Passive solar building

Source: www.lightningcanyon.com
Edited by: ir. T.V.J. Pastoor, Grontmij

This article explores passive solar heating and cooling, with a focus on the climate conditions of
the American West and South West. It gives an outline of some of the major strategies available to
create buildings that keep themselves warm in winter, cool in summer. Buildings with little to no
dependence on fossil fuels to maintain a comfortable living environment.

1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 3
1.1 What is passive solar building?.......................................................................................... 3
1.2 Benef its of passive solar building ....................................................................................... 3
1.3 Passive solar design principles .......................................................................................... 3
2 Orientation............................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 The importance of f acing south.......................................................................................... 4
2.2 Planning around obstructions ............................................................................................ 6
3 Glazing .................................................................................................................................... 7
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Positioning of glazing ........................................................................................................ 7
3.3 Size of glazing.................................................................................................................. 7
3.4 Types of glass .................................................................................................................. 8
3.5 Insulating glazing internally ............................................................................................... 8
3.6 Tilted glazing .................................................................................................................... 9
4 Shading ................................................................................................................................. 10
4.1 Shading the southern wall: overhangs.............................................................................. 10
4.2 Shading the east and west .............................................................................................. 11
4.3 Shading walls ................................................................................................................. 11
4.4 Reducing glare: screening............................................................................................... 12
5 Thermal Mass ........................................................................................................................ 14
5.1 Thermal energy .............................................................................................................. 14
5.2 Materials wit h high thermal mass ..................................................................................... 14
5.3 Thermal mass in internal structures ................................................................................. 14
5.4 Thermal mass in external walls........................................................................................ 15
5.5 Building in the ground ..................................................................................................... 16
6 Insulation............................................................................................................................... 17
6.1 Bulk insulation ................................................................................................................ 17
6.2 Ref lective insulation........................................................................................................ 17
6.3 Turning heavy building materials into good insulators........................................................ 17
6.4 Applications of insulation................................................................................................. 18
6.5 Gaps, air leaks and f resh air............................................................................................ 19
7 Ventilation ............................................................................................................................. 20
7.1 Moving air: the basics ..................................................................................................... 20
7.2 Summer ventilation ......................................................................................................... 20
7.3 Capturing breezes .......................................................................................................... 21
7.4 Creating suction ............................................................................................................. 22
7.5 Cooling with ventilation in desert climates ........................................................................ 22
7.6 Winter ventilation ............................................................................................................ 22

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 1

8 Landscaping .......................................................................................................................... 24
8.1 Landscaping for wind diversion........................................................................................ 24
8.2 Planting for shade .......................................................................................................... 25
8.3 Landscape as a natural air conditioner ............................................................................. 26
9 Wind towers: passive cooling attributes ............................................................................... 27
9.1 Components .................................................................................................................. 27
9.2 How wind towers work .................................................................................................... 28
9.3 Wind tower f unction under diff erent conditions.................................................................. 29
9.4 Air pressure eff ects on the leeward side of a wind tower ................................................... 29
9.5 Design f eatures to deal with dust ..................................................................................... 29
9.6 Other design considerations ............................................................................................ 30
9.7 Ref erenc es .................................................................................................................... 30
10 Domes and vaults: passive cooling attributes ....................................................................... 31
10.1 Vented domes and vaults................................................................................................ 31
10.2 Heat gain and loss .......................................................................................................... 31
10.3 Stratif ication of air........................................................................................................... 32
10.4 Night time advantage ...................................................................................................... 32
10.5 Ref erenc es: ................................................................................................................... 32

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 2

1 Introduction

1.1 What is passive solar building?

The term 'passive solar' is used f or buildings that use f orces and characteristics of the natural
environment to work f or them, to keep them warm in winter, cool in summer. The sun, or more specif ically
its light and heat, is one of the big players here, so important that it gives its name to the whole concept.
But other f actors play major roles too: f or example, the coolness of shade, the ef f ect of the wind. The
building itself contributes to this process too. The materials it is made of , the way it f aces, are all part of
the equation that makes up the passive solar qualities of a building – or its lack of them. What does
'passive' mean in this context? Simply that the method uses no f ans or other mechanical devices used to
move the heat or coolness around, or store it. A ceiling f an or a ref rigerator, f or example, are active
devices: they use electricity, pumps, mechanisms to create a cooling ef fect. In a passive system, you rely
on the physical properties of the house and its environment t o shif t and store the heat, or the coolness,
that is wanted at a particular time of the year. Properties like convection, where heat tends to rise in a
room, or radiation where a solid brick wall that has had the sun shining on it all day slowly radiates a nd
releases that stored heat during the cooler night hours. Of course, passive solar techniques can be
supplemented with active methods, such as f ireplaces f or the cold of deep winter. One of the beauties of
passive solar methods is that they cover a broad spectrum of building aims and desires: f rom retrof itting
existing homes to reduce heating and cooling bills, to 'zero -energy' buildings that require no active
heating or cooling at all.

1.2 Benefits of passive solar building

There are a number of reasons people consider using passive solar building techniques in their homes or
workplaces. They include:
• Reducing heating and/or cooling bills.
• Reducing use of non-renewable f ossil f uels f or heating and cooling
• Reducing production of greenhouse gases through less use of f ossil f uels.
In addition, passive solar techniques marry well with other ecologically -minded building philosophies.
Examples include using renewable and/or recyclable materials, materials with 'low-embedded energy'
(whose manuf acture is not energy intensive) and materials that do not produce toxic ef f ects on
inhabitants such as of f -gassing of noxious fumes.

1.3 Passive solar design principles

A major goal of passive solar building is to maintain a comf ortable temperature within a building with as
little active heating or cooling as possible, or even none at all. This is achieved by maximizing heat gain in
winter, minimizing it in summer. A major aims of passive solar building is the collection, storage and
distribution of both heat and coolness. Heat is obvious – collecting the light f rom the sun to warm a
building in winter. Coolness is perhaps a bit less obvious. It is more than the exclusion of heat, it is a f orce
itself that can be collected and stored f or summer comf ort. The major design principles of passive solar
buildings are orientation, glazing, shading, thermal mass, insulation, ventilation and landscaping. The
strategies employed to cultivate heat and coolness in a building vary considerably with the climate where
the building is located. As an example, in areas with relatively mild summers, exclusion of heat through
shading may be suf f icient. But in hotter climates, this is unlikely to be enough. These pages f ocus on two
climate zones, both of them low rainf all: co ld winters and mild summers, as in Northern New Mexico, and
milder winters and hot summers as in southern New Mexico and Calif ornia.
Note: throughout these pages, orientation is described f or the northern hemisphere. For the southern
hemisphere, please reverse north and south.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 3

2 Orientation
Orientation – the direction a building and its major openings f ace – is crucial to its f unctioning as a
collector of light and heat. The major source of heat in a passive solar building is the light energy f rom the
sun, which is converted into heat energy within the building. Apart f rom warming the inner spaces of the
building during the day, this heat can also be stored f or use when light is not available, notably at night.
Maximizing the amount of light that enters a building in winter is f undamental to its ability to be warm then
and reduce reliance on active f orms of heating. Conversely, being able to limit the amount of light that
enters in summer is vital to preventing overheating at that time of year, thus reducing the need f or air
conditioning. Note: throughout these pages, orientation is described for the northern hemisphere. For
the southern hemisphere, please reverse north and south.

2.1 The importance of facing south

A building is able to collect the most light if the majority of its glazed openings (doors and windows) f ace
due south. Note that true south is necessary here, not magnetic south. Having the long axis of the
building running east to west maximises the south f acing surf ace of the building, and t heref ore the area
available f or sunlight collection.
As a f urther bonus, a building that f aces south is generally easier to shade f or summer coolness than one
that f aces east or west.
The reason orientation is so crucial to the ability of a building to keep itself warm in winter, cool in
summer, is the dif f erent paths the sun takes through the sky during the year.
In winter, the sun is at a low angle in the sky during the middle part of the day, so it shines directly into
south-f acing windows. It rises and sets south of east and west, so little direct light hits the east and west
sides of a building, resulting in little warming ef f ect f rom these sides. A building whose long side f aces
south thus has the potential to gather a lot of heat f rom the winter sun than buildings f acing east, west or
north. On the other hand, one with little southern exposure will be cold.
In the f ollowing images, the white areas receive direct sunlight during the day, while the gray areas are in
shadow.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 4

In summer, the sun travels at a much higher angle during the middle part of the day. Less light directly
enters south-f acing windows, and they are easy to shade with overhangs such as eaves and porches.
However, the summer sun rises and sets north of east and west. Aro und sunrise and sunset, the sun is at
a low angle, which overhangs do not block. The end result is that the east and west sides of the building
are potentially bathed in light f or several hours each day, raising internal temperatures. If the building has
its long side f acing south, it is straightf orward to shade its south side during the day, and it has little
exposure to the east and west. A building that f aces east or west, on the other hand, does not get much
benef it f rom shading the south wall, and is very exposed on the east and west. It will heat up much more
than a south f acing building in summer.

However, there may be f actors in the site that make orientating the building to the south problematic.
Light f rom the south may be obstructed by neighboring buildings, f ences, trees or nearby hills. Or the
gradient of the site may make it dif f icult and expensive to build f acing due south. Fortunately, in practice
aligning a building so that it f aces within 15 degrees of true south gives acceptably high leve ls of light
collection, and minimal increase in eastern and western exposure.
The f ollowing table shows how the drop of f in solar gain, the amount of light available f rom the sun,
decreases the more the orientation of the building rotates away f rom true s outh. Less than 22° the
reduction is minimal. But over this f igure, the drop increases rapidly. And conversely, the more a building
f aces away f rom true south, particularly to the west, the more cooling it is likely to need in summer.

Orientation of building Solar gain received

• true south 100 %
• 22.5° away f rom south, either south-south-east or south-south-west 92%
• 45° away f rom south, either south-east or south-west 70%
• 67.5° away f rom south, either east-south-east or west-south-west 36%

Adapted f rom: Kachadorian, James, The Passive Solar House, Chelsea Green Publishing Company,
White River Junction, Vermont, 2006, second edition, p.17

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 5

2.2 Planning around obstructions

Site assessment is vital to planning a passive solar building. It helps to get the best solar advantage of a
location, as well as ruling out unsuitable sites. Essentially a site assessment is looking f or obstacles to
winter sun access f rom the south. The minimum distance an object can be f rom the south wall and not
interf ere with winter sunlight depends both on the height of the object and the midwinter sun angles f or
the site's latitude, which can be f ound on sun charts. As an example, the New Mexico Solar Energy
Association (NMSEA) gives the f ollowing rules of thumb, based on latitudes in northern New Mexico: no
obstruction at all within 10 f eet of the south wall, while f ences can be over 10 f eet away, one storey
buildings over 17 f eet away and two storey buildings over 40 f eet away. Ideally, there should be no
obstructions close to the south side of the proposed building within 60° each side of true south. At
minimum, there should be at least 45° of arc either side of true south f ree of obstructions. A more detailed
approach is to do a solar site survey, like those recommended f or siting a solar energy collection panel.
This involves mapping the southern horizon as seen f rom the southern wall of the p roposed building,
using a sun chart (year-round solar elevation angles f or that latitude), and simple devices to measure
elevation and azimuth angles. There are a number of how-to descriptions on the web, such as this one
f rom builditsolar.com. Another source of solar obstruction to consider at some sites is heavy cloud and
f og. Both heavy cloud and f og reduce the amount of the visible light spectrum that reaches the ground, as
well as scattering it, with the end result that less solar radiation is available to pass through glazing.
Where this becomes relevant to orientation is in localities where the cloud has a pattern of occurring at
specif ic times of day: for example, morning f ogs that clear by 10 am, or overcast af ternoons. These
patterns can be indicated on a sun chart by shading out the appropriate time of day. A local airf ield may
be a good source of data f or this, as airf ields of ten record cloud cover and f og conditions on an hourly
basis. With inf ormation on solar obstructions specific to the site, decisions can be made as to the best
orientation f or the new building. Even if true south is not ideal because of obstructions, orientations up to
15° on either side of true south can still give very good winter solar gain if they avoid the obstructions due
south.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 6

3 Glazing
3.1 Introduction

Glazing in the broadest sense ref ers to transparent sections of wall. It's usually glass, but some plastics
can be used too, as they of ten are in greenhouses. The most common use of glazing is in windows, but it
can be used in doors, in the wall itself (glass bricks), or in specialised solar collectors like Trombe walls.
Glazing perf orms two major f unctions in a building. Along with orientation, glazing is a vital component of
the heat collection ability of a building. Its second f unction is letting light f or the sake of illumination into a
building, Glazing also raises insulation and shading issues, as it not only lets light and heat i n, it also lets
light and heat out. Some of the issues around insulating glass will be discussed here. The topic of
shading will be examined in the next section. To get the maximum benef it, glazing has to be positioned,
sized and shaded appropriately f or the building and its climate. The goal is to bring in suf f icient light f or
indoor activities and winter heating needs, but not to cause overheating of the building in summer.

