Namma Kalvi

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PHYSICS
VOL - II

AUTHOR
R.SRIDHARAN, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed.,HDSE.,
Post Graduate Teacher (PHYSICS),
Govt. Boys Hr. Sec. School,
Melpallipattu - 606 703.
Tiruvannamalai Dt.
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
6. Ray Optics  If is odd then, =
360
− 1 for objects
placed symmetrically,
1. What is reflection?
The bouncing back of light into the same medium 360
when it encounters a reflecting surface is called reflection  If is odd then, = for objects
of light. placed unsymmetrically.

2. State the law of reflection. 8. Tabulate the condition for nature of objects and
 The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the images.
reflecting surface all are coplanar (i.e. lie in the Nature of
same plane). Condition
object/image
Real image Rays actually converge at the image
 The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of
reflection r. Virtual image Rays appear to diverge from the image
Real object Rays actually diverge from the object
3. What is angle of deviation due to reflection?
Virtual object Rays appear to converge at the object
The angle between the incident and deviated
light ray in reflection is called angle of deviation due to
reflection.

9. What is the height of the mirror needed to see the

image of a person fully on the mirror? Does the height
4. What are the two types of images?
of the mirror depend on the distance between the
 Real image.
person and the mirror?
 Virtual image.
 Let h1 be the distance between head H and eye E
and h2 be distance between his feet F and eye E.
5. What is real image?
The type of image which can be formed on the
screen but can also be seen with the eyes is called virtual
image.

6. What is virtual image?

The type of image which cannot be formed on a
screen and can only be seen with the eyes is called real
image.

7. Give the characteristics of the image formed by a

plane mirror?
 The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual,
erect, and laterally inverted.

 The size of the image is equal to the size of the

object.  The person’s total height h is, ℎ = ℎ + ℎ

 The image distance far behind the mirror is equal  By the law of reflection, the angle of incidence and
to the object distance in front of it. angle of reflection are the same in the two extreme
reflections.
 If an object is placed between two plane mirrors
inclined at an angle θ, then the number of images  The normals are now the bisectors of angles
n formed is as, between incident and reflected rays in the two
reflections.
360
 If is even then, = − 1 for objects
placed symmetrically or unsymmetrically,
1
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
 By geometry, the height of the mirror needed is 18. What is focal plane?
only half of the height of the person. The plane through the focus and perpendicular to
ℎ + ℎ ℎ the principal axis is called the focal plane of the mirror.
. . =
2 2
19. What is paraxial rays?
 From the above equation, we conclude that the The rays travelling very close to the principal axis
height of the mirror does not depend on the and make small angles with it are called paraxial rays.
distance between the person and the mirror.

10. What is convex mirror?

If the reflection takes place at the convex surface,
it is called a convex mirror.

20. What is marginal rays?

The rays travelling far away from the principal
axis and fall on the mirror far away from the pole are
11. What is concave mirror? called as marginal rays.
If the reflection takes place at the concave
surface, it is called a concave mirror. 21. Discuss about the image formation in spherical
mirrors.
12. What is centre of curvature?  A ray parallel to the principal axis after reflection
The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a will pass through or appear to pass through the
part is called the center of curvature (C) of the mirror. principal focus. (Figure (a))

13. What is radius of curvature?

The radius of the sphere of which the spherical
mirror is a part is called the radius of curvature (R) of the
mirror.
14. What is pole?
The middle point on the spherical surface of the
mirror (or) the geometrical center of the mirror is called
pole (P) of the mirror.

15. What is principal axis or optical axis?

The line joining the pole and the centre of
curvature is called the principal axis of the mirror.
 A ray passing through or appear to pass through
the principal focus, after reflection will travel
parallel to the principal axis. (Figure (b))

 A ray passing through the centre of curvature

retraces its path after reflection as it is a case of
normal incidence.(Figure (c))

16. What is focus or focal point?  A ray falling on the pole will get reflected as per law
Light rays travelling parallel and close to the of reflection keeping principal axis as the normal.
principal axis when incident on a spherical mirror, (Figure (d))
converge at a point for concave mirror or appear to
diverge from a point for convex mirror on the principal 22. What are the Cartesian sign conventions for a
axis. This point is called the focus or focal point (F) of the spherical mirror?
mirror.  The Incident light is taken from left to right (i.e.
object on the left of mirror).
17. What is focal length?
The distance between the pole and the focus is  All the distances are measured from the pole of the
called the focal length (f) of the mirror. mirror (pole is taken as origin).

2
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
 The distances measured to the right of pole along  In the same time, light can cover a greater distance
the principal axis are taken as positive. d' in vacuum as it travels with greater speed c in
vacuum as shown in figure. Then we have,

=
 As the time taken in both the cases is the same, we
 The distances measured to the left of pole along can equate the time t as,
the principal axis are taken as negative.
= =
 Heights measured in the upward perpendicular
direction to the principal axis are taken as positive. =

 Heights measured in the downward perpendicular  As = , the optical path d’ is,

direction to the principal axis, are taken as
negative. =
 As n is always greater than 1, the optical path d' of
23. What is mirror equation? the medium is always greater than d.
The equation which establishes a relation among
object distance u, image distance v and focal length f for 28. State the laws of refraction or State snell’s law.
a spherical mirror is called mirror equation.  The incident ray, refracted ray and normal to the
refracting surface are all coplanar (i.e. lie in the
24. Define lateral or transverse magnification. same plane).
The lateral or transverse magnification is defined
as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the  The ratio of sine of angle of incident i in the first
object. medium to the sine of angle of reflection r in the
ℎ second medium is equal to the ratio of refractive
. . = index of the second medium n2 to that of the
ℎ
refractive index of the first medium n1.
25. Define refractive index. sin
Refractive index of a transparent medium is =
sin
defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum (or air) to
the speed of light in that medium. 29. What is angle of deviation due to refraction?
The angle between the incident and deviated
. . = light ray in refraction is called angle of deviation due to
refraction.
26. Define optical path.
Optical path of a medium is defined as the
distance d’ travelled by the light in vacuum in the same
time it travels a distance d in the medium.

27. Obtain the equation for optical path.

 Let us consider a medium of refractive index n and
thickness d. Light travels with a speed v through = − ( )
the medium in a time t. Then we can write, = − ( )
=
30. What is simultaneous reflection or refraction?
The phenomenon in which a part of light from a
= source undergoing reflection and another part of light
from same source undergoing refraction is known as
simultaneous reflection or simultaneous refraction.

31. What is principle of reversibility?

The principle of reversibility states that light will
follow exactly the same path if its direction of travel is
reversed.

3
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
32. What is relative refractive index? 38. What are the two conditions for total internal
 The comparison ratio of refractive index of one refraction?
medium with respect to other medium is called  Light must travel from denser to rarer medium,
relative refractive index.
 The angle of incidence in the denser medium must
be greater than critical angle (i.e. i > ic).
 In snell’s law, = is the relative refractive
index of the second medium with respect to first 39. Explain the reason for glittering of diamond.
medium.  The critical angle of diamond is about 24.40.

33. Write the relations of inverse rule and chain rule using  A skilled diamond cutter makes use of this larger
relative refractive index. range of angle of incidence (24.40 to 900 inside the
 According to inverse rule, diamond), to ensure that light entering the diamond
1 1 is total internally reflected from the many cut faces
= =
before getting out.

 According to chain rule,  This gives a sparkling effect for diamond.

= ×
= ×

34. Why do stars twinkle?

The stars actually do not twinkle. They appear
twinkling because of the movement of the atmospheric
layers with varying refractive indices, which is clearly
seen in the night sky.
40. Write a short note on mirage.
 In hot places, when move from ground to a height,
35. What is critical angle?
the density and hence the refractive index of the air
The angle of incidence in the denser medium for
0 increases due to temperature variation.
which the refracted ray graces the boundary(i.e. r = 90 )
is called critical angle ic.  Such that the reflected light from the object travel
towards the ground successively deviated above
and it gets total internal reflection near the ground
where i > ic.

 This gives an illusion as if the light comes from

somewhere below the ground.

36. Obtain the equation for critical angle.

 Let n1 and n2 be the refractive index of the denser
and rarer medium repectively and ic is the crtical
angle.

 According to Snell’s law,

= 90
= ; >

 If n2 = 1 for air medium and n1 = n,  Due to the shaky nature of air layers, it appears like
1 1 pool water or wet surface reflection. This
= ( ) = phenomenon is called mirage.

