horizontal layers, it
means it is not yet disturbed and still has its original horizontality
Law of Unconformities-rock layers that are formed without interruptions are conformable. Describes a layer of rock
that
have been deformed or eroded before another layer is deposited, resulting in rock layer mismatching
Law of Faunal Succession-first recognized by William Smith different strata contain assemblage of fossils by which
rocks may be identified and correlated over long distances
Three Types of Unconformities:

Disconformity-It originates from horizontal sedimentary rock layers that is lifted and the top layers eroded.
New sediments are deposited when they are submerged beneath a freshwater or saltwater.
Angular unconformity-It originates from horizontally parallel strata of sedimentary rock that are deposited on tilted
and eroded layers. It produced an angular discordance with underlying horizontal layers.
Non -conformity-It originates between sedimentary rocks, metamorphic or igneous rock when sedimentary rock lies
above and was deposited on the pre-existing and eroded metamorphic or igneous rock

ACTIVITY 1.2
1. The process in which sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers is called STRATIFICATION.
2. The law of CROSS-CUTTING relationship happens when a layer of rocks is torn apart and igneous rock fill in the spaces.
3. On the Earth’s surface, weathering and EROSION make rock fragments.
4. The law of SUPERPOSITION states that sedimentary rocks are layered from the oldest to the youngest and oldest rocks
are found at the bottom.
5. A/an FAULT is a break in the rocks that make up the Earth’s crust, along which rocks on either side have moved past
each other.
6. A/an INTRUSION rock is formed when a magma never makes it to the surface.
7. In the law of UNCONFORMITY rock was uplifted, eroded from the surrounding rock, and will be replaced by
sediments.
8. A/an SEDIMENTARY rock is formed by the accumulation, deposition, and cementation of organic particles or minerals.
9. When lava solidifies upon reaching the surface, it usually forms a/an EXTRUSIVE rock in rock layers.
10. Rock that forms intrusions on other rocks is YOUNGER than the other rock layer.

ACTIVITY 1.3
1. Unconformities are sedimentary rock layers that are tilted to form a wave or angle in rock layers. ANGULAR
CONFORMITY
2. Rock layers contain embedded fossils by which rock may be identified. FAUNAL SUCCESSION
3. Magma intrudes to the rocks; this magma is younger than the rock. CROSS CUTTING RELATIONSHIP
4. Exist between sedimentary and metamorphic rocks when sedimentary rocks lie above and were deposited in the pre-
existing and eroded rocks. NON CONFORMITY
5. Largest and heaviest rock layer that settled first at the bottom is the oldest rock layer: SUPERPOSITION

ACTIVITY 1.4
1. What geologic process takes place in cracks or breaks in the rock? FAULT
2. If an igneous rock is introduced in the breaks, what law of stratigraphy best explains this occurrence? CROSS CUTTING
3. How will you characterize the dikes in the cracks, is it older or younger than layer F? YOUNGER
4. What law best describes the position of rock layers in layer A to F SUPERPOSITION
5. Which is younger, layer F or the intrusions in the rock? INTRUSION IS YOUNGER

Lesson 2: Correlation of Rock Layers

One of the pieces of evidence used by geologists in tracing the history of the Earth was with the identifications and the
correlations of rock layers. Rock layers were subjected to alteration due to different geologic processes that act or apply
on it.
Such forces could result in tilting, uplifting, compression, and subductions of rock layers. These rock layers have the
tendency to be separated from each other. One way of how these rock layers are identified is with the utilization of
correlation.
Why do geologists need to correlate rock layers?
  The history of earth is preserved in its rock layers. Unfortunately, no single location on earth has a continuous
set of layers due to erosion or ceased deposition. Instead, geologists study rock sequences at many places
around the world, measure the depth of the layers, record what kind of rock is in each layer, and see if there are
any fossils present.
 Geologists represent the layers of rock by drawing a picture of the sequence – this is called a stratigraphic
column.
 Geologists need to correlate rocks from one place to another to get a more complete record of Earth’s history
over time. They try to determine the relative age of widely separated strata or rock layers. They used
correlation, trying to fit together sedimentary strata in different places, just like a cut-out puzzle.

How do geologists correlate rock layers?