3.2 Positioning of glazing

Positioning of glazing is related to orientation of the b uilding. As discussed in the orientation section, the
maximum amount of light collection occurs f acing the sun, so it makes sense to have a lot of glazing on
the south side of the building. It's obvious that the side of a building f acing the sun will get more light than
the other sides. Clearly, the north side of a building (in the northern hemisphere) is never going to get
direct sunlight. But what about the east and west sides? True, the east and west sides of a building do get
sunlight early and late in the day respectively. But what is important here is the time of year they get that
light. In winter north of the tropics, the sun rises well south of east and also sets well south of west. This
means it is not going to shine directly into windows f acing east or west. So there is little heat to be gained
f rom lots of glass on the east and west walls in winter. But there is potentially a lot to be lost, as glazing
lets heat out whether it is in the sun or not. However, it's a dif f erent story in summer. Then, north of the
tropics, the sun rises north of east, and similarly sets north of west. This means that east and west f acing
windows will get direct sunlight f or several hours each day, thus bringing heat into the building at a time of
year it is not needed or welcome. Note that latitude does make a dif f erence here. In very northerly
latitudes, the sun rises and sets south of east and west even in summer. As even summer temperatures
are cool compared with more southerly latitudes, some light and heat gain in summer may be desired. If
there is a spectacular view f rom one of the non-south sides of the building, accommodation could be
made with specialised glass and deep porches to have the view and not lose too much passive solar
benef it. But as a general rule, passive solar buildings have limited amount of glazing on the east, north
and west walls, enough f or daylighting and cross ventilation but not so big they create signif icant sources
of heat loss and gain.

3.3 Size of glazing

The size of glazing used depends on a number of f actors, including climat e (ambient temperatures), the
building's size, how much heat it loses, and how much thermal mass it has. Too much glazing leads to
overheating, not enough means additional active heating is needed f or comf ort in winter. One f actor that
makes a signif icant dif ference to how much glazing is appropriate is thermal mass inside the house.
Thermal mass ref ers to materials used in the building that have the capacity to store heat. Buildings with
relatively low thermal mass are prone to overheating quickly because they cannot store a lot of heat, so
should have less glazing than those with high thermal mass. To give some examples, straw bale
buildings generally have low thermal mass and are very prone to overheating, unless special provision is
made f or internal thermal mass. A typical timber f ramed house lined with sheetrock has some thermal
mass, but less than one with internal masonry walls. In general, buildings with low thermal mass should
be able to heat themselves during the day, but will probably need supplem ental heating at night because
they cannot store much heat. As an example, the New Mexico Solar Energy Association (NMSEA)
recommends the f ollowing f or northern New Mexico.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 7

Glazing area is expressed as a percentage of total building f loor area.
• South f acing glazing 12% of building f loor area where there is reasonable levels of thermal mass, or
7% in buildings with low thermal mass.
• West f acing glazing less than 2% of total f loor area.
• East and north f acing glazing less then 4% of f loor area.
Passive solar sof tware helps calculate the appropriate glazing size f or other climate zones.

3.4 Types of glass

Glazing materials such as glass are excellent as solar collectors. However, they are not good retainers of
heat. This means that in cold weather and at night, considerable amounts of heat gathered through the
windows during the day can leak back out again. The way a window is constructed and installed can
reduce some of this heat loss. Double and triple glazing help reduce heat loss. Window f rames generally
leak heat, and this can be reduced with good design and sealing. Caref ul installation of windows and
doors is critical, as gaps in wall insulation can easily happen around these openings. The type of glass
used can also make a signif icant dif ference, as dif f erent types of glass vary in their ability to let light
through and prevent heat escaping. Glass can be rated f or the f ollowing f actors:
• U-f actor is the conductivity of the glass to heat loss.
• Shade Coef f icient or SC: the reduction in solar gain due to ref lection of f the glass.
• Solar Heat Gain Coef f icient or SHGC: how much of the entire spectrum of light, visible light as well as
inf rared (heating), is transmitted through the glass.
• Visible Transmittance or VT: how much of the visible light spectrum is transmitted through the gl ass.
This value excludes the inf rared components of light.
Values f or these f actors can usually be obtained f rom window manuf acturers. Similar f actors apply to
other f orms of glazing apart f rom sheet glass. Glass blocks and the various plastics used in greenhouses
dif f er in their ability to transmit light and conduct heat just as sheet glass does, and it's a good idea to take
this into consideration when designing structures using these materials.One design approach is to use
glazing with dif f erent values in specif ic situations. For example, a high transmission glass with high SHGC
and low U-f actor (meaning it lets a lot of visible and inf rared light in, but relatively little heat out) could be
benef icial in the south-f acing windows. And a 'selective transmission' glass that has a high VT but low
SHGC (that is, it lets visible light through, but blocks inf rared and heat) could be helpf ul on east and west
f acing windows, especially if they are somewhat large to capture a view. Glass with a ref lective f ilm (hi gh
SC) will keep out light and heat in summer, but will also do it in winter when that heat is wanted, so is
more use on the non-south sides. Once the basic building design is decided, energy loss and gain
calculations and programs are usef ul to compare the ef f ects of different types of glass and decide which
type is appropriate where.

3.5 Insulating glazing internally

Even the most energy ef f icient window leaks more heat than most wall materials. This f low of heat out
through glass is highly desirable during the night in summer, as it is one mechanism f or the building to
cool down. On winter nights, however, it's a dif f erent story, as the caref ully gathered heat escapes. In
summer, too much light and heat f or comf ort can get in. A detail to consider is that insulation inside a
window is most ef f ective at preventing heat escaping, while insulation outside is most ef f ective at
preventing heat getting in. So dif f erent strategies work best in dif ferent seasons. In winter, the type of
window construction, installation details and the type of glass used all help reduce heat loss while still
allowing light into the building. But at night, heat losses increase, as temperatures are colder and there is
no sunlight to of f set them. Some additional f orm of insulation is needed inside the windows to stop the
warm air coming into contact with the glass. In summer, external shading is the major strategy f or
preventing direct sunlight getting to the windows. This is discussed elsewhere. But if external shading is
not possible or inef f icient, insulating the windows f rom the inside does reduce heat gain and makes an
appreciable contribution to keeping the building cool.
• Curtains are an obvious solution, but need to meet certain criteria to be ef f ective. The f abric of the
curtain itself should be closely woven and heavy, and it should be lined with an insulating f abric. It
should be big enough to cover the whole window and its f rame.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 8

• However, on cold nights warm air in the room can f all down behind the curtain, and leak out the
window. Box pelmets over the top of the curtain prevent this problem. The pelmet needs to be large
enough to cover the entire top edge of the curtain.
• Shutters, especially insulated ones, can be very ef f ective. Like curtains, they should be well f itted to
the window opening to prevent leaks around them.
As these f orms of insulation are movable, it is vital that they are put in place at the appropriate times to be
ef f ective. In winter, this generally means closing the curtains or shutters between 3 pm and 9 am the next
day. In areas with hot summers, especially on buildings without overhangs, it helps to close them bef ore 7
or 8 am and keep them closed until dusk, especially on the east and west walls. To increase thermal
ef f iciency, it is possible to put movable systems like curtains and shutters on timing mechanisms, set to
open and close them at specif ied times. Bear in mind, though, that this requires electricity to operate.

3.6 Tilted glazing

Glazing tilted towards the sun is a more ef f icient collector of d irect sunlight than vertical glazing. Because
its surf ace is more perpendicular to the oncoming rays of the sun, more of the available light can pass
through it compared to a vertical pane of glass. This f act can be used to get greater ef f iciency f rom sola r
energy panels by calculating the appropriate angles f or them to be set at, or placing them on tiltable
mounts that are adjusted to the angle of the sun's rays at any given time of day or year.
However, although the ability of tilted glass to collect more sunlight is undisputed, in a building tilted
glazing brings other issues f or consideration:
• Snow is an excellent ref lector of light. In areas where there is snow on the ground during long periods
in winter, the snow directs signif icant amounts of light up into windows, increasing heat gain. Snow's
ref lective contribution is largely lost if the windows are tilted away f rom it.
• It is dif f icult to shade tilted glazing in summer, when its added ef f iciency becomes a liability.
Permanent structures like roof overhangs and porches that work well with vertical glazing block tilted
glazing in winter, def eating its purpose. Awnings and other f abric covers can be used, but are not as
durable and ef f ective as solid permanent structures.
• Tilted windows are dif f icult to insulate with curtains or shutters.
• All glazing carries a risk of creating condensation. With vertical glazing, the condensation tends either
to stay in place or run down to the base of the window, where it is simple to collect or mop up. With
tilted glazing on the other hand, condensation tends to drip of f the glass surf ace, landing on f urniture,
f loor coverings and people below.
Tilted glass can be more trouble than benef it in a building. The additional solar collection f rom tilting can
be accomplished by using extra vertical glazing, which is easier to manage.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 9

4 Shading
Shading is an important issue in the supply of coolness to a building in summer. Note that 'coolness' is
more than simply the exclusion of heat, but the cultivation of cold as a f orce that can be used to cool a
building. Shading on the outside of a building is more ef f ective at cooling than curtains inside the
windows, because it stops the sunlight bef ore it has a chance to warm up a room. Depending on how
much shading is is available, this can make a signif icant reduction in how much air conditioning is needed
to make the building comf ortable in summer. Shading is important not just f or coolness, but also f or
reduction of intense light and glare. Areas with hot dry climates of ten have dusty or sandy soils. As a
result, the air in these places is f ull of f ine particles of dust, which ref lect the already intensely bright
sunlight to increase glare. Constant glare is very tiring and wearing to the eyes, and the creation of shady
zones brings relief on this level.

4.1 Shading the southern wall: overhangs

One critical area f or shading is the south-f acing side of the building and its windows. Vital as a solar
collector during the colder months, this side can become a liability in summer. Fortunately, the seasonal
variations in the path of the sun itself provide a straightf orward solution. In summer, the path of the sun
through the sky is much higher than winter. This can be used to cast shadows over south-f acing windows
and walls by using overhangs. Many structures can act as overhangs: the roof itself through eaves, or
additional small roof -like structures such balconies, verandas and porches. By their own nature, these
structures are not variable, so are called 'f ixed'. They do have the advantage that they f unction
automatically. It is also possible to have temporary overhangs in the f orm of awnings and so on. These
are movable, so can be adjusted to give exactly the shade desired at any given time. No matter what
creates the overhang, the crucial thing is to get the depth and height of the overhang right, so it produces
the shade you want when you want it. As the observed path of the sun varies in dif ferent parts of the
world, this means coming up with individual solutions f or diff erent locations. Sizing a f ixed overhang f or
any given window depends on:
• The dimensions of the window.
• Its position in the wall, where it sits in the wall between the roof and the ground.
• Latitude, which determines the angle of the sun at any given time of the year.
• Local climate records: what months do you want the sun kept out, which months do you want it let in?
The f irst step is to decide what period of the year the f ull heating ef f ect of the sun is allowed to enter the
south-f acing windows, and what period none of the sunlight is allowed to enter to avoid overheating.
Between these two extremes, the overhang will create partial shading, allowing some of the sunlight to
enter the windows, creating some heating. Generally speaking, it is at some point during the spring when
temperatures are warming up the the overhang shading should start, and sometime bef ore mid -summer
that f ull shading should be in place. Then, when the peak of summer has passed and temperatures are
cooling, the shading will gradually recede as the sun's path gets lower in the sky. Some passive solar
guides suggest using the sun angles at the summer and winter solstices (mid -summer and mid-winter) to
determine overhangs. But in climates with cold winters, this means reducing solar co llection while
temperatures are still very cold. And in areas with hot summers, it means that some sun is entering and
heating the building right up until mid -summer's day. This is where local temperature records are vital.
Note that sun angles are symmetrical on either side of the solstices. This mean that start and stop dates
f or shading need to centered on either mid -winter or mid-summer. In other words, it is possible to f ully
shade f or, say, 4 weeks bef ore and af ter mid -summer's day. But a f ixed overhang cannot shade f or 2
weeks bef ore and 4 weeks af ter mid summer – the path of the sun does not allow it. As an example of
overhangs designed f or local climate conditions, the New Mexico Solar Energy Association suggests, f or
sites in northern New Mexico, that overhangs should be designed to start shading windows 6 weeks af ter
mid-winter (which also means they will stop shading the windows 6 weeks bef ore mid -winter). And that
they should provide f ull shading f rom 6 weeks bef ore mid -summer until 6 weeks af ter.
To f unction ef f ectively, an overhang needs to protrude f ar enough f rom the wall so that:
• On the dates when partial shading is to start/stop, the sun angle is the same as the angle between the
edge of the overhang and the top of the window.
• On the dates when f ull shading is to start/stop, the sun angle is the same as the angle between edge
of the overhang and the bottom of the window.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 10