37. Wh at is total internal refraction? 41. Write a short n ote on looming.

When the angle of incidence is above the criticle  In cold places, when move from ground to a height,
angle(i.e. i > ic) , the entire light is reflected back into the the density and hence the refractive index of the air
denser medium itself. This phenomenon is called total decreases due to temperature variation.
internal reflection.
4
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.

 The refractive index of the material of the core must

be higher than that of the cladding for total internal
reflection to happen.

 Signal in the form of light is made to incident inside

the core-cladding boundary at an angle greater
than the critical angle.
 Such that the reflected light from the object travel
 Hence, it undergoes repeated total internal
towards the sky successively deviated below and it
reflections along the length of the fibre without
gets total internal reflection near the sky where
undergoing any refraction.
i > ic.
 This gives the reverse effect of mirage. Hence, an  The light travels inside the core with no appreciable
inverted image is formed little above the surface. loss in the intensity of the light.
This phenomenon is called looming.
45. What is acceptance angle?
42. Write a short notes on the prisms making use of total To ensure the critical angle incidence in the core-
internal reflection. cladding boundary inside the optical fibre, the light should
 Prisms can be designed to reflect light by 900 or by be incident at a certain angle at the end of the optical fiber
1800 by making use of total internal reflection as while entering in to it. This angle is called acceptance
shown in Figure(a) and (b). angle.

46. What is acceptance cone?

A cone, which has acceptance angle is called
acceptance cone.

47. Explain the working of an endoscope.

 An endoscope is an instrument used by doctors
which has a bundle of optical fibres that are used
to see inside a patient’s body.

 In these cases, the critical angle ic for the material

of the prism must be less than 450 (For both crown  Endoscopes work on the phenomenon of total
glass and flint glass. internal reflection.

 Prisms are also used to invert images without  The optical fibres are inserted in to the body
changing their size as shown in Figure(c). through mouth, nose or a special hole made in the
body.
43. What is Snell’s window?
When light entering the water from outside is  Even operations could be carried out with the
seen from inside the water, the view is restricted to a endoscope cable, which has the necessary
particular angle equal to the critical angle ic. The restricted instruments attached at their ends.
illuminated circular area is called Snell’s window.
48. What are the assumptions made while considering
44. Write a note on optical fibre. refraction at spherical surfaces?
 Transmitting signals through optical fibres is  The incident light is assumed to be monochromatic
possible due to the phenomenon of total internal (single colour)
reflection.
 The incident ray of light is very close to the principal
 Optical fibres consists of inner part called core and axis (paraxial rays)
outer part called cladding (or) sleeving.
5
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
49. What is thin lens? 54. What is angle of deviation by a prism?
A lens which is formed by a transparent material The angle between the direction of the incident
bounded between two spherical surfaces or one plane ray and the emergent ray is called the angle of
and another spherical surface is called thin lens. deviation(d) of a prism.
. . = + −
50. Define primary focus and secondary focus.
 The primary focus F1 is defined as a point where 55. What are the factors affecting the angle of deviation
an object should be placed to give parallel by a prism?
emergent rays to the principal axis.  The angle of incidence( )

 The angle of the prism(A)

 The refractive index of the material of the prism,

which decides the angle of emergency( ).
 The secondary focus F2 is defined as a point where
all the parallel rays travelling close to the principal 56. What is angle of minimum deviation by a prism?
axis converge to form an image on the principal The minimum value of angle of deviation is called
axis. angle of minimum deviation(D) of a prism.

57. What are all the conditions at angle of minimum

deviation by a prism?
 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
emergence (i.e. i1=i2).
51. What are the sign conventions followed for lenses?
 The angle of refraction at the face one and face two
 The sign of focal length is not decided on the
are equal (i.e. r1=r2).
direction of measurement of the focal length from
the pole of the lens as they have two focal lengths,
 The incident ray and emergent ray are symmetrical
one to the left and another to the right (primary and
with respect to the prism.
secondary focal lengths on either side of the lens).
 The focal length of the thin lens is taken as positive  The refracted ray inside the prism is parallel to its
for a converging lens and negative for a diverging base of the prism.
lens.
58. What is dispersion?
 The other sign conventions for object distance, Dispersion is splitting of white light into its
image distance, radius of curvature, object height constituent colours.
and image height remain the same for thin lenses
as that of spherical mirrors. 59. What is spectrum?
52. Arrive at lens equation from lens maker’s formula. The band of colours of light is called spectrum.
 According to lens maker’s formula, 60. What is angular dispersion?
1 1 1 The angular separation between the two extreme
= ( − 1) − −→ (1) colours (violet and red) in the spectrum is called the
angular dispersion.
 From the general equation of spherical refraction,
1 1 1 1 . . − =( − )
− = ( − 1) − −→ (2)
61. What are the factors affecting the angular dispersion?
 Comparing the equations (1) and (2), we have,  Angle of the prism
1 1 1
− = −→ (3)  Nature of the material of the prism.
 The equation(3) is called len’s equation. 62. Define dispersive power.
Dispersive power is defined as the ratio of the
53. What is p ower of a lens? Give its unit. angular dispersion for the extreme colours to the
Power of lens is the degree of deviation of deviation for any mean colour.
incident ray on a lens. It is defined as reciprocal of focal
length of a lens. Its unit is diopter(D).
−
1 . . = =
. . =

6
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
63. How are rainbows formed? 68. What is the reason for reddish appearance of sky
 When sunlight falls on the water drop suspended during sunset and sunrise?
in air , splits into its constituent seven colours. This  During sunrise and sunset, the light from sun
forms a rainbow. travels a greater distance through the atmosphere.

 Primary rainbow is formed when light entering the  Hence, the blue light which has shorter wavelength
drop undergoes one total internal reflection inside is scattered away and the less-scattered red light
the drop before coming out from the drop. The of longer wavelength manages to reach our eye.
angle of view for violet to red in primary rainbow is  This is the reason for the reddish appearance of
400 to 420. sky during sunrise and sunset.

69. Why do clouds appear white?

Usually clouds contains large amount of dust and
water droplets whose size a >> λ. Thus, in clouds all the
colours get equally scattered irrespective of wavelength.
This is the reason for the whitish appearance of cloud.

Conceptual Questions:
 A secondary rainbow appears outside of a primary 70. Why are dish antennas curved?
rainbow and develops when light entering a The curved dish antennas act like concave
raindrop undergoes two internal reflections. The mirrors and are used to get focussed signals of
angle of view for red to violet in a secondary broadcasting.
rainbow is, 520 to 540. 71. What type of lens is formed by a bubble inside
water?
Biconvex lens is formed when an air bubble is
inside the water.
72. It is possible for two lenses to produce zero power?
Yes. It is possible when the combination of
convex and concave lenses of same focal length is used.

73. A biconvex lens has focal length f and intensity of light

64. What is scattering of light? I passing through it. What will be the focal length and
When sunlight enters the atmosphere of the intensity for portions of lenses obtained by cutting it
earth, the atmospheric particles present in the vertically and horizontally as shown in figure?
atmosphere change the direction of the light. This  According to lens maker's formula, focal length of
process is known as scattering of light. the lens(f) is directly proportional to radius of
curvature(R) of the lens. Further, intensity of the
65. What is Rayleigh’s scattering? light is directly proportional to area of aperture of
If the scattering of light is by atoms and the lens.
molecules which have size a very less than that of the  For vertical cut:
wave length λ of light a<<λ, the scattering is called  Since radius of curvature of the lens is
Rayleigh’s scattering. increased to double, focal length is also be
increased to double.
66. State the law of Rayleigh’s scattering.
The intensity of Rayleigh’s scattering is inversely  As the area of the aperture is not changed,
proportional to fourth power of wavelength. intensity of the light is also not be changed.
1  For horizontal cut:
. . ∝
 As the radius of curvature of the lens is not
changed, focal length is also not be changed.
67. Why does sky appear blue?
 According to the law of Rayleigh’s scattering, violet  Since the area of the aperture is decreased,
colour which has the shortest wavelength gets intensity of the light is also be decreased.
much scattered during day time.
74. Why is yellow light preferred during fog?
 The next scattered colour is blue. As our eyes are When light pass through fog, Rayleigh’s
more sensitive to blue colour than violet colour the scattering happens where longer wavelength of light like
sky appears blue during day time yellow, orange and red are scattered less than other
colours. Among these yellow is more sensitive to our
eyes. Hence, the yellow light is preferred during fog.
7
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
5 Marks Q & A:  We can apply the sign conventions for the various
1. Derive the mirror equation and the equation for lateral distances in the above equation.
magnification. =− , ’=− , =−
 The mirror equation establishes a relation among
object distance u, image distance v and focal  All the three distances are negative as per sign
length f for a spherical mirror. convention, because they are measured to the left
of the pole. Now, the equation (3) becomes,
 An object AB is considered on the principal axis of − − − (− )
a concave mirror beyond the center of curvature C. =
The image formation is shown in the figure. − −
 On further simplification,
−
=

= −1
 Let us consider three paraxial rays from point B on
the object. The first paraxial ray BD travelling
parallel to principal axis is incident on the concave  Dividing either side with v,
mirror at D, close to the pole P. 1 1 1
= −
 After reflection the ray passes through the focus F.
The second paraxial ray BP incidentat the pole P
 After rearranging,
is reflected along PB’.
1 1 1
+ = −→ (4)
 The third paraxial ray BC passing through centre of
curvature C, falls normally on the mirror at E is
reflected back along the same path.  The above equation(4) is called mirror equation.