The process of showing that rocks or geologic events occurring at different locations are of the same age is called
correlation. Geologists have developed a system for correlating rocks by looking for similarities in composition and rock
layer sequences at different locations.
The geological technique of correlation provides information that has taken place in Earth’s history at various times that
occurred. There are different methods in correlating rock layers, these include:
1. Rock types and its characteristics
⮚ color, texture, hardness, composition, or its mineral content
⮚ the harder and more densely packed the particles are, the older the rock and the deeper the layer it came from.
2. Index fossil
⮚also known as guide fossils or indicator fossils, are fossils used to define and identify geologic periods (or faunal
stages)
3. Bedrock
⮚ a deposit of solid rock that is typically buried beneath soil and other broken or unconsolidated material (regolith).
⮚ made up of igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock, and it often serves as the parent material for regolith and
soil.

Types of Correlation
A) Physical Correlation is accomplished by using several criteria such as color, texture, and types of minerals contained
within a stratum which make it possible for geologists to classify a stratum specifically.
B) Fossil Correlation is a principle that geologists use to determine the age of rock. It uses fossils with unique
characteristics, such as geologically short lifespan and easily identifiable features, and uses this information to estimate
the age of a rock layer in other areas that contain the same type of fossil or group of fossils.

There are fossils which are used to date the layers of rock that they are found in. Fossils that can be used in this way are
called index fossils, and rock layers with the same index fossils in them can be correlated.
Criteria to be considered in identifying index fossils include:
1. The fossilized organism must be easily recognizable, and it must be easy to identify because of its uniqueness.
2. Fossils must be geographically widespread or found over large areas so that it can be used to match rock layers
separated by huge distances.
3. Fossils must have lived for only a short time, so that it appears in only the horizontal layer of sedimentary rocks.

1. It is the action of the process of forcing the body of igneous rock between sedimentary rocks. INTRUSION
2. It is used to define and identify geologic periods. INDEX FOSSILS
3. The action of surface processes that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location to
another. EROSION
4. It is made up of sedimentary and igneous rock that was formed at the Earth’s surface. ROCK LAYERS
5.The process of showing that rocks or geologic events occurring at different locations are of the same age
CORRELATION
1. A piece of granite contained within a sandstone would be YOUNGER THAN the sandstone.
This is an example of the principle of UNCONFORMITY
2. A fault cutting through a series of layers of rocks is YOUNGER than the rock layers.
This is an example of the principle of CROSS CUTTING
3. In a series of layers, the youngest layer is on the TOP of the sequence.
This is an example of the principle of SUPERPOSITION
4. Sedimentary rocks that are folded must be YOUNGER than the force which deformed them.
This is an example of the principle of ANGULAR CONFORMITY
5. In undisturbed layers of rocks, sediments that form sedimentary rock are deposited in horizontal layers that are
YOUNGER
This is an example of the principle of ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY

Things to Ponder
⮚ Most sedimentary rocks are laid down in flat, horizontal layers.
⮚ Stratigraphy is the science that deals with characteristics of layered rocks and how these rocks are used to trace the
history of the Earth.
⮚ Stratification is the layering that happens in sedimentary and igneous rocks which formed at the surface of the Earth
that comes from lava flows or other volcanic activity.
⮚ Rock layers are called strata.
⮚ Law of cross-cutting relationships happens when a fault or dike or magma that intrudes into the rock, is younger
than the rock.
⮚ Law of inclusions is when the rock mass with inclusion is younger.
⮚ Law of original horizontality is a flat rock that maintains its horizontal layer without being distracted for a long
period of time.
⮚ Law of superposition states that older rock layer is found at the bottom while younger rock layer is found at the top.
⮚ Law of faunal succession states that different rock layers contain particular fossils by which the rocks may be
identified and correlated.
⮚ Law of unconformity implies a substantial gap or break in rock layer sequence due to uplift and erosion.
⮚ Index fossil are fossils used to define and identify geologic periods.

MODULE 12: ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE DATING

How old is it? This might be the first question that will enter your mind when you see an old rock or artifact. Certainly,
that is one of the first thing that a geologist wants to know.
Geologists find ways on how to determine the age and traces of history from the large number of artifacts and
monuments bestowed upon us by older civilization.