4.2 Shading the east and west

Shading glazing on the east and west sides of a building in summer is a challenge. The sun i s at a low
angle in the sky in the early and late parts of the days, so overhangs are unable to block it out. Some kind
of light barrier closer to the ground is needed f or these situations.
Some options are:
• Short buttress walls or a short row of dense shrubs perpendicular to the house, just outside the
glazing and on the more southerly side of it. The shading this provides will vary during the day and
with the season, giving interesting light changes inside t he building.
• An enclosed courtyard.
• A porch with side screens. The amount of light that gets through will depend on the density or spacing
of the screening material, whether it is shade cloth, lath, plants, etc. The side screens can also be
made movable, or even f ully removable f or winter.
• A very deep porch. This will block out the summer sun in all but the earliest part of the morning (on the
east) or the last part of the day (on the west). It will need to be much deeper than the southern
overhangs to be ef f ective on the east and west aspects of the building. This option can work in
situations where there is a great view to the east or west and large windows are wanted to take
advantage of it.
• Ref lective f ilm on the windows. As eastern and western windo ws are not part of the winter solar
collection system, ref lective f ilm on east and west windows does not 'cost' in terms of heat gain.

4.3 Shading walls

In climates with very hot summers, signif icant amounts of heat can come in through the walls as well as
the windows. Well-designed overhangs will shade part of the southern wall as well as the windows. But in
very hot climates, this may not be enough. In addition, the eastern and western walls can heat up
signif icantly. Even with insulation, uncomf ortable amounts of heat can be transf erred to the inside of the
building. Shading the walls is part of a strategy to avoid this. As with glazing, the sun's path throughout
the day dictates dif f erent solutions f or different sides of the building. In particular, care is needed to
design shading f or the southern wall that is f ully ef f ective in summer, but still allows suf f icient light in f or
winter heating requirements. Some kind of roof -like structure attached to the side of a building is one
common f orm of wall shading. These can be permanent or movable, as seen in the examples below:
• Deep porches and verandas, like those seen on many plantation mansions in the Deep South of the
U.S.A., are excellent at creating coolness in a building because they completely shade the walls. But
they can be a liability on the southern side of a building where signif icant warming is also wanted in
winter.
• Sun-proof fabric covers f or porches, or sails that can be attached to the building itself , are a good
seasonal solution. It's possible to get f abrics and shade cloth that cut out more than 95% of sunlight,
and have guarantees of 20 years minimum lif espan. These are put up at the start of the shading
season, taken down at the end. In addition to their f unction of blocking sunlight, f abri c sails can be
visually exciting. A row of triangular sails, f or example, tilted so they overlap each other, provides
excellent shade and visual interest.
• Pergolas with tilted slats are an interesting alternative to a solid porch roof . Instead of the trad itional
f lat slats on a pergola, the slats can be tilted and overlapped so they block summer sun but allow in
winter sun. This technique is particularly usef ul on a southern wall, as it allows f or a deeper band of
shade than an overhang can provide, yet still allows f ull sun in during winter.
Deciding the angle of the slats is similar to designing window overhangs. The angle the slats are laid
at is the angle of the midday sun when you want partial shading of windows to start. The slats are then
spaced so the angle f rom the bottom of each slat to the top of the one behind it (closer to the building)
is the same as the angle of the midday sun when you want f ull shading of the wall to begin.
• Vertical shading is another option f or shading walls. It is some f orm of vertical light blocker that is
placed at the external edge of the overhang or porch roof , extending all the way to the ground. It can
be movable louvers, panels of trellis, lath or shade cloth. Or it can be climbing plants trained to grow
up supports, either deciduous or rapidly growing annual vines. Plants have an additional cooling

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 11

 advantage: as well as blocking light, they evaporatively cool air passing through their leaves. Vertical
shading has the advantage that is can be placed close to a wall, s o is especially usef ul where deep
porches are not wanted and/or not possible due to lack of space. The next two examples come f rom
desert areas where wood is very scarce. Without wood, desert people have f ound ways to shade walls
without overhangs and porches.
• Clustering buildings together so they cast shade on each other is a strategy used in many hot
desert areas of the world. Freestanding or courtyard walls can create the same ef f ect. Placement of
buildings – how close they are to each other, in what direction they are in relation to each other, their
height – can all be planned to work with the local climate, to get the sunlight that is needed f or winter
heat but block it out in summer. In some desert towns, houses are built close together f orming narrow
streets that are almost always in shade. These streets may even have roof s of their own. The shaded
streets provide a source of cool air f or the adjoining homes.
• High relief blockwork is used in central Mali to cast shadow on walls, as well as decorate them.
Using several layers of mud bricks, patterns are created where some bricks protrude, some recede
into the wall. As the sun moves across the sky, the protruding bricks cast shadows on the wall – the
wall is shading itself . In some very intricately patterned walls, over half the wall may be in shadow at a
given time. Beautif ul examples of this can be seen in Bourgeois, Jean-Louis and Pelos, Carollee,
Spectacular Vernacular: the adobe tradition, Aperture Foundation, 1996, pp. 74 – 77

4.4 Reducing glare: screening

As well as heat, hot dry dusty climates have to contend with bright light and glare. The intense sunlight
ref lects of f millions of dust particles in the air as well as the ground, bouncing into openings f rom all
angles. The challenge desert communities have f aced is how to get a comf ortable level of light into their
buildings without the intense glare. Simply blocking out the light is ef f ective f or reducing heat gain, but
makes rooms too dark. Desert peoples around the world have developed many variet ies of screening to
deal with this problem. These screens can vary f rom small to large. They can cover individual windows,
surround an alcove, or enclose a whole porch. They can range f rom simple blinds or mats of reeds, to
highly ornate carved wood or sto ne, or sculpted mud. Whatever material is used f or the screen, what they
all have in common is they let through only small amounts of the available light, perhaps 25% or less.
Screens of this type have other advantages too. By blocking out such a large proportion of light, they
reduce heat gain inside a building, while at the same time allowing ventilation. They also provide privacy:
although easy to see through f rom the inside, they are dif ficult to see through f rom the outside. Unlike
curtains, they provide light reduction and privacy without sacrif icing view and ventilation. On top of all this,
they are also very decorative, creating changing patterns of light within the rooms they protect. In his
book Natural Energy and Vernacular Architecture (Fathy, Hassan, Natural Energy and Vernacular
Architecture, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1986, pp 7–8 and pp 46–49),
architect Hassan Fathy gives a detailed examination of some traditional screens and contrasts them with
modern versions made f rom contemporary materials. He makes the f ollowing design points:
• Many traditional screens are made up of rounded elements: round reeds and grasses, bamboo, wood
shaped into rounded spindles and cylinders. Sunlight striking a rounded surf ace is partially ref lected in
multiple directions. This produces a gradation in intensity between areas where sunlight is blocked
and where it passes through, which sof tens the contrast between dark and light areas.Straight -edged
elements like lath lattice have a very dif f erent ef f ect. Light is either blocked by the elements or passes
between them, with no intermediate zone of ref lection. This produces light broken into high contrast
zones of stark black and dazzling brightness: this is uncomf ortable to look at directly, and ef f ectively
blinds people inside the screen to the view outside. The light through a screen made f rom rounded
elements, on the other hand, is more gentle on the eyes, and allows the view outside to be seen only
slightly obscured by the screen itself . As an example, compare the ef f ects of a light bamboo
matchstick blind to a partially closed venetian blind: with the venetian blind, all you see are bright
stripes of light, while with the matchstick blind you see a slightly dimmed version of the outside view.
• Natural f ibers – f or example unvarnished wood, reeds, grasses, hemp – have tiny f ibers all along their
edges, which both break up glare and trap dust. Modern replicas in plastics or metals lose this
advantage.
• Traditional screens of ten vary the spacing between elements. At eye level, the elements are close
together, giving maximum glare protection as well as privacy. Higher up, at ceiling level, the elements
are more widely spaced, allowing more light and ventilation into the room.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 12

• Natural f ibers and earth constructions respond to humidity by soaking up moisture when humidity is
high, and releasing that moisture again when humidity is low, which cools air f lowing through the
screen. Some communities push this f urther by soaking f iber mats in water bef ore hanging them up in
window openings.Varnished or painted materials, or modern plastics and metals, are not able to
perf orm in this way.
• Natural f iber screens have low thermal mass, so do not heat up themselves in the sun. By contrast,
screens made of mud or stone, or their modern substitutes concrete and cement block, do heat up,
which heats the air passing through them: they can end up heating a space rather than cooling it if not
shaded themselves.
Vertically trained plants share a lot of the properties Hathy describes in traditional screens: their rounded
shapes produce a gentle dif f use light, their thermal mass is low so they don't heat up the internal spaces,
and they cool hot dry air by transpiration, releasing small amounts of water into the air. They can make
very livable and beautif ul 'green rooms'. Pushing the concept of screens beyond individual windows to
enclosing entire porches can make very pleasant, cool outdoor rooms in desert climates. They provide
plenty of cooling shade and gentle light, but at the same time allow the f eeling of being outside. In
traditional desert communities, screened porches may contain pools or f ountains. In hot dry desert air,
even small pools of water enable signif icant air cooling by evaporation, creating very pleasant cool zones.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 13

5 Thermal Mass
5.1 Thermal energy
Thermal mass ref ers to a material's capacity to store thermal energy. The ability to store thermal energy
goes hand in hand with moderately low conductance to heat – a material that conducts heat well is not
going to be able to hang onto that heat f or storage purposes. Thermal mass is vital in a passive solar
building because of this storage ability. In winter, it absorbs heat f rom sunlight coming in through the
south-f acing windows, and releases that heat at night to keep rooms warm. Without storage, collection of
heat is impossible: the warmth generated by sunlight would dissipate quickly on entering the building, so
there would be nothing held in reserve f or the night. In summer, thermal mass helps maintain coolness by
absorbing heat. A material's ability to absorb heat is measured by its specific heat, which is the amount of
heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of the material by 1°C (or 1K or Kelvin). Iron has a
specif ic heat of 452 joules/kg/Kelvin, while water's is 4186 J/kg/K, making it a much better heat bank than
iron. Typical soil has a heat capacity of 1046 J/K/kg. In practice, this means it takes a lot more heat
energy to make water hot to touch than iron. In other words, water absorbs heat better than iron. There is
a f lip side to this: because it takes so much heat to warm water, it also acts as a reservoir of coolness, as
demonstrated by a swimming pool on a hot day. This is true of all materials with a high specif ic heat.
Conductance is represented by U-value. Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, which is
represented by R-value. Materials with a high U-alue have a low R-value, and vice versa: good
conductors of heat are poor resistors of heat. The thermal mass of a material depends on both its specif ic
heat and its conductance. Materials with good thermal mass have moderately low U-values: they slow the
passage of heat through them, but they do not block it. This is dif f erent to materials typically used as
insulation, which have such low U-values (and thus high R-values) that they virtually block the f low of
heat. The combination of high heat storage capacity and low heat conductivity produces an interesting
phenomenon that is very usef ul in passive solar building: thermal lag. Heat moves slowly through high
thermal mass materials, so there is a time dif ference between when a temperature is experienced its
external surf ace, and when it is f elt on the internal f ace of the material. As an example, a double brick wall
will take several hours to heat up on a hot summer day. Then, at night tim e, it will be warm while air
temperatures are cooler. Its temperature is out of sync with surrounding air temperatures – there is a
thermal lag. In a passive solar building, the thermal lag of high thermal mass materials allows heat to be
stored in them during daylight and hot weather, and they will then slowly release that heat when
temperatures are cooler. The length of time it takes heat to move through a given material depends on its
thickness. This characteristic allows a designer to design thermal banks f or dif ferent time periods. Some
examples: in a trombe wall less than 12 inches thick, the heat collected on the external surf ace during the
day reaches the interior of the building at night. But in building covered and surrounded by earth 3 f eet
deep, it can take several months f or the heat absorbed in summer to reach the internal surf ace, in time f or
f all and winter heating needs. Thermal mass is not just a storage bank f or heat, is it also one f or coolness.
Because of their high specif ic heat, materials with high thermal mass are able to absorb sizable amounts
of heat energy without heating up appreciably themselves. They ef f ectively suck heat out of a room. They
will then radiate that heat again when external temperatures drop. The challenge to a des igner here is to
provide enough ventilation to take that unwanted heat away in summer, particularly if night temperatures
are hot.