 The three reflected rays intersect at the point A′ B′. Lateral magnification in spherical mirrors:
A perpendicular drawn as A′ B′ to the principal axis  The lateral or transverse magnification is defined
is the real, inverted image of the object AB. as,
ℎ ℎ (ℎ )
( )=
 As per law of reflection, the angle of incidence ℎ ℎ (ℎ)
∠BPA is equal to the angle of reflection ∠ B′PA′ . ℎ′
=
 The triangles ΔBPA and ΔB′PA′ are similar. Thus,
ℎ
from the rule of similar triangles,  Applying proper sign conventions for equation (1),
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
= −→ (1) =

 The other set of similar triangles are, ΔDPF and  Here, A’B’=−h, AB=h, PA’=−v, PA=−u
Δ B′A′ F. (PD is almost a straight vertical line) −ℎ′ −
′ ′ ′ =
= ℎ −

 As, the distances PD = AB the above equation

ℎ′
=−
becomes, ℎ
′ ′ ′
= −→ (2)  On simplifying we get,
ℎ′
= =−
 From equations (1) and (2) we can write, ℎ
′ ′
=  Using mirror equation(4), we can further write the
magnification as,
 As, A′ F=PA′ - PF , the above equation becomes,
ℎ′ −
= = =
′ − ℎ −
= −→ (3)
8
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
2. Describe the Fizeau’s method to determine speed of  Here, θ is the angle between the tooth and the slot
light. which is rotated by the toothed wheel within that
Apparatus: time t.
 The apparatus used by Fizeau for determining ℎ
speed of light in air is shown in figure. =
ℎ+
2
= =
2
 Substituting the θ value in the equation(2), we get,

= =

 Rewriting the above equation for t,

 The light from the source S was first allowed to fall = −→ (3)
on a partially silvered glass plate G kept at an angle
of 450 to the incident light from the source.  Substituting t from equation (3) in equation (1),
2
 The light then was allowed to pass through a =
rotating toothed-wheel with N teeth and N cuts of
equal widths whose speed of rotation could be  After rearranging,
varied through an external mechanism. 2
=
 The light passing through one cut in the wheel will
get reflected by a mirror M kept at a long distance  From this method, the speed of light in air was
d, about 8 km from the toothed wheel. determined as, v = 2.99792 X108 m s–1.

 If the toothed wheel was not rotating, the reflected 3. Derive an expression for apparent depth for normal
light from the mirror would again pass through the viewing.
same cut and reach the eyes of the observer  It is a common observation that the bottom of a
through the partially silvered glass plate. tank filled with water appears raised as shown in
Figure (a).
Working:
 The angular speed of rotation of the toothed wheel
was increased from zero to a value ω until light
passing through one cut would completely be
blocked by the adjacent tooth.

 This is ensured by the disappearance of light while

looking through the partially silvered glass plate.

Expression for speed of light:

 The speed of light in air v is equal to the ratio of the
distance the light travelled from the toothed wheel
to the mirror and back 2d to the time taken t.  An equation could be derived for the apparent
depth for viewing in the near normal direction.
2
= −→ (1)
 The ray diagram is shown in Figure (b) and (c).
 The distance d is a known value from the
arrangement.

 The time taken t for the light to travel the distance

to and fro is calculated from the angular speed ω
of the toothed wheel.

 The angular speed ω of the toothed wheel when

the light disappeared for the first time is,

= −→ (2)
9
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
 In that case, the equation for apparent depth
becomes,

′=

 The bottom appears to be elevated by d-d',

− = −
1
− = 1−
 Light from the object O at the bottom of the tank
passes from denser medium (water) to rarer 4. Obtain the equation for radius of illumination (or)
medium (air) to reach our eyes. Snell’s window.
 When light entering the water from outside is seen
 It deviates away from the normal in the rarer from inside the water, the view is restricted to a
medium at the point of incidence B. particular angle equal to the critical angle ic. The
restricted illuminated circular area is called Snell’s
 The refractive index of the denser medium is n1 and window.
rarer medium is n2. Here, n1 > n2.
 The radius R of the circular area depends on the
 The angle of incidence in the denser medium is i depth d from which it is seen and also the refractive
and the angle of refraction in the rarer medium is r. indices of the media.

 The lines NN′ and OD are parallel. Thus angle  The radius of Snell’s window can be deduced with
∠DIB is also r. the illustration as shown in Figure.

 The angles i and r are very small as the diverging

light from O entering the eye is very narrow.

 The Snell’s law in product form for this refraction

is,
sin = sin
 As the angles i and r are small, we can
approximate, ≈ ;
tan = tan
 In triangles ΔDOB and ΔDIB,  Light is seen from a point A at a depth d. The
Snell’s law in product form for the refraction
tan = tan = happening at the point B on the boundary between
the two media is,
= sin = sin 90
sin = [∵ sin 90 = 1]
 DB is cancelled on both sides, DO is the actual
depth d and DI is the apparent depth d'. sin = −→ (1)
1 1
=
′  From the right angle triangle ΔABC,
′
= sin = = −→ (2)
√ +
 Rearranging the above equation for the apparent
depth d',  Equating equations(1) and (2), we have,

′= =
√ +
 As the rarer medium is air and its refractive index  Squaring on both sides,
n2 can be taken as 1, (n2 = 1). And the refractive
index n1 of denser medium could then be taken as =
n, (n1 = n). +
10
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 Taking reciprocal,  Snell’s law in the product form for the refraction at
+ point B is,
= sin = sin 90

 On further simplifying, sin = [∵ sin 90 = 1]

1+ = sin = −→ (2)
 From the right angle triangle ΔABC,
= −1 = 90 −
−  Now, equation(2) becomes,
= −1=
sin(90 − )=
 Again taking reciprocal and rearranging,

=  Using trigonometry,
−
cos =
=
− sin = 1 − cos
 The radius of illumination is,
 Substituting for cos ,
= −
− sin = 1− =

 If the rarer medium outside is air, then, n2 = 1, and

we can take n1 = n.  Substituting this in equation(1),
1
= = −
√ −1 √ −1 sin = = − −→ (3)

5. Derive the equation for acceptance angle and

numerical aperture of optical fiber.  On further simplification,
 To ensure the critical angle of incidence in the
−
core-cladding boundary inside the optical fibre, the sin =
light should be incident at a certain angle at the end
of the optical fiber while entering in to it. This angle
−
is called acceptance angle. sin =
 It depends on the refractive indices of the core n1,
cladding n2 and the outer medium n3.  If outer medium is air, then n3 = 1. The acceptance
angle ia becomes,
 Assume the light is incident at an angle called
acceptance angle ia at the outer medium and core −
boundary at A as shown in the Figure (a). =

 Light can have any angle of incidence from 0 to ia

with the normal at the end of the optical fibre
forming a conical shape called acceptance cone
as shown in Figure (b).

 The Snell’s law in the product form for this

refraction at the point A is,
sin = sin −→ (1)

 To have the total internal reflection inside optical

fibre, the angle of incidence at the core-cladding
interface at B should be atleast critical angle ic.