There are methods and techniques used by geologists to help them determine the age of the materials that evolved in
the past. In this lesson, the relative and absolute dating processes will be discussed.
We have learned that geologic time is measured in two ways: relative and absolute age.
Relative date or age measurement refers only to the order in which events occurred.
On the other hand, absolute age is age in years. It tells the order in which events occurred and the exact amount of time
that has passed since they occurred.

Relative Age (Relative dating is using the rock layers and fossil records to determine the age of the rock, and it is not the
actual age of the rock. QUALITATIVE, BY USING THE STRATIGRAPHY METHOD)
Prior to absolute age measurements, geologists used field observations to determine the relative
ages. They used simple principle in order to get the relative ages. The following are the principles used by the geologists:
The principle of original horizontality is based on the observation that sediment usually accumulates
in horizontal layers. Tectonic forces tilted or folded rocks into an angle after it was formed.
The principle of superposition states that sedimentary rocks become younger from bottom to
top. This is because younger layers of the sedimentary always accumulates at the top of the
layers. In figure 4, rocks number 5 are oldest and rocks in 1 are the youngest.
The principle of crosscutting relationships is based on the fact that rocks must exist before
anything else happened like intrusions or dikecutting across rocks. In figure 5, the cut rock layers
are older than the rock that cuts across them.
The principle of faunal succession states that species succeeded one another through time in a definite and
recognizable order and that the relative ages of sedimentary rocks can be therefore
recognized from their fossils. The absence or the presence may be used to give a relative age of the
sedimentary where they are found.
The principle of lateral continuity explained that layers of sediment are continuous. Layers
with same rocks but separated by a valley or erosion are initially continuous.

Absolute Age (Absolute dating is the actual date of the rock and can also been known as radioactive dating.
QUANTITATIVE, BY USING THE RADIOMETRIC METHOD )
 Since change is the only thing that is permanent, the measurement of absolute age or exact date became a
challenging task to the scientists. But they found a natural process that occurs at constant rate and accumulates
its record of the radioactive decay of elements in rocks.
 Radioactive elements decay because they are composed of unstable isotopes that decompose spontaneously.
Each atom has a certain probability of decaying at anytime. It has half-life or time for it to decompose into half.
 Radioactivity is not affected by geologic process and easily measured in the laboratory. Aside from those,
daughter isotopes accumulate in rocks. The longer the rock exists, the more daughter isotopes accumulate. The
process of determining the absolute ages of rocks and minerals by measuring the relative amounts of parent and
daughter isotopes is called radioactive dating.

e.g. a form of uranium changes (decays) to lead

In the above example, the parent element is uranium (U) and the daughter element is lead (Pb).
Again, the process of radioactive decay can be used for dating rocks because:
 Radioactive decay proceeds at a constant, regardless of changes in conditions such as temperature, pressure, or
the chemical environment.

Half-Life
It is almost impossible to say when the last of the parent atoms will decay, but the time taken for half the atoms to
decay is comparatively easy to predict. The half-life of a radioactive decay process is the time taken for half the original
parent atoms to decay.
The length of half-life is a unique feature of each decay process. The half-life of the uranium is 713 million years. This
means that if an igneous rock contained 1000 atoms of U-235 when it solidified:
After 713 million years, it would contain 500 atoms of U-235 and 500 atoms of the daughter element for the decay
process, Pb-207.
The proportion of parent atoms/daughter atoms present in an igneous rock gives the age of the rock — or the number
of million years since the rock solidified

ACTIVITY 5
1. It is used to determine the age of a material by using numeric values. ABSOLUTE DATING
2. It states that the geologic feature which cuts another is younger of the two features. CROSS-CUTTING
3. It is used to determine the relative age of rock layers. RELATIVE DATING
4. This law states that the younger layer is at the top and older layer of rocks are at the bottom. SUPERPOSITION
5. These are rocks that usually form deposits that files up and hardened SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

What I Have Learned

1. In determining the age of rocks in relative dating, it follows the different principles such as SUPERPOSITION,CROSS-
CUTTING,ORIGINAL,LATERAL,FAUNAL.
2. RELATIVE dating is used to arrange geological events, and the rocks they leave behind in sequence.
3. ABSOLUTE dating is used to give rocks an actual date, or date range, in number of years.
4. Relative dating uses stratigraphy method while absolute dating uses RADIOMETRIC method by radioactive decay.
5. The HALF-LIFE of a radioactive decay process is the time taken for half the original parent atoms to decay.