5.2 Materials with high thermal mass

Generally, heavy dense materials have high thermal mass. Earth, as in adobe, rammed earth and other
f orms of earth building, or in buildings sunk into or under the ground, is a good example. Stone, brick and
dense concrete are also very ef f ective. Note, however, that lightweight concrete (such as aerated
concrete) does not have as much thermal mass as dense concrete. Neither do hollow concrete blocks,
but in this case the thermal mass can be increased by f illing the channels of the blocks with concrete as
the wall is constructed. Some materials f ound in conventional stick-f ramed homes also contribute to
thermal mass in these buildings. Plaster (as in sheetrock), ceramic tiles and expanses of wood as in
timber f loors also have reasonably high thermal mass. Furnishings also contribute.

5.3 Thermal mass in internal structures

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 14

Inside a building, thermal mass is most commonly used f or short-term storage of thermal energy –
typically one day's input of solar energy which is then released that night. In climates with prolonged
cloudy periods in winter, it can be usef ul to have enough thermal mass thick ness to store several days'
worth of heat. Internal walls, ceilings and f loors can all be usef ul thermal banks. Note that wall -to-wall
carpeting, vinyl, cork or similar f loor coverings insulate the f loor and prevent it absorbing heat. Ceramic
tiles on concrete slabs, earthen f inishes or exposed concrete (which can be colored and patterned) are
the most ef f ective f inishes f or a thermal storage f loor. Chimneys and f ireplaces made of earth, stone or
brick also contribute thermal mass. What is wanted here is enough thermal mass to store heat gathered
during the day f rom daylight, then ef f iciently radiate that heat back to the room at night. This depends on
both thickness and surf ace area. For this purpose, massive thickness is not needed: moderate thickness
will provide enough storage capacity. The surf ace area of the thermal mass af f ects how ef f ectively it
radiates heat back into a room, as a large surf ace area will both absorb and radiate more heat than a
small one. There are varying recommendations on how much thermal mass should be inside a building,
but the f igure of 6 to 9 times the area of south-f acing glazing is a common one. Thickness of around 4
inches is enough f or daily absorption and release of heat. Some additional thickness can provide a 'spare
tank' of heat f or longer cloudy periods. Thicker than this, the thermal mass will continue to suck heat f rom
the room, and the thermal lag means that heat will not reach the other f ace until some time, even months
later – possibly when the weather is warmer and that stored heat is no longer wanted. The New Mexico
Solar Energy Association (NMSEA) points out that internal thermal mass surf aces do not have to receive
direct sunlight to f unction ef f ectively. They simply need to be in line of sight of surf aces that do receive
direct sunlight. Light ref lecting or heat radiating of f d irectly sunlit surf aces will reach any surf ace that is in
line of sight, and thus transf er heat to it. At the above link, the NMSEA provides additional guidelines f or
thermal mass to glazing ratios f or sunlit and line of sight areas. Color can be used to make thermal mass
more ef f ective. Dark colors, f or example, are usef ul on f loors, as they absorb more heat. However, on
walls and ceilings light colors can be better, as they ref lect the incoming light onto other storage areas in
the room. But if the wall area available f or thermal storage is small, dark colors are more usef ul.

5.4 Thermal mass in external walls

Using high thermal mass materials in external walls is a controversial topic in passive solar building
circles. Some writers point out that materials like stone, adobe and rammed earth have low R-values
(true!) so let out too much heat in winter, and let too much in during summer. Adherents of earth building
point to communities in the hot deserts of the American South West, Af rica and the Middle East, who
have used mud bricks and rammed earth f or centuries to build homes that are cool in summer, warm in
winter. So what is going on here? How do materials with low R-values insulate these traditional buildings
so well? The answer lies in wall thickness and thermal lag. As discussed above, materials with high
thermal mass have a characteristic called thermal lag – it takes time f or heat (and coolness) to move
through them. The thicker a wall made of them is, the longer it takes f or heat to move all the way through
it. This time lag can be deliberately used, f or example, to soak up surplus or unwanted heat, and deliver it
later when it is needed. Massive thickness allows thermal mass not just to act as a heat bank, but also as
an insulator. Over the centuries, traditional communities got to know their own climate and soils
intimately. They used that knowledge to build walls of the appropriate thickness f or their own climate.
Walls that kept their homes warm in winter, cool in summer. In hot desert communities, thick walls are
one part of the strategy f or keeping buildings cool inside. Made of earth or stone, these external walls can
be over two or even three f eet thick. Not having good insulating materials, these communities use thick
high thermal mass walls to slow the f low of heat into their buildings. And they also make use of a
peculiarity of desert climates – although summer days are searingly hot, the nights are cool, which
prevents excessive buildup of heat in the walls over time. If the walls are thick and dense enough, by
dusk the f ierce desert day time heat has penetrated only part of the way through the wall. The inner
surf ace does not heat up, keeping the interior of the building cool during the day. At night, the situation
reverses. Desert nights are signif icantly cooler than days, of ten by more than 13 to 18°F (7 to 10°C). This
is because deserts typically have cloudless night skies, so large amounts of heat radiate back to the sky
at night f rom both the surf ace of the earth and buildings on it. As t he night time air temperature drops,
even more heat stored in the walls during the day is released, as heat always tends to move f rom a warm
zone to a cooler one. In other words, heat stops moving into the walls, and starts moving out both
internally and externally. Given the coolness of summer nights in the desert, some internal heat is of ten

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 15

welcome at night. The walls then start the new day cool, and the cycle repeats. This storage and release
ability, however, cannot happen in areas where the night time temperature varies little f rom the day, as is
typical of more humid climates. Here the outer walls heat up during the day, but cannot lose heat at night.
Sooner or later, the heat reaches the rooms inside. They theref ore stay warm throughout the summer –
not pleasant f or occupants. And so, traditional homes in hot humid areas usually use lightweight materials
in their walls, materials that do not store heat. In winter, traditional builders use this action in reverse.
Dark interiors being one way to keep d esert buildings cool in summer, and glass being scarce and
expensive in their communities, they did not develop the large glazed areas that make winter passive
solar collection possible. Instead, they generate heat inside their buildings with f ireplaces and braziers.
Some of this heat is absorbed into the walls, where it can pass back into the room during the night when
internal temperatures drop. If the wall is thick enough, the heat will not reach the outer surf ace of the wall
by dusk, where it would be lost to the cold winter air. It will start to radiate back into the internal rooms.
The degree of thickness and density is vital. The thicker and denser a wall, the longer it will take heat to
penetrate it. A wall 1 f oot thick may not have enough thermal lag to prevent summer daytime heat
penetrating through it to the room inside, or winter heat escaping. On the other hand, walls that are too
thick f or local conditions are wastef ul of building materials. They can also take too much heat f rom the
rooms in winter. Over time, and through trial and error, communities f ound the optimal wall thickness f or
their local climate and materials. Modern passive solar design calculations or sof tware help in making
similar decisions today. Something to bear in mind is that, although massive high thermal mass external
walls have been used traditionally in many cooler parts of the world, they perf orm thermally best in desert
climates. Architect Gernot Minke has calculated that, to meet the 2006 German building code's
requirement f or U-value, a typical rammed earth external wall would need to be 65 inches (1.65 m) thick.
Less thickness is needed in a warm or hot climate to generate U-values appropriate f or the climate.
Clearly there is a challenge here f or the builder who wants their external walls to be made of earth, but
doesn't want them over two or three f eet thick, as thick walls clearly take longer to build, and use a lot of
material. In this case, it may be wise not to rely on the thermal mass and lag of the walls to insu late the
building, but to look at some of the techniques available to increase the R-value of earthen walls.

5.5 Building in the ground

Using thermal mass in external walls can be taken one step f urther by using the earth itself as part of the
external walls, the f loor or even the roof . There are a variety of ways to do this. Earth can be piled up
against the walls, and also over the roof : this is known as earth berming, as seen in earthships. A building
can be sunk into the ground so that part or all of its wall height is below grade, or built back into a hillside.
Or living spaces can be excavated f ully underground. With an earth cover of 3 to 5 f eet, depending on
local conditions, the thermal lag is so large that the movement of heat is not just daily, it is seasonal. Heat
absorbed on the upper surf ace of the earth cover in summer may not reach the building below until f all.
Further down, seasonal heat change is minimal. At 30 f eet below the surf ace and below, soil
temperatures are f airly constant year round, as seen in this map f rom the Virginia Department of Mines,
Minerals, and Energy. Even just below the f rost line, seasonal variation of soil temperature is much
smaller than that of the air. Soil type, drainage, climate and vegetation all af f ect soil temperatures, and
need to be taken into account when designing a building partially or wholly covered by soil. Even so, the
heat drain of the earth mass in winter may be too great f or the solar collecting capacity of the building.
Unlike their ancient counterparts, modern earth-covered homes can incorporate insulation to prevent too
much heat escaping into the soil in winter. Modern water-proof ing methods also prevent dampness, the
bane of many traditional earth-covered homes.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 16

6 Insulation
Insulation reduces the f low of heat f rom a warm zone to a cooler one. In a building, it helps keep the heat
out in summer, and in during winter. Unlike thermal mass, insulation does not ab sorb and store heat – it
works by making it dif f icult for heat to pass through a structure. Insulating materials are rated according to
their thermal resistance, also know as their R-value. It is the reciprocal of conductance (U-value). So a
material with high R-value has low U-value, and vice versa. Compared with materials of high thermal
mass, which have moderately low U-value, insulating materials have even lower U-values and theref ore
higher R-values. For example, a 4 inch commons brick has an R-value of 0.8 /U-value 1.25 (in the metric
system, R 0.14, U 7.14), while a 4 inch f iberglass batt has an R-value around 15 /U-value 0.07 (metric R
2.6, U 0.38). Passive solar buildings primarily use insulation in their external skin: roof , walls, f loor.
Appropriate R-values f or these applications vary with climate, so check local guides or a passive solar
design program.

6.1 Bulk insulation

Bulk insulation is best at reducing heat transf er by conduction or convection.

It is a mass of light weight material that contains many small pocket or air. Common types are made of
f airly loosely packed f ibers or particles, or f oam. The material can be pre-f ormed into batts or blankets, as
in the f amiliar f iberglass batts. Straw bales f it in this category too. Some f oam insulat ion comes as rigid
boards, f or example polystyrene. Bulk insulation can also be pumped in to a prepared cavity, as is of ten
done with cellulose and expanding f oams. Even grain husks like rice hulls can be used.
Bulk insulation works because of the air it traps. Air itself is not a great insulator because, as it heats up, it
moves and creates convection currents – the f amiliar observation 'heat rises'. These currents carry heat
f rom one zone to the next. But if air is trapped in small pockets, convection currents cannot f orm, and air
becomes a much better insulator.

6.2 Reflective insulation

Ref lective insulation works by ref lecting radiant heat, letting very little heat pass through it. Radiant heat
travels through air, not solids, so this f orm of insulation needs to have an air gap adjacent to its ref lective
side so it can perf orm. This f orm of insulation comes as sheets of shiny f oil bonded to stiff backing or
panels of other building material. It is of ten double sided, to prevent radiant heat transf er both in and out
of the building – which means it needs to be installed with an air gap on both sides. It is also possible to
get ref lective f oil insulation which is bonded to one side of a bulk insulation batt.