11
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 In the equation (3), the term ( sin ) is called
numerical aperture NA of the optical fibre. = −→ (1)
( − )
= sin = −  In the right angle triangle ΔBCF,

 If outer medium is air, then n3 = 1. The numerical

cos =
aperture NA becomes,
= −→ (2)
cos
= sin = −
 Equating equations(1) and (2),
6. Obtain the equation for lateral displacement of light
=
passing through a glass slab. ( − ) cos
 When a ray of light passes through a glass slab it
refracts at two refracting surfaces.  After rearranging,
( − )
 After the two refractions, the emerging ray has the =
same direction as that of the incident ray on the cos
slab with a lateral displacement or shift L.
7. Derive the equation for refraction at single spherical
 There is no change in the direction of ray but the surface.
path of the incident ray and refracted ray are  Let us consider two transparent media having
different and parallel to each other. refractive indices n1 and n2 are separated by a
spherical surface as shown in Figure.
 To calculate the lateral displacement, a
perpendicular is drawn in between the paths of
incident ray and refracted ray as shown in Figure.

 Let C be the centre of curvature of the spherical

surface.

 Let a point object O be in the medium n1. The line

OC cuts the spherical surface at the pole P of the
surface.

 As the rays considered are paraxial rays, the

perpendicular dropped for the point of incidence to
 Consider a glass slab of thickness t and refractive the principal axis is very close to the pole or passes
index n is kept in air medium. through the pole itself.

 The path of the light is ABCD and the refractions  Light from O falls on the refracting surface at N.
occur at two points B and C in the glass slab. The normal drawn at the point of incidence passes
through the centre of curvature C.
 The angles of incidence i and refraction r are
measured with respect to the normal N1 and N2 at  As n2>n1, light in the denser medium deviates
the two points B and C respectively. towards the normal and meets the principal axis at
I where the image is formed.
 The lateral displacement L is the perpendicular
distance CE drawn between the path of light and  Snell’s law in product form for the refraction at the
the undeviated path of light at point C. point N could be written as,

 In the right angle triangle ΔBCE,

sin = sin
( − )=
12
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 As the angles are small, sine of the angle could be 8. Obtain lens maker’s formula and mention its
approximated to the angle itself. significance.
= −→ (1)  Let us consider a thin lens made up of a medium
of refractive index n2 is placed in a medium of
 Let the angles, refractive index n1.
∠ = ,∠ = ,∠ =
 Let R1 and R2 be the radii of curvature of two
spherical surfaces 1 and 2 respectively and P be
tan = ; tan = ; tan = the pole as shown in figure.

 As these angles are small, tan of the angle could

be approximated to the angle itself.

= ; = ; = − −(2)

 For the triangle, ΔONC,

= + −→ (3)
 Consider a point object O on the principal axis. The
 For the triangle, ΔINC, ray which falls very close to P, after refraction at
= + the surface 1 forms image at I'.
= − −→ (4)
 Before it does so, it is again refracted by the
 Substituting equations (3) and (4) in (1), surface 2. Therefore the final image is formed at I.
( + )= ( − )
 The general equation for the refraction at a
 Rearranging, spherical surface is,
−
+ =( − ) − =
 Substituting α, β and  from equation(2),
 For the refracting surface 1, the light goes from n1
+ =( − ) to n2.
−
− = −→ (1)
 Further simplifying by cancelling PN,
′
 For the refracting surface 2, the light goes from
( − ) medium n2 to n1.
+ = −→ (5) −
− = −→ (2)
 Following sign conventions, PO = –u, PI = +v and
PC = +R in equation (5),  Adding the above two equations (1) and (2),
( − ) 1 1
+ = − =( − ) −
−
 After rearranging, finally we get,
 Further simplifying and rearranging,
( − ) 1 1 − 1 1
− = −→ (6) − = −

 Equation (6) gives the relation among the object 1 1 1 1

− = −1 − −→ (3)
distance u, image distance v, refractive indices of
the two media (n1 and n2 ) and the radius of
curvature R of the spherical surface. It holds for  If the object is at infinity, the image is formed at the
any spherical surface. focus of the lens. Thus, for u = ∞, v = f. Then the
equation becomes.
 If the first medium is air then, n1 = 1 and the 1 1 1 1
second medium is taken just as n2 = n, then the − = −1 −
∞
equation is reduced to,
1 1 1
1 ( − 1) = −1 − −→ (4)
− =

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 If the refractive index of the lens is n2 and it is  Further simplifying and rearranging,
placed in air, then n2 = n and n1 = 1. So the 1 1 − 1 1
equation (3) becomes, − = −
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= ( − 1) − −→ (4) − = −1 − −→ (3)
 The above equation is called the lens maker’s
formula.  If the object is at infinity, the image is formed at the
focus of the lens. Thus, for u = ∞, v = f. Then the
Significance: equation becomes.
 This formula tells the lens manufactures what 1 1 1 1
curvature is needed to make a lens of desired focal − = −1 −
∞
length with a material of particular refractive index. 1 1 1
= −1 − −→ (4)
 This formula holds good also for a concave lens.

9. Derive the equation for thin lens and obtain its  By comparing the equations (3) and (4) we can
magnification. write,
 Let us consider a thin lens made up of a medium 1 1 1
of refractive index n2 is placed in a medium of
− =
refractive index n1.
 This equation is known as lens equation which
 Let R1 and R2 be the radii of curvature of two relates the object distance u and image distance v
spherical surfaces 1 and 2 respectively and P be with the focal length f of the lens. This formula
the pole as shown in figure. holds good for a any type of lens.

Lateral magnification in thins lens:

 Let us consider an object OO' of height h1 placed
on the principal axis with its height perpendicular to
the principal axis as shown in Figure.

 Consider a point object O on the principal axis. The

ray which falls very close to P, after refraction at
the surface 1 forms image at I'.

 Before it does so, it is again refracted by the

surface 2. Therefore the final image is formed at I.
 The ray OP passing through the pole of the lens
 The general equation for the refraction at a goes undeviated. The inverted real image II′
spherical surface is, formed has a height h2.
−
− =  The lateral or transverse magnification m is defined
as the ratio of the height of the image to that of the
 For the refracting surface 1, the light goes from n1 object.
to n2. ′
− = −→ (5)
− = −→ (1) ′
′
 From the two similar triangles Δ POO′ and Δ PII′ ,
 For the refracting surface 2, the light goes from we can write,
medium n2 to n1. ′
− = −→ (6)
− = −→ (2) ′
 Applying sign convention,
 Adding the above two equations (1) and (2), ′ −ℎ
1 1 = =
− =( − ) − ′ ℎ −

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 Substituting this in the equation (5) for  If the combination acts as a single lens, its focal
magnification, length be F. For an object at the position O and its
ℎ image forms at I,
=− =− 1 1 1
ℎ − = −→ (4)
 The magnification is negative for real image and
positive for virtual image.
 Comparing equations (3) and (4), we get,
 In the case of a concave lens, the magnification is 1 1 1
always positive and less than one. = +
 We can also have the equations for magnification
by combining the lens equation with the formula for  The above equation can be extended for any
magnification as, number of lenses in contact as,
ℎ − 1 1 1 1 1
= = = = + + + + ⋯ −→ (5)
ℎ +
10.Derive the equation for effective focal length for lenses  The above equation can be written as power of the
in contact. lenses as,
 Let us consider two lenses ① and ② of focal = + + + + ⋯ −→ (6)
length and are placed coaxially in contact with
each other so that they have a common principal Where, P is the net power of the lens combination
axis. of lenses in contact.
 One should note that the sum in equation (6) is an
 For an object placed at O beyond the focus of the
algebraic sum.
first lens ① on the principal axis, an image is
formed by it at I'.
 The powers of individual lenses may be positive
 This image I' acts as an object for the second lens (for convex lenses) or negative (for concave
② and the final image is formed at I as shown in lenses).
Figure.
 Combination of lenses helps to obtain diverging or
converging lenses of desired magnification.

 Also, combination of lenses enhances the

sharpness of the images.

 As the image formed by the first lens becomes the

object for the second and so on.

 The total magnification m of the combination is a

 As these two lenses are thin, the measurements product of magnification of individual lenses. We
are done with respect to the common optical centre can write,
P in the middle of the two lenses. = × × . . ..
 Let, PO be object distance u and PI' be the image 11.Derive the equation for angle of deviation produced by
distance (v′) for the first lens ① and object distance a prism and thus obtain the equation for refractive
for the second lens ② and PI = v be the image index of material of the prism.
distance for the second lens ② .  Let light ray PQ is incident on one of the refracting
faces of the prism as shown in figure.
 Writing the lens equation for first lens ①,
1 1 1
− = −→ (1)

 Writing the lens equation for second lens ② ,

1 1 1
− = −→ (2)

 Adding equations (1) and (2),

1 1 1 1
− = + −→ (3)
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 The angles of incidence and refraction at the first Refractive index of material of the prism:
face AB are i1 and r1.  At minimum deviation, d = D , = = and
= = . Now, the equation (7) becomes,
 The path of the light inside the prism is QR. The =2 −
angle of incidence and refraction at the second
face AC is r2 and i2 respectively. +
=
2
 RS is the ray emerging from the second face.
 From equation(6),
Angle i2 is also called angle of emergence.
2 =
 The angle between the direction of the incident ray
PQ and the emergent ray RS is called the angle of =
deviation d. 2
 Substituting i and r in Snell’s law,
 The two normals drawn at the point of incidence Q
and emergence R are QN and RN.
sin
=
sin
 They meet at point N. The incident ray and the
emergent ray meet at a point M. sin
=
 The deviation d1 at the surface AB is, sin
∠ = = − −→ (1)
 The above equation is used to find the refractive
 The deviation d2 at the surface AC is, index of the material of the prism. The angles A and
D can be measured experimentally.
∠ = = − −→ (2)

 Total angle of deviation d produced is, 12.Obtain the equation for dispersive power of a medium.
 Consider a beam of white light passes through a
= + prism; it gets dispersed into its constituent colours
as shown in Figure.
 Substituting for d1 and d2,
=( − )+( − )

 After rearranging,
=( + )−( + )−→ (3)

 In the quadrilateral AQNR, two of the angles (at the

vertices Q and R) are right angles.

 Therefore, the sum of the other angles of the

quadrilateral is 1800.
∠ +∠ = 180 −→ (4)
 Let δV, δR are the angles of deviation for violet and
red light. Let nV and nR are the refractive indices for
 From the triangle ΔQNR,
the violet and red light respectively.
+ +∠ = 180 −→ (5)
 The refractive index of the material of a prism is
 Comparing these two equations (4) and (5) we get, given by the equation,
+ = −→ (6)
sin
 Substituting this in equation (3) for angle of =
deviation, sin
= + − −→ (7) Here A is the angle of the prism and D is the angle
of minimum deviation.
 Thus, the angle of deviation depends on the angle  If A be the angle of a small angle prism and δ the
of incidence angle of emergence and the angle for angle of deviation then the prism formula becomes,
the prism.
sin
= −→ (1)
sin
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 If the angle of prism is small of the order of 100, the  Dispersive power (ω),
prism is said to be a small angle prism. −
= = −→ (6)
 When rays of light pass through such prisms, the
angle of deviation also becomes small.  Substituting equations (4) and (5) in (6),
( − )
 For small angles of A and δm, =
+ + ( − 1)
sin ≈ −→ (2)
2 2  Dispersive power is a dimensionless quality. It has
sin ≈ −→ (3) no unit. Dispersive power is always positive.
2 2
 The dispersive power of a prism depends only on
 Substituting equations(2) and (3) in (1), the nature of material of the prism and it is
independent of the angle of the prism.
+
= = =1+

 Further simplifying,

= −1
www.nammakalvi.in
= ( − 1)
 When white light enters the prism, the deviation is
different for different colours.

 Thus, the refractive index is also different for

different colours.
ℎ , =( − 1)
ℎ , =( − 1)

 As angle of deviation for violet colour δV is greater

than angle of deviation for red colour δR, the
refractive index for violet colour nV is greater than
the refractive index for red colour nR.

 Subtracting δR from δV we get,

− =( − ) −→ (4)

 The term (δV–δR) is the angular separation between

the two extreme colours (violet and red) in the
spectrum is called the angular dispersion.

 Clearly, the angular dispersion produced by a

prism depends upon,
 Angle of the prism.
 Nature of the material of the prism.

 If we take δ is the angle of deviation for any middle

ray (green or yellow) and n the corresponding
refractive index. Then,
= ( − 1) −→ (5)

 Dispersive power (ω) is the ability of the material of

the prism to cause dispersion. It is defined as the
ratio of the angular dispersion for the extreme
colours to the deviation for any mean colour.

17
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7. Wave Optics 4. Explain about electromagnetic wave theory of light.
 According to this theory, light is an electromagnetic
1. What are the salient features of corpuscular theory of wave, which is transverse in nature carrying
light? electromagnetic energy.
 Light is emitted as tiny, massless (negligibly small
mass) and perfectly elastic particles called  No medium is necessary for the propagation of
corpuscles. electromagnetic waves. All the phenomenon of
light could be successfully explained by this theory.
 As the corpuscles are very small, the source of light
does not suffer appreciable loss of mass even if it Demerits:
emits light for a long time.  Nevertheless, the interaction phenomenon of light
with matter like photoelectric effect, Compton
 On account of high speed, they are unaffected by effect could not be explained by this theory.
the force of gravity and their path is a straight line
in a medium of uniform refractive index. 5. Explain about quantum theory of light.
 The energy of light is the kinetic energy of these  Quantum theory endorsing the views of Max Plank
corpuscles. was able to explain photoelectric effect.

 When these corpuscles impinge on the retina of the  In which light interacts with matter as photons to
eye, the vision is produced. eject the electrons.
 The different size of the corpuscles is the reason
for different colours of light.  A photon is a discrete packet of energy. Each
photon has energy,
 When the corpuscles approach a surface between = ℎ
two media, they are either attracted or repelled. Where, h is Plank’s constant (h = 6.625 X 10–34 J)
 The reflection of light is due to the repulsion of the and ν is frequency of electromagnetic wave.
corpuscles by the medium and refraction of light is
due to the attraction of the corpuscles by the  As light has both wave as well as particle nature it
medium. is said to have dual nature. Thus, it is concluded
that light propagates as a wave and interacts with
2. What are the demerits of corpuscular theory of light? matter as a particle.
 This theory could not explain the reason why the
speed of light is lesser in denser medium than in 6. What is a wavefront?
rarer medium. A wavefront is the locus of points, which are in
 The phenomena like interference, diffraction and the same state or phase of vibration.
polarisation could not be explained by this theory.
7. What are the shapes of wavefront for (a) source at
3. Explain about wave theory of light. infinite, (b) point source and (c) line source?
 Wave theory explains the propagation of light
 source at infinite: Plane wavefront.
through a medium.
 point source: Spherical wavefront.
 According to it, light is a disturbance from a source
that travels as longitudinal mechanical waves  line source: Cylindrical wavefront.
through the ether medium that was presumed to
pervade all space as mechanical wave requires 8. State Huygen’s principle.
medium for its propagation.  Each point of the wavefront is the source of
secondary wavelets emanating from these points
Demerits: spreading out in all directions with the speed of the
 The wave theory could successfully explain wave. These are called as secondary wavelets.
phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference
and diffraction of light.  The common tangent, in other words the envelope
to all these wavelets gives the position and shape
 Later, the existence of ether in all space was of the new wavefront at a later time.
proved to be wrong. Hence, this theory could not
explain the propagation of light through vacuum. 9. What is interference of light?
The phenomenon of addition or superposition of
 The phenomenon of polarisation could not be two light waves which produces increase in intensity at
explained by this theory as it is the property of only some points and decrease in intensity at some other
transverse waves. points is called interference of light.

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10. What is constructive interference? 16. What is intensity or amplitude division?
At points where the crest of one wave meets the  If we allow light to pass through a partially silvered
crest of the other wave or the trough of one wave meets mirror (beam splitter), both reflection and refraction
the trough of the other wave, the waves are in-phase. take place simultaneously. They will be either in-
Hence, the displacement is maximum and these points phase or at constant phase difference as shown in
appear bright. This type of interference is said to be Figure.
constructive interference..

11. What is destructive interference?

At points where the crest of one wave meets the
trough of the other wave and vice versa, the waves are
out-of-phase. Hence, the displacement is minimum and
these points appear dark. This type of interference is said
to be destructive interference.

12. What is phase of a wave?

Phase is the angular position of a vibration or
wave.

13. Obtain the relation between phase difference and

path difference.
 In the path of the wave, one wavelength λ  As the two light beams are obtained from the same
corresponds to a phase of 2π as shown in Figure. light source, the two divided light beams will be
coherent beams.