6.3 Turning heavy building materials into good insulators

An interesting variation on the insulation theme is the creation of good insulators f rom heavy building
materials. As discussed in the section on thermal mass , heavy buildings materials, high in thermal mass,
only reach ef f ectiveness as insulators if they are very thick – two to three f eet thick in a hot desert climate,
f ive f eet or more in cold climates like Northern Europe. This massive thickness is both time and material
consuming. Yet heavy materials themselves of f er benef its that some builders want to take advantage of ,
such as thermal mass. Earth, f or example, is used in many parts of the world because it is chea p and
available. Others choose to use it f or its environmental benef its, both in low impact on the ecosystem, and
low toxicity to the building's inhabitants. One approach to the problem is to combine layers of dif ferent
materials, both dense and insulative. An adobe wall, f or example, can be layered with bulk and ref lective
insulation, topped off with a skin of siding material. Something to note here is that the order of the various
materials f rom outside to in does not make a dif f erence to calculated R-value, but it does make a
dif f erence to how well the whole assembly perf orms in practice. The high thermal mass needs to be on
the internal f ace of the wall, with insulating materials external to it, topped off by protective siding. This
assembly is of ten called reverse veneer. Another approach is to incorporate insulation into the heavier
material. Although many dif ferent substances can be mixed into the heavier material, it all boils down to
the same principle: incorporating something that traps small air po ckets inside the heavier material. As
with bulk insulation, multitudes of small air pockets are an ef f ective insulator. One commercial example is

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 17

aerated concrete, which is simply millions of tiny air bubbles trapped in concrete. It's also a good
demonstration of one of the other benef its of this type of material: it is lightweight, which makes it much
easier to handle on the building site. A huge range of additives have been used to increase the insulation
properties of earth. Generally, these are porous materials that trap air in themselves, but agents that
allow the earth to be f oamed can also be used. The various additives all have their pros and cons. Cost
and local availability also inf luence choice. Gernot Minke, a German architect, gives examples of the
practical advantages of using lightweight loams: to meet the 2006 German building code's requirement f or
U-value, a typical rammed earth external wall would need to be 65 inches (1.65 m) thick. Using soil mixed
with mineral aggregates like pumice or expanded clay, the wall would need to be just 19 inches (49 cm)
thick. The f ollowing inf ormation comes f rom his book Building with Earth, pp. 47–51. This a good
ref erence f or more detailed technical inf ormation on this topic. Minke, Gernot, Building with Earth,
Birkhäuser, Basel, 2006
• Plant material:straw is well known in this context, but seaweed, cork and reeds have all been used
too. There tend to be limits on how much air can be incorporated into earth with these materials,
because with wetting and compaction, air gets squeezed out of them. Other potential issues include
mold growth while the newly-built wall is drying (a problem f or the allergy prone), and rotting at the
core of the wall.
• Plant waste products: include wood shavings, sawdust and grain husks. These tend to be denser,
less porous than straw and reeds, so the insulation they provide is lower. While they too can rot and
grow mold, they are less prone to this than straw.
• Porous mineral material: such as pumice, scoria, perlite and expanded clay pellets. As these
materials are more rigid than plant materials, they are not easily compressed. This means than lower
density and theref ore higher insulation loam mixes can be made f rom them, compared wit h plant
additives. The loam they produce also allows vapor to pass through it more readily than straw loam
does. This means that condensation is less likely to build up inside a light mineral loam wall or other
structure.

6.4 Applications of insulation

Insulation keeps the heat collected in winter in, and the summer heat out. To do this ef f iciently, it is
important that all parts of the external skin of a building are insulated to an R-value in keeping with local
climate conditions. In all parts of the external structure, it is also important to design the structures caref ul
to avoid thermal bridges, paths where heat can travel more easily in and out. Joints in f raming, f or
example, are a common culprit.
• Roof and ceilings: a major source of both heat gain and loss, it is important to insulate roof s well.
Ref lective insulation can be used as a 'radiant barrier' in a roof . It tends to be better at reducing
summer heat coming in to a building than winter heat escaping, so is most usef ul in areas with hot
summers. To keep winter heat inside the building, bulk insulation above the ceiling is more cost -
ef f ective than ref lective f oils. Both types of insulation can be combined in the one roof to achieve the
desired year-round ef f ect.
• Walls: insulation in walls may be a single material, eg lightweight loam. Or it may be a mixture of
dif f erent types, such as ref lective f oils, bulk insulation and narrow air spaces, which can also be
combined with internal high thermal mass materials. R-value here is the sum of the R-values of the
various materials (but be aware that thermal bridges will reduce calculated R-value). The Oak Ridge
National Laboratory has some handy wall insulation calculators online.
• Floors and foundations: in both cold and very dry climates, f loors need insulation f rom cold ground
temperatures. Slab-on-ground f loors, often used in passive solar buildings f or their thermal mass, get
particularly cold at the edges. A common approach is to sink rigid f oam insulation boards into the
ground bef ore the slab is poured. In buildings with basements or crawl spaces, the most advantage
comes f rom insulating the walls of these spaces. However, insulating und erground structures goes
hand in hand with questions of moisture control, insect attack and possible radon gas accumulation. A
caref ully planned strategy is a must to deal with all these issues. The US Dept of Energy provides a
usef ul overview of this topic.
• Earth-covered or underground: contemporary earth-bermed or underground buildings can take
advantage of insulation materials that were not available to their traditional counterparts. Insulation
between the walls/roof and soil signif icantly reduces unwanted f low of heat f rom inside the building

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 18

 into the ground in winter. As with basement insulation, issues of moisture, insect and radon protection
must be addressed alongside the insulation needs.
• Glazing: see here f or a discussion of the insulating capacity of dif ferent types of windows and their
coverings.

6.5 Gaps, air leaks and fresh air

Last but def initely not least...

A building can be f illed with all the best insulating materials, but if there are gaps in the construction, heat
will leak out in winter, creep in during summer. Of course air moves in and out through gaps too.
However, although air f low is needed f or ventilation in both winter and summer, gaps are a bad way to
achieve this, because they cannot be controlled. It is better to keep leaks to the minim um and provide
ventilation that can be adjusted as needed. How airtight is tight enough? A certain amount of air f low is
needed to prevent the accumulation of moisture and toxic gases or vapors, f or example f ormaldehyde
f rom f urnishings. 15 cubic f eet of f resh air per person per minute is the f igure recommended by ASHRAE
(American Society of Heating, Ref rigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers) f or living spaces. In most
homes, this comes to about 35% air change per hour, meaning 35% of the air in the buil ding replaced by
f resh air every hour. However, some guides suggest air inf iltration rates as low as 25% air change per
hour. Note that some people will f ind these levels too stuf fy. A building can be designed with higher air
inf iltration rates, but other f actors in the passive solar equation, such as solar collection and thermal mass
capacity, need to be designed to match it. This is because more air exchange comes with more heat
exchange: heat in during summer, heat out during winter. Leaks can occur in many places throughout a
building's shell. Through f raming and cladding, around duct work, through both the casings and openings
of doors and windows are some of the most common sites. The US Dept of Energy provides a usef ul
guide. It's easier to prevent air leaks during construction than f ix them af terwards. To check air inf iltration
levels, a blower door test can be done during the building phase.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 19

7 Ventilation
Ventilation is the controlled movement of air through a building. Unlike air leaks, the key to ventilation is
the word control. Whatever f orm the ventilation takes, it should be designed so it can be opened and
closed as desired. As discussed in the insulation page, a building should be designed with suf f icient air
inf iltration to maintain an adequate supply of fresh air and get rid of indoor air pollutants. Given this
context, ventilation is not about supplying f resh air to a building, but rather moving ai r through it, primarily
to help regulate temperature. In summer, ventilation is one of the major ways to cool both a building and
its occupants. In winter, it helps distribute heat f rom south-f acing sun-catching rooms to rest of building.

7.1 Moving air: the basics

Getting air to move without actively-driven f ans or pumps relies on two basic phenomena: that air moves
between areas of dif ferent pressure, and that hot air rises (convection). A cunning designer can use these
phenomena and the principles of physics that af f ect them to channel existing breezes through a building,
or even generate airf lows inside buildings when there is no breeze. Here is a brief overview of these basic
principles:
• Air movement by pressure difference: air moves f rom an area of high air pressure to an area of low
pressure. Like heat, which moves f rom a hot zone to a cooler one, air seeks an equilibrium. On a large
scale, the development of high and low air pressure areas creates wind. But as wind moves around
obstructions, it creates mini-zones of relatively higher and lower air pressures. These can be tapped to
bring airf low through buildings.
Wind blowing towards a surf ace – the windward side – exerts a positive pressure on it. As it hits the
surf ace, the air stream splits and moves around the sides of the obstruction. The air stream then
melds together again the f ar side of the obstruction, re-establishing its f low some little distance behind
it. Immediately behind the obstruction – the leeward side – the air pressure is negative. Air is pulling
away f rom the obstruction, which results in some suction. Think of sheltering behind a wall in a high
wind: although the wind is not hitting you in the f ace, your hair and clothes f lap behind you, pulled by
the suction of the negative air pressure.
In a light breeze, the negative air pressure generated in the lee of obstructions like a building is mild,
not enough to ruf f le clothes. But it is enough to suck air out of any openings in the building. This is one
source of suction a passive solar design can exploit.
• The Venturi effect: when air is channeled into a constricted opening, its speed increases. Than,
according to Bernoulli's principle, if a stream of air speeds up, its pressure drops. A cunning designer
can use these principles to speed up air f lows and/or generate suction. For example, when wind blows
towards an open window, some of the air stream enters the opening. If the window is small, the
Venturi ef f ect means the air will f orce through under some pressure and so speed up. On the other
hand, if the window is large, the pressure of the air f lowing through it will drop, lessening its speed.
• Air movement by convection: as hot air rises, it leaves an area of slightly lower air pressure beneath
it, which will suck in air through any low placed openings. This is known as the stack effect.
Increasing the height between the hot air outlet and cool air inlet enhances the stack ef f ect, because
the higher the hot air can rise, the more suction it will generate. Increases suction generates s tronger
air f lows, especially usef ul in areas with little or no summer breeze.

7.2 Summer ventilation

Air moving past a warm object, f or example a person or a wall, takes heat f rom it by convection. The
f aster the air is moving, the more heat it will take – the well know concept of wind chill f actor. Warm dryish
air moving past a wet object, whether it is a pool of water or a sweaty person, cools down by evaporation.
The challenge, then, with passive cooling is to encourage air movement through a building. Air moves
naturally either because of dif ferences in pressure, or because of convection. Building design can
encourage both these sources of air movement. To do this ef f ectively, it is important to know what
directions breezes come f rom at dif ferent seasons. Seasonal prevailing winds can be modif ied by local
f actors, including other buildings nearby, hills, canyons. Wind obstructions like these can inf luence both
the orientation of breeze catching measures, and their design. For example, low level wind obst ructions

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 20

like other buildings may disturb wind near ground level, changing its direction and reducing its speed.
However, above roof height the wind tends to be largely undisturbed, blowing f airly steadily f rom one
direction. In this situation, the most ef f ective way to bring breeze into a building could be a wind scoop
above roof level, rather than windows at occupant level. (This, by the way, is the method parts of Egypt
and the Middle East use to channel breezes into homes in towns, precisely because the other buildings
make it dif ficult to get good breeze at street level. It's a usef ul technique to consider in a built -up area.)
So, to design passive ventilation ef f ectively, it's important to know the pattern and strength of seasonal
winds at the site. Local weather records, neighbors' observations, looking at the local vegetation to see if
it has been shaped by winds can all help. In a f airly open area, with no other buildings, hills or woods
nearby, local records are likely to be enough inf ormation. At a site with obstructions around it, more detail
is needed. If time allows, the most ideal situation is recording wind direction and speed (both at ground
and proposed roof level) at the site itself through the year. For air to have a cooling ef fect, it needs to be
moving at a greater speed than simply inf iltrating in through leaks. To do this passively, that is without the
use of f ans, blowers, etc, the building can be designed to capture summer breezes. Or it can be designed
to create suction, and pull cooling air into it: particularly usef ul in an area with only with slight summer
breezes. To be ef f ective as a cooling agent, air must move through a building, not just into one room. To
achieve this, a building must be designed f or cross-ventilation so air can move in one side and out the
other. In a building one room wide, this is simply a matter of placing openings on opposite sides of the
room, close to opposite each other. This is a good layout f or hot, humid areas, where other passive solar
cooling techniques such as thermal mass and evaporation do not work so well. In buildings more than
one room deep, create direct routes f or air f lows f rom one side of the building to the other with internal
openings and open-plan areas in line with external openings. Summer ventilation should be designed not
only to cool occupants in a room by having air f low past them, it should also cool the building itself . Any
areas of high thermal mass inside the building benef it f rom cooler night -time air f lowing past them and out
of the building, stripping f rom them heat they have gained during the day. Openings close to internal walls
create air f lows along the wall, rather than in the room. If the goal is to cool a thermal mass wall, this is
highly usef ul. For cooling occupants of a room, however, there need to be windows closer to the center of
the room, to generate air f low through the body of the room. How much ventilation capacity a building
needs depends, as usual, on local conditions: summer temperatures both day and night, prevailing wind
speeds. As an example, f or northern New Mexico the NMSEA recommends unobstructed openings at 6 –
7.5% of building f loor area, with half of this on the windward side, and half on the lee. Although moving air
is cooling, the cooling ef f ect is increased if the air itself can be cooled down bef ore it enters a building. Air
drawn in through a shaded porch or courtyard, or rows of shrubs is one possibility. In dry climates,
evaporation is a very ef f ective way to drop air temperature. A po ol of water, placed so incoming air f lows
over it, cools the air down signif icantly. One of the drawbacks to summer time ventilation is the need f or
insect screening. Screening unf ortunately slows down air f low: according to greenbuilder.com, by up to
60% of a light breeze at 1.5 mph. A screened porch that air can f low through on its way to openings has
less slowing ef f ect that screens on each individual opening. Techniques to create suction and draw more
air through the building, as discussed below, can also help. Some words of warning: ventilation that is
great in summer can be a big problem in winter, stripping heat out of a building. Whatever technique is
used to create ventilation in summer, it must be able to be tightly sealed in winter. Caulk or weather strip
all openings, and make sure vertical ducts like wind scoops or solar chimneys can be snugly closed at
their base.