 This method of producing coherent sources is

called intensity or amplitude division.

17. How does wavefront division provide coherent

sources?
 This is the most commonly used method for
 A path difference δ corresponds to a phase producing two coherent sources.
difference ϕ as given by the equation,
 We know a point source produces spherical
= × wavefronts.
2
2  All the points on the wavefront are at the same
= × phase.
 If two points are chosen on the wavefront by using
14. What are the conditions of constructive and a double slit, the two points will act as coherent
destructive interference? sources as shown in Figure.
 For constructive interference, the phase difference
should be, ϕ = 0, 2π, 4π . . . Hence, the path
difference must be, δ = 0, λ, 2λ . . . In general, the
integral multiples of λ.
= ℎ , = 0, 1, 2, 3 . ..

 For destructive interference, phase difference

should be, ϕ = π, 3π, 5π . . . Hence, the path
difference must be, = , , …. In general, the half
integral multiples of λ.

= (2 − 1) ℎ , = 1, 2, 3 . ..
2
18. How do source and images behave as coherent
15. What are coherent sources? sources?
Two light sources are said to be coherent if they  In this method a source and its image will act as a
produce waves which have same phase or constant set of coherent source, because the source and its
phase difference, same frequency or wavelength image will have waves in-phase or constant phase
(monochromatic), same waveform and preferably same difference as shown in Figure.
amplitude.
19
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23. Discuss the special cases on first minimum in
Fraunhofer diffraction.
 Let us consider the condition for first minimum with
(n = 1). a sin θ = λ
 The first minimum has an angular spread of,
=
Special cases:
 When a < λ, the diffraction is not possible, because
sinθ can never be greater than 1.
 The Instrument, Fresnel’s biprism uses two virtual  When a ≥ λ, the diffraction is possible.
sources as two coherent sources and the  For a = λ, sinθ = 1 (i.e, θ = 900), the central
instrument, Lloyd’s mirror uses a source and its maximum spreads fully in to the geometrically
virtual image as two coherent sources. shadowed region leading to bending of the
diffracted light to 900.
 For a >> λ, sinθ << 1 i.e, the first minimum will fall
within the width of the slit itself. The diffraction will
not be noticed at all.

 When a > λ and also comparable, say a = 2λ,

1
= = =
2 2
then  = 300 . These are practical cases where
19. What is bandwidth of interference pattern? diffraction could be observed effectively.
The bandwidth (β) is defined as the distance
24. What is Fresne l’s distance?
between any two consecutive bright or dark fringes.
Fresnel’s distance is the distance of diffracted
20. What are the c onditions for obtaining clear and broad ray upto which ray optics is obeyed and beyond which ray
interference bands? optics is not obeyed but, wave optics becomes significant.
 The screen should be as far away from the source 25. Obtain the equation for Fresnel’s distance.
as possible.  From the diffraction equation for first minimum,

 The wavelength of light used must be larger. = ; =

 From the definition of Fresnel’s distance,
 The two coherent sources (here S1 and S2) must
be as close as possible. 2 = ;2 =
21. What is diff raction?  Equating the above two equation gives,
Diffraction is bending of waves around sharp
edges into the geometrically shadowed region. =
2
 After rearranging, we get Fresnel’s distance z as,
22. Differentiat e between Fresnel and Fraunhofer
diffraction. =
S.No. Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction 2
Spherical or cylindrical Plane wavefront 26. Mention the differences between interference and
wavefront undergoes undergoes diffraction diffraction.
1. S.No. Interference Diffraction
diffraction
Superposition of two Bending of waves around
1.
Light wave is from a Light wave is from a waves edges
2. source at finite distance source at infinity Superposition of waves Superposition of waves
from two coherent emitted from various
For laboratory conditions, In laboratory conditions, 2.
sources. points of the same
convex lenses need not be convex lenses are to be wavefront.
3.
used used 3. Equally spaced fringes. Unequally spaced fringes
Intensity of all the bright Intensity falls rapidly for
Difficult to observe and Easy to observe and 4.
fringes is almost same higher orders
4. analyse analyse Large number of fringes Less number of fringes
5.
are obtained are obtained
20
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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27. What is a diffraction grating? 36. What is plane of polarisation?
Grating is a plane sheet of transparent material The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration
on which opaque rulings are made with a fine diamond and containing the ray of light is known as the plane of
pointer. polarisation.
28. What is grating element? 37. What are the four methods of polarisation?
The combined width of a ruling and a slit is called  Polarisation by selective absorption
grating element (e = a + b).  Polarisation by reflection
29. What is corresponding points?  Polarisation by double refraction
Points on successive slits separated by a  Polarisation by scattering.
distance equal to the grating element are called 38. Differentiate between polarised and unpolarised
corresponding points. light
30. What are resolution and resolving power? S.No. Polarised light Unpolarised light
 Resolution is the smallest seperated distance in
Consists of waves Consists of waves having
the image of two points of the object which could
having their electric field their electric field
be seen clearly without the blur due to diffraction.
vibrations in a single vibrations equally
 The inverse of resolution is called resolving power. 1. plane normal to the distributed in all directions
direction of ray. normal to the direction of
31. What is Rayleigh’s criterion? ray.
According to Rayleigh’s criterion, central
Asymmetrical about the Symmetrical about the
maximum of first image must coincide with minimum of 2. ray direction ray direction
second image and vice versa. This criterion is said to be
limit of resolution. It is obtained from Produced by
3. unpolarised light with the conventional light
32. What is p olarisation? help of polarisers sources.
The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of
light (electric or magnetic field vector) to a particular 39. Discuss polarisation by selective absorption.
direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of  Selective absorption is the property of a material
wave is called polarization of light. which transmits waves whose electric fields vibrate
in a plane parallel to a certain direction of
33. What is unpolarised light? orientation and absorbs all other waves.
A transverse wave which has vibrations in all
directions in a plane perpendicular to the direction of  The polaroids or polarisers are thin commercial
propagation of wave is said to be unpolarised light. sheets which make use of the property of selective
absorption to produce an intense beam of plane
polarised light.

 Selective absorption is also called as dichroism.

40. What are polariser and analyser?

 The Polaroid, which plane polarises the
unpolarisedlight passing through it is called a
polariser.
34. What is polarised or plane polarised light?
A transverse wave which has vibrations in only  The polaroid, which is used to examine whether a
one direction in a plane perpendicular to the direction of beam of light is polarised or not is called an
propagation of wave is said to be polarised light. analyser.

35. What is plane of vibration? 41. What are plane polarised, unpolarised and partially
The plane containing the vibrations of the electric polarised light?
field vector is known as the plane of vibration.  If the intensity of light varies from maximum to zero
for every rotation of 900 of the analyser, the light is
said to be plane polarised.
 If the intensity of light does not vary for the rotation
of 900 of the analyser, the light is said to be
unpolarised.
 If the intensity of light varies between maximum
and minimum for every rotation of 900 of the
analyser, the light is said to be partially polarised
light.
21
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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42. State and obtain Malus’ law. 48. What is optic axis?
The light transmitted of intensity I from the Inside the crystal, there is a particular direction in
analyser varies directly as the square of the cosine of the which both ordinary and extraordinary ray travel with
angle θ between the transmission axis of polariser and same velocity. This direction is called optic axis.
analyser.
= 49. Mention the types of optically active crystals with
43. List the uses of polaroids. example.
 Polaroids are used in goggles and cameras to  Crystals like calcite, quartz, tourmaline and ice
avoid glare of light. having only one optic axis are called uniaxial
crystals.
 Polaroids are useful in three dimensional motion
pictures i.e., in holography.  Crystals like mica, topaz, selenite and aragonite
having two optic axes are called biaxial crystals.
 Polaroids are used to improve contrast in old oil
paintings. 50. What are the us es of Nicol prism?
 It produces plane polarised light and functions as a
 Polaroids are used in optical stress analysis. polariser
 Polaroids are used as window glasses to control  It can also be used to analyse the plane polarised
the intensity of incoming light. light i.e used at an analyser.

 Polaroids are used to produce polarised laser 51. What are the drawbacks of Nicol prism?
beam acts as needle to read/write in compact discs  Its cost is very high due to scarity of large and
(CDs). flawless calcite crystals.

 Due to extraordinary ray passing obliquely through

 Polaroids produce polarised lights to be used in
it, the emergent ray is always displaced a little to
liquid crystal display (LCD).
one side.
44. State Brewster’s law.  The effective field of view is quite limited.
The tangent of the polarising angle for a
transparent medium is equal to its refractive index.  Light emerging out of it is not uniformly plane
polarised.
. . =
52. How is polarisation of light obtained by scattering of
45. What is polarising or Brewster’s angle?. light?
The angle of incidence at which a beam of  The light from a clear blue portion of the sky shows
unpolarised light falling on a transparent surface is a rise and fall of intensity when viewed through a
reflected as a beam of plane polarised light is called polaroid which is rotated.
polarising angle or Brewster’s angle(iP).
 This is because of sunlight, which has changed its
46. What is double refraction or birefringence? direction (having been scattered) on encountering
When a ray of unpolarised light is incident on a the molecules of the earth’s atmosphere.
calcite crystal, two refracted rays are produced. Hence,
 Under the influence of electric field of the incident
two images of a single object are formed. This
light, the electrons in the molecules acquire
phenomenon is called double refraction or birefringence.
components of motion in two directions.
47. Differentiate Ordinary and extraordinary ray.  We have shown an observer looking at 900 to the
S.No. Ordinary ray Extraordinary ray direction of the sun.
It does not obey laws of
1. It obeys laws of refraction.
refraction.
Inside a double refracting The extra ordinary ray
crystal the ordinary ray travels with different
2.
travels with same velocity velocities along different
in all directions. directions.

A point source inside a

A point source inside a
refracting crystal
refracting crystal produces
3. produces elliptical
spherical wavefront for
wavefront for
ordinary ray
extraordinary ray

22
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 Clearly, charges accelerating parallel do not Disadvantages:
radiate energy towards this observer since their  The objective mirror would focus the light inside the
acceleration has no transverse component. telescope tube.
 Hence, the radiation from perpendicularly  One must have an eye piece inside obstructing
accelerated electron reaches the observer as some light.
polarised light.
61. What is spectrometer? Give their basic parts.
53. What are near point and normal focusing? The spectrometer is an optical instrument used
to study the spectra of different sources of light and to
Near point focusing: measure the refractive indices of materials.
 The image is formed at near point, i.e. 25 cm for
normal eye. This distance is also called as least Basic parts:
distance D of distinct vision. In this position, the eye (i) Collimator (ii) Prism table and (iii) Telescope.
feels comfortable but there is little strain on the eye.
62. What is the use of collimator?
The collimator is used to produce a parallel beam
Normal focusing:
of light in spectrometer.
 The image is formed at infinity. In this position the
eye is most relaxed to view the image.
63. What are the uses of spectrometer?
 It is used to study the spectra of different sources
54. What is simple microscope?
of light.
A simple microscope is a single magnifying
(converging) lens of small focal length. It is to get an erect,  It is used to measure the refractive indices of
magnified and virtual image of the object. materials.

55. Why is oil immersed objective preferred in a 64. What is myopia? W hat is its remedy?
microscope?  Myopia or nearsightedness is the defectness of the
Oil immersed objective is preferred in a eye in which cannot see distant objects clearly.
microscope to further reduce the resolving distance dmin
and thereby increasing the magnification.  To overcome this problem, one should use the
concave lens of calculated focal length.
56. What is an astronomical telescope?
An astronomical telescope is used to get the 65. What is hypermetr opia? What is its remedy?
magnification of distant astronomical objects like stars,  Hypermetropia or hyperopia or farsightedness is
planets, moon etc. The image formed here is inverted. the defectness of the eye in which cannot see the
objects close to the eye.
57. What is terrestrial telescope?
A terrestrial telescope is used to see object at  To overcome this problem, one should use the
long distance on the surface of earth. Hence, image convex lens of calculated focal length.
should be erect.
66. What is presbyopia?
58. What is the use of an erecting lens in a terrestrial The kind of farsightedness arising due to aging is
telescope? called presbyopia.
A terrestrial telescope has an additional erecting
lens to make the final image erect. 67. What is astigmatism? What is its remedy?
 Astigmatism is the defect arising due to different
59. What is reflecting telescope? curvatures along different planes in the eye lens.
Telescopes with mirror objectives are called
reflecting telescopes.  Astigmatic person cannot see all the directions
equally well.
60. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
using a reflecting telescope?  Lenses with different curvatures in different plane
Advantages: are used to rectify this defect.
 Only one surface should be polished and
maintained. 68. Two light sources of equal amplitudes interfere with
each other. Calculate the ratio of maximum and
 Support can be given from the entire back of the minimum intensities.
mirror rather than only at the rim for lens.  If a1 = a2 = a,
( + ) 4
 Mirrors weigh much less compared to lens. ∶ = = = =
( − ) 0
23
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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Conceptual Questions: 5 Marks Q & A:

69. Two independent monochromatic sources cannot act 1. Prove laws of reflection using Huygens’ principle.
as coherent sources, why?  Let us consider a parallel beam of light incident on
Two independent monochromatic sources can a reflecting plane surface such as a plane mirror
never be coherent, because they may emit waves of XY as shown in Figure.
same frequency and same amplitude, but not with same
phase.

70. Does diffraction take place at the Young’s double

slit?
Yes. Light waves diffracted at the slits produce
interference in the screen.

71. Is there any difference between coloured light

obtained from prism and colours of soap bubble?
Yes. The coloured light obtained from prism is
 The incident wavefront is AB and the reflected
due to refraction whereas colours of soap bubbles are
wavefront is A′B′ in the same medium.
due to interference.

72. A small disc is placed in the path of the light from  These wavefronts are perpendicular to the incident
distance source. Will the center of the shadow be rays L, M and reflected rays L′ , M′ respectively.
bright or dark?
The center of the shadow will be bright because  By the time point A of the incident wavefront
the light ray diffracted at the edge of the small disc touches the reflecting surface, the point B is yet to
interfere constructively at the center of the shadow. travel a distance BB′ to touch the reflecting surface
at B′ .
73. When a wave undergoes reflection at a denser
medium, what happens to its phase?  When the point B falls on the reflecting surface at
A wave undergoes reflection at a denser B′ , the point A would have reached A′ .
medium, will get 1800 phase difference than the incident.
 This is applicable to all the points on the wavefront.
Thus, the reflected wavefront A′B′ emanates as a
plane wavefront.

 The two normals N and N′ are considered at the

points where the rays L and M fall on the reflecting
surface.

 As reflection happens in the same medium, the

speed of light is same before and after the
reflection.

 Hence, the time taken for the ray to travel from B

to B′ is the same as the time taken for the ray to
travel from A to A′ .

 Thus, the distance BB′ is equal to the distance AA′;

(AA′= BB′) .

Laws of reflection:
 The incident rays, the reflected rays and the normal
are in the same plane.

 Angle of incidence,
∠ = ∠ = 90 – ∠ = ∠ ′
Angle of reflection,
∠ = ∠ ′ ′ ′ = 90 – ∠ ′ ′ ′ = ∠ ′ ′

24
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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For the two right angle triangles, Δ ABB′ and  As refraction happens from rarer medium (1) to
Δ B′A′A, denser medium (2), the speed of light is v1 and v2
′ ′ before and after refraction and v1 is greater than v2
∠ = ∠ = 90 ; =
(v1>v2).
′
 But, the time taken t for the ray to travel from B to
Thus, the two triangles are congruent. B′ is the same as the time taken for the ray to travel
from A to A′ .
As per the property of congruency, the two angles,
′ ′
∠ BAB′ and ∠ A′B′A must also be equal. = =
=
 Hence, the laws of reflection are proved. ′
=
′
2. Prove laws of refraction using Huygens’ principle.
 Let us consider a parallel beam of light is incident Laws of refraction:
on a refracting plane surface XY such as a glass  The incident rays, the refracted rays and the
surface as shown in Figure. normal are in the same plane.