7.3 Capturing breezes

From the point of view of ventilation, a building should be orientated to f ace the prevailing breezes of
summer. But this may conf lict with orientating the building to the south to capture the maximum winter
sunlight. So what to do in that case? Fortunately, breezes can be def lected easily, while it's more dif f icult
with sunlight. So orientation f or maximum winter solar gain takes precedence over prevailing summer
wind. Openings f acing anywhere between straight into an oncoming wind to 45° away f rom it will capture
good amounts of the breeze. It will tend to f low naturally into the openings. Breezes at a greater angle to
openings, between a 45° and parallel with the building, would normally f low past the opening, not into it.
These breezes can be def lected into a building by an obstruction perpendicular to the line of the
openings. A thick line of shrubs, a wall, a f ence, an attached garage can all act as wind def lectors.
Windows and doors themselves can act as def lectors. In the case of a nearly parallel wind, a casement
window or door opening outwards on the f ar side of the window will act as an obstruction and def lect
wind into the opening. But a casement open on the side closest to the oncoming wind will tend to block

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 21

wind entry. With breezes blowing more directly into a building, awning or horizontal louver windows
can be used to direct airf low low into the room, at the level of the occupants. To do this, they need to be
positioned so their outer edge is higher then their lower. Positioned the other way, they will direct
incoming air over the heads of occupants – losing most of its cooling value. Double hung and sliding
windows, or doors don't have a signif icant action as def lectors of wind. Openings to catch a breeze don't
have to be only at door or window height. Desert communities in Af rica and the Middle East use a variety
of wind catching structures at or above roof level to capture breezes and channel them down into
buildings. This has additional advantages: breezes at or above roof level are of ten stronger than those on
the ground, and less dusty.

7.4 Creating suction

Where local breezes are slight, they will not have enough inherent speed to create much of a cooling
ef f ect. Insect screening slows air f low down f urther. What can help is openings placed to capture
whatever breeze there is, together with techniques that increase suction. Architect Hassan Fathy points
out that, comparing air f lows relying on wind blowing in to those created by suction, those generated by
suction are steadier. Incoming breezes f luctuate f requently in strength, while suction ef f ects show less
variation in intensity. p52-53 So even in areas with reasonably strong breezes suction techniques are
usef ul, providing more even air f low.
• Smallish openings low in the wall on the windward side, with somewhat larger openings high in the
wall on the leeward side: as described above, the small openings into the breeze create a Venturi
ef f ect, f orcing the air through a small opening which makes it speed up. Larger openings on the
opposite leeward side allow the negative air pressure on the lee to suck air out of the room more
ef f ectively. Having the openings low on the wall on the windward side means air comes in at occupant
level. Then, as it gathers heat during its passage through the room, the air rises. Openings high on the
lee wall help this heated air exit more ef f iciently. Together, this pattern of openings maximizes the f low
of a sluggish breeze through the room.
• The stack ef f ect: as described above, hot air rising by convection creates a suction that will pul l in
cooler air through low placed openings. The greater the height dif f erence between hot air outlet and
cool air inlet, the greater the suction. Stairwells, attics, clerestory windows and towers can all generate
stack ef f ects.

7.5 Cooling with ventilation in desert climates

In temperate zones, windows usually perf orm three f unctions: they let in light, ventilate, and allow
observation of a view. In desert conditions, it may not be desirable to combine all three of these f unctions
in one opening. For example, a window large enough to bring in suf f icient air f or cooling may also allow in
too much heat and glare. Traditional desert communities in the Middle East and Af rica of ten solved this
dilemma by splitting the three f unctions between dif f erent structures . They used wind scoops and wind
towers high on buildings to catch breezes without letting in lots of light and heat at occupant level, vented
towers or domes to suck out hot air, tiny windows to keep out heat, and screened openings at room level
to reduce glare and intense light while providing a view.

7.6 Winter ventilation

In winter, the main aim of ventilation is to move heat f rom the solar collecting parts of a building to the rest
of it. Here the f ocus is on moving air within the building, not through it f rom outside as in summer. The
NMSEA makes a strong case f or doing this simply and passively through well-placed internal door and
window openings, rather than adding the complexity of vents and ducts. Thi s relies on convection to
move the air: convection carries warm air into the cooler rooms, where the cool air sinks down and travels
back along the f loor through the opening to the sun-warmed rooms. Here it is heated, either directly by
the sun or by internal thermal mass at night, and returns to the cooler spaces, an ongoing circuit or loop
of air. For convection loops to achieve suf f icient winter ventilation, the internal layout of the building must
be planned to allow enough unobstructed air f low between the warm and cool spaces. If the plan allows
direct communication between each room on the cold side of the building and the solar storage space,

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 22

normal openings should be enough, without the need f or additional vents. Doorways, internal windows
and open-plan spaces can all be used to create convection pathways through a building. Variations in
level between dif f erent parts of the building need to be taken into account too. It is hard to establish
convection loops between warm and cold rooms where the cold room lies lower than the warm one,
because the cold air pools near the f loor and cannot rise to return to the higher placed warm room. At
some point the convection loop shuts down, so heat is no longer carried to the lower room. If this situation
cannot be avoided at planning stage, some additional heating may be needed in these lower rooms. A
cold room situated a little higher than a warm one is less problematic, as cold air will f low easily back to
the warmer one.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 23

8 Landscaping
Landscaping – plants, earthworks, f ences, paving – can help reduce a building's summer cooling and
winter heating needs. By modif ying the microclimate around a building, landscaping af f ects the work the
building itself has to do to maintain comf ortable internal conditions. This can cut both ways: while
landscaping can improve conditions in a building, it can also make them worse if not planned properly.
Done well, landscaping can help in passive heating and cooling while being a source of pleasure and
beauty in itself .

8.1 Landscaping for wind diversion

Plants, f ences and earthworks can be used both to channel breezes into a building, and keep them away.
To do this ef f ectively, its necessary to know the seasonal wind patterns in the immediate environment of
the building. Any structures near the building site, such as other buildings, hills and woods or being in a
canyon, tend to modif y prevailing wind movements, and this needs to be taken into account. In a f airly
open area with little wind obstructions, local weather data should give the necessary inf ormation. In a
built-up area, or a site one close to hills or in a canyon, ask the neighbors and look at nearby trees to see
if the wind has shaped them. If time allows, recording wind patterns throughout the year gives more
accurate inf ormation.

Windbreaks: in winter, reducing the speed of cold winds reduces the wind chill f actor. For a building, less
wind chill around it reduces the amount of heat needed to keep it comf ortable inside. A windbreak across
the f ace of the oncoming wind will f orce the wind up and over it, producing a relatively calmer area
immediately behind it, in the lee of the wind. Luckily, in many areas winter winds come f rom the north or
northwest, and windbreaks on these sides will not interf ere with winter sun collectio n. But if winter winds
do come f rom the south, a windbreak will probably be counterproductive, blocking too much sun. The
ef f ectiveness of a windbreak is determined by its height, the distance between the windbreak and
whatever it is protecting, and windbreak density and length. Although a windbreak can reduce wind
speeds f or up to 30 times its height, this is subject to variation. The most reliably quiet zone is close to the
windbreak on its lee side. So f or buildings, it is generally recommended that the windbreak be planted
about 2 to 5 times the expected f inal height of the trees away f rom the buildings. Mature trees can
become sparse at their base, which lets wind through. To ensure long term wind protection close to the
ground, trees can be combined with lower growing bushes, or a wall or a bank of earth. Gaps in
windbreaks can cause big problems, as the oncoming wind rushes even f aster through gaps due to the
Venturi ef f ect. If it is absolutely necessary to have a driveway or lane through a windbreak, avoid placing
it directly in line with buildings, and as f ar to the side of the buildings as is practical. If there is space f or a
windbreak a number of rows deep, running the roadway obliquely through the windbreak buf f ers the
ef f ect of the gap to some extent. Trees f ailing to grow or dying can also be a big problem, as it is dif f icult
to grow new trees in an established windbreak. Planting a multi-row windbreak at the outset of fers some
insurance here. If a tree dies, hopef ully ones in adjoining rows will survive to cover the gap. AS part of the
multi-row approach, combining rows of long -lived but slow-growing species with f aster growing, short-
lived ones helps create a windbreak that is ef f ective relatively f ast, but will last many years. The US Dept
of Agriculture's Natural Resources Conservation Service and Iowa State University provide some detailed
guides on planning, establishing and maintaining windbreaks. Although written primarily f or f arms, many
of the principles are adaptable to smaller scale residential homes and gardens.
For summer winds, windbreaks are generally not desirable, since wind is a major resource f or passive
cooling during summer. This is even more true if the summer wind is f rom the south, as a windbreak here
would reduce winter sun collection. However, in some localities summer winds are so hars h or dusty that
some protection is required. If some sort of wind protection is wanted, planting trees and shrubs in a
scattered pattern, less densely than in a traditional windbreak, slows a violent wind without blocking it
entirely. An alternative could be a low windbreak of shrubs and bushes, or a wall or earth bank, designed
to f orce the wind up over the roof of the building where it can be captured by a wind scoop, binging in
ventilation while breaking the intensity of the wind.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 24

Wind deflectors: short rows of shrubs, f ences and earth berms can also be used to def lect wind.
Depending on their placement, they can direct wind into or away f rom openings. Usually placed at right
angles to the line of a building, their job is to def lect wind at very localized zones of a building. Note that,
unlike windbreaks which protect a whole building, wind def lectors only af f ect the part adjacent to them.
Where a desirable wind runs alongside a building, a short def lector on the lee side of an opening will
divert some breeze into the opening. On the other hand, an undesirable wind blowing at an angle to a
building can be turned away by a def lector on the windward side of an opening.

8.2 Planting for shade

Using plants to shading a building in summer f or coolness can be bot h practical and beautif ul. But it
needs some planning to avoid blocking winter sun. Trees close to the south side of a building are a
contentious issue. Some passive solar guides recommend the use of deciduous trees in this position to
shade the roof in summer, others vehemently oppose it. So what's the story here? Looking at a bare tree
in winter, many people assume that its naked branches are not blocking much light. But Patrick Burns
makes the point that even when a deciduous tree is completely leaf less, it still blocks a signif icant portion
of the light that hits it. He cites studies that show deciduous tress such as oaks, ash, and sugar maples
prevent 50 to 66% of the sunlight that hits them passing through to the other side. In other words, less
than half of the available sunlight gets through a deciduous tree in winter. ed. Balcomb, J. Douglas,
Passive Solar Buildings, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 1992, pp 54–57
In a zone with relatively mild winters, this may not be much of a problem. But in colder zones, losing this
much solar radiation can be a major handicap to heating a building with passive solar energy. The actual
position of any south-side trees is important here. Both the tree's likely mature height and its distance
f rom the building, combined with the site's latitude, determine whether it will shade the building f rom
winter sun. Trees somewhat to the sides, rather than due south, may have less of an impact. More
indications on this topic are in the section on orientation. It boils down to this: if the tree is f ar enough
away, it won't block winter sun. To give an example, f rom inf ormation on the NMSEA's site, a tree the
height of a two storey building about 40 f t away f rom the southern wall won't block winter sun. Closer than
that, or if it grows taller, it will. It's also worth remembering that in summer, the sun is at a much higher
angle in the sky. Trees on the south side will not cast much shade onto a building unless they are close
enough to hang over the roof (which can of course bring other problems like branches f alling onto the roof
due to snow loads). For summer shade, trees o n the east or west are much more ef f icient, as described
below. So, f rom the passive solar point of view, trees close to the south side of a building are more
hindrance than help. From an aesthetic point of view, what can you do if you have deciduous trees close
by that you want to keep? In this situation, clearing the lower trunk of branches so that winter sunlight
reaches the southern glazing underneath the branch canopy is an option. The solar site survey can
determine to what height the branches should be cleared, as the clearance height depends on both winter
sun angles and the distance of the tree f rom the building. Trees very close to the southern f ace of a
building need lower branches cleared to about the eave line. Trees f urther away will need to be cleared
much higher, which may not be visually attractive. Trees with naturally long trunks and small canopies at
the top can also work. Shrubs and hedges, f ar enough away so their own shadows do not af f ect the
building, can provide privacy if required. Trees on the east and west sides of a building are a very
dif f erent story. In summer, sunlight during the f irst and last f ew hours of the day is a major source of
building heating. Trees and shrubs on the east and west can be a great way to reduce this, pro viding
shade during all but the middle f ew hours of the day. A canopy of trees with a lower level of shrubs and
bushes, or a wall or f ence, to block low-angled rays is most ef f ective. Use winter and summer
sunrise/sunset points f or the site latitude to decide the appropriate length and placement of tree lines on
the east and west. In cold climates, stay a little north of the winter sun points and choose deciduous trees
f or the southern end of the tree line, so that some early spring and late f all sun can reach the building.
Evergreen trees are also very suitable f or the eastern and western sides of a building, but f or the same
reason are better kept north of mid -spring and f all sunrise/sunset points, so they don't block early spring
and late f all sunlight.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 25

8.3 Landscape as a natural air conditioner

In summer, bringing air into a building with ventilation is an important part of passive cooling. Landscape
choices can cool outside air bef ore it gets inside, increasing the cooling ef f ect – a kind of natural air
conditioner. But some landscape elements can heat the air, which is obviously something better avoided.
Plants cool air temperatures in two ways. Their leaves cast shade, so air beneath them is cooler because
it is not warmed directly by sunlight. And they transpire – release water f rom pores underneath leaves –
which cools relatively dry air by evaporation (unf ortunately, very humid tropical air is too wet f or this ef f ect
to occur). The US Dept of Energy states trees can reduce air temperatures around them by up to 9°F
(5°C). Directly underneath trees the cooling is even better – up to a huge 25°F (14°C) cooler. One way to
capitalize on this ef f ect is to have ventilation pathways – the pathways air travels into a building either by
directly blowing in or by suction – pass through a garden belt, a mix of trees and shrubs. This should not
too dense, otherwise a windbreak ef f ect will result. The ef f ect to aim f or is shade rather than a wall of
plants. Where space is limited, vines grown vertically on trellis or on wires at the outer edge of porches
can produce a similar air conditioning ef f ect. This approach is also usef ul in dry areas, where there is no t
enough water to spare f or a f ull garden. Desert communities of ten take advantage of the air-conditioning
ef f ect of plants with courtyards. By growing plants in the limited area of a courtyard, the use of precious
water is limited. The courtyard can be linked to the building it serves in such a way that the cool air f rom
the courtyard is sucked inside. Even without the suction ef f ect, planted courtyards can provide a store of
coolness in a building. A plan of ten seen in traditional desert and semi-arid area homes, such as in lands
around the Mediterranean Sea, is a central courtyard within a house. The courtyard acts like a well of cold
air, as the cool air of the desert night sinks and is trapped in the courtyard, providing a reservoir of
coolness during the day. All the rooms opening into the courtyard benef it f rom this coolness. In dry areas,
water f eatures such as small ponds and f ountains enhance cooling f urther by evaporation. This can be
especially ef f ective in the conf ined area of a courtyard. An beautif ul idea f or a low-energy water f eature
which does not rely on pumps or high water pressure comes f rom medieval courtyards in the Middle East,
where a pot with a small hole in its bottom was suspended over a sloping stone or tiled slab. Water
trickles f rom the pot over the slab, and is of ten then collected into a channel leading to a pool. The slab
traditionally is carved with wave-like grooves or ridges, which produce a rippling ef f ect in the water that
trickles over it. One last area to consider in thinking about landscaping as an air conditioner is ground
cover. Common paving materials – stone, cement or ceramic pavers, gravel, bitumen – have signif icant
thermal mass. They accumulate heat while the sun is on them, and radiate that heat b ack at night,
heating up the air over them both during the day and f or some time af ter sunset. Some of these materials
are also somewhat ref lective, bouncing sunlight up into nearby windows. Groundcover and low growing
plants do not store heat, instead having some cooling ef f ect on nearby air by shading the soil beneath
them and transpiration. Aim to keep paths and driveways shaded, or at least f ar enough away f rom the
building that they can't bounce much heat and light into it, and plant groundcover at the base of walls.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 26

9 Wind towers: passive cooling attributes
Wind towers, also known as wind catchers or baud-geers, are one f orm of passive cooling f or buildings.
They were developed in hot, dry desert areas of the Middle East, and work best in areas with similar
conditions. They work primarily by creating f lows of air through the building they are attached to. They d o
this both by utilizing the buoyancy of air, and by exploiting dif ferences of air pressure in and close to the
tower. Their design lets them use either wind or temperature change to produce air pressures within the
tower which are dif f erent to those in the attached building. It is the dif ference in air pressure that
generates air f low, as the pressure seek to equalize. Moving air strips heat f rom objects, in this case f rom
the building and people inside. This is, of course, the well known wind -chill ef f ect. From this, it is clear
why wind towers are used during summer, but closed of f at building level in winter. Wind towers are most
ef f ective if the air f low they generate f lows over a wet or damp surf ace, which allows f or evaporative
cooling of the air stream. This colder, damper air cools buildings and people f urther. However, this ef f ect
is lost in humid climates, where the air already has a high water content and cannot be cooled by more
water. Although they look similar, wind towers are structurally and f unctionally dif ferent to solar chimneys.
Solar chimneys provide an escape route f or hot air to rise out of a building, but do not pull air into a
building as a wind tower does.

9.1 Components
• The head of the tower: unlike a chimney, a wind tower has openings on its side, where they can f ace
directly into the wind. The number of openings depends on local wind patterns. If there is only one
prevailing wind, the openings are on one side only. If winds can come f rom several directions, more
than one side has openings accordingly. Traditionally, the inner surf aces of the head are curved to
'scoop' the wind down the shaf t. While this does improve perf ormance a little, it can be expensive or
troublesome to construct. Little perf ormance is lost if the internal shape o f the head is simply a
straight-sided box. The tower f unctions more ef f iciently if the opening are f itted with wind -operated
dampers or curtains that allow the windward opening to be open to the wind, but seal of f the other
openings. Screens of moderate gauge mesh prevent birds and large insects getting in the openings
without too much loss of air pressure. Fine screens block too much air f low.
• The upper part of the tower, above the roof line: needs high thermal mass and high heat exchange
area to f acilitate temperature dif ferences that help 'drive' the tower. Traditionally, this section of the
tower has thick external walls and solid internal divisions, which create several vertical internal
channels. The internal divisions add to the heat exchange area. The internal and external walls are
constructed of materials with good thermal storage capacity (U-f actor), and are thick to f urther
increase thermal storage. A modern variant is to f ill the upper section of the tower with vertically -
positioned unglazed ceramic pipes, around 4 inches in diameter. A pump is used to spray water on
the pipes, allowing evaporative cooling of the incoming air.
• The lower part of the tower, below the roof line: has openings into each level of the building. These
openings must have doors or shutters to control air f low under dif f erent conditions.
• Evaporative sections: as mentioned above, in hot dry climates the cooling ability of wind towers is
signif icantly increased if the air f lows over a wet or damp surf ace somewhere along its track. By
evaporating water, the air is cooled more than by f low alone: it takes a relatively large amount of heat
to vaporize water, which ef f iciently 'strips' heat f rom the air. Evaporation also increases the humidity of
the air, which adds to human comf ort in very dry desert areas.Some ways to achieve evaporative
cooling with a wind tower are:
 Extending the tower into a basement. This utilizes the dampness inherent in the deeper soil, even
in desert areas, seeping through porous wall materials.
 Having a pool or f ountain at the base of the wind tower, or just outside it in the hallways leading of f
it, is aesthetic as well as practical.
 A wind tower in conjunction with an underground body of water, which can be a stream or a
reservoir. This system needs two shaf ts down to where the water lies. One is situated outside the
building, the other inside near the opening in the base of the wind tower. As air f lows down the wind
tower, it sucks cool air out of the inside shaf t. This suction in turn pulls warm outside air through the
outside shaf t. As this outside air f lows over the water towards the inside shaf t, it is cooled. An
underground body of water can service several wind towers in this way.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 27

  A wind tower sited a little distance f rom the building it serves, with an underground passageway
connecting the two. The passageway runs beneath a garden, where water seeps through the soil
into it. Here, the walls of the passageway must be made of porous material so water can seep
through them.
 As described above, water can be pumped up into the tower and sprayed on its internal surf aces.
This is very ef f ective, but requires some source of power to work. This means the tower is no longer
a purely passive system of cooling.

9.2 How wind towers work

Cooling occurs when heat is transf erred f rom a hot object to its environment. Wind towers cool buildings
and the people in them by generating air f lows, which strip heat by convection.
How the towers generate air f low depends on several natural mechanisms, both in the s tructure of the
tower itself and the environment around it. Good wind tower f unction depends on how ef f ectively its
design utilizes these mechanisms.
• Wind. Wind is basically air under pressure, moving f rom an area of high pressure to a lower one. Wind
moving some yards above the ground generally moves f aster (and theref ore at higher pressure) than
close to the ground, where obstructions and f riction impede it. Wind towers theref ore extend above the
roof line, to catch these f aster breezes.
• Low pressure at building doors and windows. It is the dif ference between the high pressure of the air
'caught' by the tower and lower air pressure at the openings of the windows that generates air f low
through the building. The presence of the building itself creates pock ets of lower pressure as the air
moves around its outside, with higher pressure on the openings f acing the wind and lower pressure at
openings in the lee of the wind. Here, opening and closing openings depending on which way the wind
is blowing enhances tower f unction. Air pressure around the building can be f urther lowered by a
courtyard, which protects the building f rom wind, and thus lowers air pressure at any doors and
windows opening into it.
• Buoyancy of air. The buoyancy of air depends on its temperature: hot air rises, cold air sinks. When
there is no wind, the tower of f ers a route f or cold air to sink into the building, or hot air in the building
to rise out of it. This movement of air creates a pressure dif ference, sucking more air in behind it,
creating an air f low.
• Cold, clear nights. The cool, cloudless nights of the desert allow a lot of heat transf er by radiation.
Warm structures lose heat to the sky on cool nights. Cloud cover limits this heat loss, much like a
blanket does. Deserts, with little or no cloud, continue radiating heat all night. This means that heat
accumulated in the walls of the tower during the day is lost during the night. In areas where nights are
warm and/or cloudy, this night time cooling is much more limited.
• Thermal storage or U-f actor. This works two ways in wind towers. Night-time coolness stored in heavy
walls and internal partitions of a tower cools morning air, making it heavier so it sinks down through
the tower into the building. Naturally, as the tower cools the air, it heats up itself . Once the tower
reaches the same temperature as the surrounding air, this aspect of its cooling ef fect is lost. The
amount of thermal mass as tower has controls how much coo lness it can store, and how rapidly it
heats up the next day. Towers with low thermal mass cannot store much coolness and heat up very
quickly, so stop cooling morning air quickly.
• Evaporation: as noted above, hot dry air passing over water leads to evapo ration, which strips heat
f rom the air. It is not just the temperature dif f erence that enables this, but also the dryness of the air.
Humid air, even if it is hot, is limited in its ability to contain more water vapor, so prevents much
evaporation.
Wind towers reach best perf ormance where all these f actors combine. They are an ingenious response to
conditions in a hot desert summer with dry air and cool clear nights. They simply do not work as well in
areas with milder summer temperatures, warm nights and/or moderate to high humidity.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 28

9.3 Wind tower function under different conditions

Traditional Middle Eastern wind towers work in dif f erent ways depending on whether it is day or night, still
or windy. They can either draw air in and f unnel it through the connected building. Or they can act as a
chimney, pulling air up through the building. Wind direction and speed, solar radiation and air temperature
af f ect the f unctioning of the wind tower. As a result, its ef f ectiveness f luctuates through out the day.
• On a windy day: The wind enters the openings at the top of the tower. Pressure dif ferences between
the tower, the building and the space outside the openings of the building create a f low of air through
the building.
• On a still day: The mass of the tower has cooled during the night. In the morning, as the hotter
daytime air hits the cool tower, it is cooled, and so becomes heavier, sinking down through the tower,
into and through the building. This draws more air in behind it, which cools in its turn. As the tower
itself warms up, this ef f ect is lost. However, the opposite ef fect kicks in: the tower starts acting as a
chimney. As the air inside the building and chimney gets hotter, it starts to rise. The tower gives the air
an escape route, and as it rises it grows hotter as it travels through the now-heated chimney. This
creates an up-draf t, pulling warm air in the building up and out. This chimney ef f ect is also known as
the 'stack ef f ect'.
• On a windy night, the operation of the tower is similar to that on a windy day: it f unnels airf low into
the building. Although the tower itself needs to lose the heat it accumulated during the day to be most
ef f ective, the wind combined with the cool night temperatures and clear night skies of the desert
gradually accomplish this.
• On a still night, the tower f unctions again like a chimney. The daytime heat stored in its massive
walls heats the air inside it, creating the stack ef f ect and pulling air up through the building. Leaving
windows open at night enhances this ef f ect, as the cool night air is sucked into and through the
building by the chimney action.

9.4 Air pressure effects on the leeward side of a wind tower

An additional interesting ef f ect is created when the wind is blowing. On the lee of the tower, the side away
f rom the wind, air is at lower pressure and creates a suction ef f ect. If the tower has openings on the
leeward side, air will be sucked up through the channels on that side of the tower, pulling air through the
building. This ef f ect can be very usef ul if wind f rom a particular direction is usually dusty. Rather than
allowing wind f ull of dust to enter a building, the windward side of the tower can be blocked, with openings
on the leeward side. By using suction on the lee of the tower, cooling airf low can still be generated in the
building, minus the dust. But the same ef f ect can be a problem under other circumstances. In a multi-
channel wind tower, air enters the tower on the windward side but is sucked out on the lee, reducing the
available air f low. One simple way to avoid this is to have wind -operated baf f les on all openings in the
head of the tower. On the windward side, the wind blows the baf f les open, getting into the tower. But on
all other sides, the wind pressure keeps the baf f les shut, preventing suction on the lee. This signif icantly
improves tower perf ormance. Note that where the building is surrounded by a courtyard, shutting the
leeward side of the tower increases air f low, but less dramatically than in a building without a courtyard.

9.5 Design features to deal with dust

Deserts and other hot, dry areas tend to be dusty places. One of the problems with wind towers is they let
dust in along with air. There are several design modif ications that can at least reduce this problem:
• Taller towers. Air closer to the ground is dustier, so tall towers pull in relatively dust -f ree air f rom
higher up.
• Leeward openings only, as discussed above. This is most usef ul in areas where one prevailing wind is
dustier than others.
• 'Dust shelves' in the base of the tower. When air moves f rom a small space to a larger one, it slows
down and drops a lot of the dust it is carrying. One traditional way to exploit this was to build the base
of the tower broader than the upper shaf t, and line the walls with 'shelves' (actually more like pockets)
in which dust could settle.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 29

• A similar ef f ect is gained by not having doorways between the tower and the upper f loors of a building,
but routing all the air to the basement, with vents in the basement ceiling to carry the air to the f loor
above. As air f lows out into the larger basement, it drops its dust on the f loor, then moves up through
the ceiling grilles to the rest of the building.

9.6 Other design considerations

Wind towers should be designed to cope with peak cooling load (ie the hottest summer weather), with
adjustable doors to moderate their ef f ect in periods that are not so hot. Height, cross sectional area and
the internal conf iguration of the wind tower need to be designed to suit local climate condition s. A series
of f ormulae to help do this can be f ound in a paper by Dr Mehdi Bahadori, An improved design of wind
towers for natural ventilation and passive cooling, Solar Energy Vol.35 No.2, 1985, pp.119–129.
Note that when conditions dictate a large cross-sectional areas f or the tower, it may produce better
distribution of air through the building to split the area between two or more wind towers, instead of one
large one.
Wind towers are capable of providing cooling all year round, whatever the weather co nditions. While this
is desirable in hot summers, it is a problem in winter, when it drains of building of heat. It is theref ore vital
that openings between the tower and the building can be sealed as completely as possible to avoid gaps.

9.7 References

• Bahadori, Mehdi N., Passive Cooling Systems in Iranian Architecture, Scientif ic American, Vol.238,
No. 2, Feb. 1978, pp. 144–154
• Bahadori, Mehdi N., Natural Cooling in Hot Arid Regions, in Solar Energy Application in Buildings, ed.
Sayigh, A. A. M., Academic Press, New York, 1979, pp. 195–225
• Bahadori, Mehdi N., Natural Air-Conditioning Systems, in Advances in Solar Energy, Vol. 3, ed. Boer,
K.W., American Solar energy Society Inc, Boulder Colorado, and Plenum Press, New York, 1986, pp.
283–356
• Karakatsanis, C., Bahadori, Mehdi N. and Vickery, B. J., Evaluation of Pressure Coefficients and
Estimation of Air Flow Rates in Buildings Employing Wind Towers , Solar Energy Vol. 37 No. 5, 1986,
pp. 363–374
• Bahadori, Mehdi N., An Improved Design of Wind Towers for Natural Ventilation and Passive Cooling,
Solar Energy Vol. 35 No. 2, 1985, pp. 119–129

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 30

10 Domes and vaults: passive cooling attributes
Domed and vaulted roof s used in many traditional building systems. The kivas of the native peoples of
the American Southwest, the domes of North Af rica and the Middle East, the Romanesque style of
Europe, the Spanish Mission style have all included domes and/or vaults. Curved roof structures have
some structural and material advantages over f ramed roof s. As they can be built purely of masonry
blocks, including earth bricks/adobe, they are very usef ul where wood supply is limited. They are both
structurally stronger and lighter than a f ramed roof of the same size. In addition, their shape also of f ers
signif icant advantages f or cooling and ventilating rooms in hot summers.

10.1 Vented domes and vaults

When air f lows over a curved surf ace, like a dome or a vault, it speeds up at the apex of the curve. When
an air f low speeds up, its pressure drops, creating an area of low pressure. If there is an opening in the
peak of the dome or vault, hot air that has collected under the peak will be sucked out by the lower
pressure moving air outside. This suction at the peak will in turn pull in air through openings in the
building below, generating air f lows inside the building which f urther cool it. This increase i n ventilation in
the room below a dome or vault occurs wherever the openings are in the room, whether they are on all
sides, on one side only or somewhere in between. It is particularly valuable in rooms that otherwise have
poor ventilation and air f lows: f or example, rooms with openings only on one side, or rooms whose
windows are shaded by external walls which block air circulation. Curved roof s can work well in
conjunction with courtyard gardens. Courtyard walls produce a wind shadow on the openings of a room,
blocking air f lowing into the room. A vented dome or vault over the room will generate the suction needed
to pull air through the courtyard into the room. The advantage here is that any plants or pools of water
within the courtyard will drop the temperature of air f lowing over them by evaporation, so the air sucked
into the room is cooler than the ambient air. The suction ef f ect of wind over a curved roof occurs all year
round, so can strip valuable heat f rom a room in winter. So it is important that roof vents can be well
sealed to prevent heat loss at those times.The local wind patterns dictate which curved roof shape, dome
or vault, is most usef ul. In areas where there is one prevailing wind during the hot season, a vault with its
long axis at right angles to the wind direction is suf f icient. There can be several vents placed along the
length of the vault to guarantee good circulation in the rooms below (at least one vent per room). In
places where the winds can come f rom a variety of directions in summer, a dome is more usef ul, with a
vent at its apex. The vent can be f lat, in line with the curve of the roof . However, it is common to see
domes with an extra smaller dome or rotunda on top. As well as providing ventilation, these structures
can also let light into the room below. In dry climates, the good air f low generated by a vented curved roof
can be used in conjunction with water to f urther cool the room below by evaporation. Simply spraying
water on the walls of the room with a hand sprayer will cool the room signif icantly. This works especially
well in rooms with porous wall surf aces, such as adobe and rammed earth. Traditional buildings
sometimes have a pool or f ountain directly under the vent to achieve the same ef f ect. Note that the good
air f low generated by the vent (which drives the evaporation process), also prevents the build up of too
much humidity in the room.

10.2 Heat gain and loss

Roof s gain heat mainly through radiation f rom the sun. A f lat roof and a curved roof of the same base
area will gain about the same amount of solar heat.
However, roof s mainly lose heat through convection, into the air moving across them. This is where
curved roof s have a distinct advantage over f lat ones. For the same base area, a curved roof has a much
greater surf ace area than a f lat one, and theref ore a greater surf ace to lose heat f rom. So curved roof
cools more quickly and easily than a f lat one.

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 31

10.3 Stratification of air

Air tends to stratif y into layers of different temperature more in a room with a curved roof and ceiling than
a f lat one, with the cooler layers near the f loor and the hottest layers near the roof . This has several
advantages:
• The hot air gathers above the heads of the occupants, while the cooler air collects where they are,
near the f loor.
• Because the hot air gathers at the peak of the roof , it is simple to v ent out the hot layer through the
roof . In a room with a f lat ceiling, the hot air is dif f used throughout the room, so much more air needs
to be vented out to make a signif icant difference to the temperature in the room.
• Having a layer of hot air just below the roof limits the amount of heat that can be transf erred f rom the
external surf ace of the roof through into the room. Heat on the external surf ace of the roof passes to
the internal conduction if the air outside is hotter the the air inside: in other words, if there is a
temperature gradient between the two surf aces. But if the air on both sides of the roof is at a similar
temperature, there is no gradient, and so the heat f rom outside cannot be transf erred inside through
the roof . In a f lat ceilinged room, where the air is poorly stratif ied, the air in the whole room needs to
heat up to the same temperature as the air outside bef ore heat transf erence through the ceiling stops.

10.4 Night time advantage

In hot, dry desert areas, the ventilatory f eatures o f curved roof s have an additional benef it. Hot deserts
tend to have cool nights, thanks to largely cloudless night skies which allow a lot of heat that the ground
surf ace received f rom the sun during the day to radiate back to the sky at night. The cool ni ghts coupled
with good ventilation and heat loss achievable in domes and vaults means that a lot of heat stored in the
building during the day can be lost, and coolness stored in its place. This is an important consideration f or
buildings with walls of high thermal mass, which includes adobe. These materials have good thermal
storage capacity: they take a while to heat up in summer, but by the same occasion they will stay hot
unless there is a way they can lose heat. Cool desert nights of f er this opportunit y. Once day time heat is
lost, the high mass walls can then store coolness, which will keep the room cool f or some hours during
the next day until they heat up again.

10.5 References:

• Bahadori, Mehdi N., Passive Cooling Systems in Iranian Architecture, Scientif ic American, Vol.238,
No. 2, Feb. 1978, pp. 144–154
• Bahadori, Mehdi N., Natural Cooling in Hot Arid Regions, in Solar Energy Application in Buildings, ed.
Sayigh, A. A. M., Academic Press, New York, 1979, pp. 195–225
• Bahadori, Mehdi N., Natural Air-Conditioning Systems, in Advances in Solar Energy, Vol. 3, ed. Boer,
K.W., American Solar energy Society Inc, Boulder Colorado, and Plenum Press, New York, 1986, pp.
283–356
• Karakatsanis, C., Bahadori, Mehdi N. and Vickery, B. J., Evaluation of Pressure Coefficients and
Estimation of Air Flow Rates in Buildings Employing Wind Towers , Solar Energy Vol. 37 No. 5, 1986,
pp. 363–374
• Bahadori, Mehdi N., An Improved Design of Wind Towers for Natural Ventilation and Passive Cooling,
Solar Energy Vol. 35 No. 2, 1985, pp. 119–129

Passive Solar Cooling Building - overview passive design.doc - VP page 32