 Angle of incidence,
= ∠ = 90 – ∠ = ∠ ′
Angle of refraction,
= ∠ ′ ′ ′ = 90 – ∠ ′ ′ ′ = ∠ ′ ′

For the two right angle triangles ΔABB′ and ΔB′A′A,

sin ′⁄ ′ ′ ⁄
= = = =
sin ′⁄ ′ ′ ⁄

Here, c is speed of light in vacuum. The ratio ⁄

is the constant, called refractive index of the
medium.
 The incident wavefront AB is in rarer medium (1)
and the refracted wavefront A′B′ is in denser The refractive index of medium (1) is, / =
medium (2). and that of medium (2) is, / = .
sin
 These wavefronts are perpendicular to the incident =
sin
rays L, M and refracted rays L′,M′ respectively.
 In the product form,
 By the time the point A of the incident wavefront
sin = sin
touches the refracting surface, the point B is yet to
travel a distance BB′ to touch the refracting surface  Hence, the laws of refraction are proved.
at B′.
 In the same way the laws of refraction can also be
 When the point B falls on the refracting surface at proved for wavefront travelling from denser to rarer
B′, the point A would have reached A′ in the other medium.
medium.
 Light travels with greater speed in rarer medium
 This is applicable to all the points on the wavefront. and lesser speed in denser medium.
Thus, the refracted wavefront A′B′ emanates as a
plane wavefront.  Hence, the wavelength of the light is longer in rarer
medium and shorter in denser medium.
 The two normals N and N′ are considered at the
points where the rays L and M fall on the refracting =
surface.

25
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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3. Obtain the equation for resultant intensity due to  The resultant maximum intensity is,
interference of light and ratio of maximum and ∝( + ) ∝ + +2 −→ (3)
minimum intensities.
 Let us consider two light waves from the two  In equation(2) if the phase difference,
sources S1 and S2 meeting at a point P as shown = ± , ±3 , ±5 , … it corresponds to the
in Figure. condition for minimum intensity of light called as
destructive interference.

 The resultant minimum intensity is,

∝( − ) ∝ + −2 −→ (4)
 The ratio of the maximum and minimum intensity
is,
( + )
∶ = =
( − )

Special case:
 If a1 = a2 = a, then equation(1) becomes,
 The wave from S1 at an instant t at P is, = 2 +2 = 2 (1 + )
= sin
= 2 2 =2
 The wave from S2 at an instant t at P is, 2 2
= sin( + )
∝4 [∵ ∝ ]
 The two waves have different amplitudes a1 and a2, 2
same angular frequency ω, and a phase difference =4 [∵ ∝ ]
of ϕ between them. 2
=4 ℎ = 0, ±2 , ±4 , …
 The resultant displacement will be given by, =0 ℎ = ± , ±3 , ±5 , …
= + = sin + sin( + )
4. Explain the Young’s double slit experimental setup.
 The simplification of the above equation by using  Thomas Young, a British Physicist used an opaque
trigonometric identities gives the equation, screen with two small openings called double slit
S1 and S2 kept equidistance from a source S as
= sin( + )
shown in figure.

ℎ , = + +2 −→ (1)
=
+
 The resultant amplitude is maximum,
= ( + ) ; ℎ = 0, ±2 , ±4 , …

 The resultant amplitude is minimum,  The width of each slit is about 0.03 mm and they
are separated by a distance of about 0.3 mm.
= ( − ) ; ℎ = ± , ±3 , ±5 , …
 As S1 and S2 are equidistant from S, the light
 The intensity of light is proportional to square of waves from S reach S1 and S2 in-phase.
amplitude,
 So, S1 and S2 act as coherent sources which are
∝ the requirement of obtaining interference pattern.

 Now equation(1) becomes,  Wavefronts from S1 and S2 spread out and

overlapping takes place to the right side of double
∝ + +2 −→ (2)
slit.
 In equation(2) if the phase difference,  When a screen is placed at a distance of about
= 0, ±2 , ±4 , … it corresponds to the condition 1 meter from the slits, alternate bright and dark
for maximum intensity of light called as fringes which are equally spaced appear on the
constructive interference. screen.
26
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 These are called interference fringes or bands.  In right angle triangle ΔS1S2M, the path difference,
Using an eyepiece the fringes can be seen directly. S2M = d sin θ. So that,
 At the center point O on the screen, waves from = −→ (1)
S1 and S2 travel equal distances and arrive in-  From the right angle triangle ΔOCP,
phase.
= −→ (2)
 These two waves constructively interfere and
bright fringe is observed at O. This is called central
bright fringe.  If the angle θ is small,
≈ ≈
 The fringes disappear and there is uniform
illumination on the screen when one of the slits is  Therefore,
covered. (1), = −→ (3)
 This shows clearly that the bands are due to (2), = −→ (4)
interference.
 Substituting equation(4) in (3), we get,
5. Obtain the equation for path difference and bandwidth
ℎ ℎ , = −→ (5)
in Young’s double slit experiment.
Equation for path difference :  Based on the condition on the path difference, the
 The schematic diagram of the experimental set up point P may have a bright or dark fringe.
is shown in figure.
Condition for bright fringe (or) maxima:
 The condition for the constructive interference or
the point P to be have a bright fringe is,

ℎ , = ℎ , = 0, 1, 2, . ..
∴ =

∴ = = −→ (6)

 Let d be the distance between the double slits S1  This is the condition for the point P to be a bright
and S2 which act as coherent sources of fringe. The distance is the distance of the nth bright
wavelength λ. fringe from the point O.

 A screen is placed parallel to the double slit at a Condition for dark fringe (or) minima :
distance D from it.  The condition for the destructive interference or the
point P to be have a dark fringe is,
 The mid-point of S1 and S2 is C and the mid-point
of the screen O is equidistant from S1 and S2. P is
ℎ , = (2 − 1) ℎ , = 0, 1, 2, . ..
any point at a distance y from O. 2
 The waves from S1 and S2 meet at P either in- = (2 − 1)
phase or out-of-phase depending upon the path 2
difference between the two waves. ∴ = = (2 − 1) −→ (7)
2
 The path difference δ between the light waves from
S1 and S2 to the point P is,  This is the condition for the point P to be a dark
fringe. The distance yn is the distance of the nth
= – dark fringe from the point O.
 A perpendicular is dropped from the point S1 to the
line S2P at M to find the path difference more Equation for bandwidth :
precisely.  The bandwidth (β) is defined as the distance
between any two consecutive bright or dark
= – = fringes.
 The angular position of the point P from C is θ.
 The distance between (n+1)th and nth consecutive
∠OCP = θ.
bright fringes from O is given by,
 From the geometry, the angles ∠OCP and ∠S2S1M = − = ( + 1) −
are equal. i.e. ∠OCP = ∠S2S1M = θ.
27
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 If we approximate the incidence to be nearly
= −→ (8) normal (i = 0), then the points B and D are very
close to each other.
 Similarly, the distance between (n+1)th and nth
consecutive dark fringes from O is given by,  The extra distance travelled by the wave is
approximately twice thickness of the film,
= − = [2( + 1) − 1] − (2 − 1)
2 2 + = 2 .
= −→ (9)  As this extra path is traversed in a medium of
refractive index , the optical path difference is,
 Equations (8) and (9) show that the bright and dark
fringes are of same width equally spaced on either = 2 .
side of central bright fringe.
 The condition for constructive interference in
6. Obtain the equations for constructive and destructive transmitted ray is,
interference for transmitted and reflected waves in 2 =
thin films.
 Let us consider a thin film of transparent material  Similarly, the condition for destructive interference
of refractive index  and thickness d. in transmitted ray is,

2 = (2 − 1)
 A parallel beam of light is incident on the film at an 2
angle i as shown in Figure.
(b) For reflected light :
 Let us consider the path difference between the
light waves reflected by the upper surface at A and
the other wave coming out at C after passing
through the film.

 The additional path travelled by wave coming out

from C is the path inside the film, +

 For nearly normal incidence this distance could be

approximated as, AB + BC = 2d.
 The wave is divided into two parts at the upper
surface, one is reflected and the other is refracted.  As this extra path is travelled in the medium of
refractive index , the optical path difference is,
 The refracted part, which enters into the film, again = 2
gets divided at the lower surface into two parts;
one is transmitted out of the film and the other is  The condition for constructive interference for
reflected back in to the film. reflected ray is,

 Reflected as well as refracted waves are sent by 2 + =

the film as multiple reflections take place inside the 2
film.

 The interference is produced by both the reflected

2 = (2 − 1)
2
and transmitted light.
 The additional path difference λ/2 is due to the
(a) For transmitted light : phase change of π in rarer to denser reflection
 The light transmitted may interfere to produce a taking place at A.
resultant intensity.
 The condition for destructive interference for
 Let us consider the path difference between the reflected ray is,
two light waves transmitted from B and D.
2 + = (2 + 1)
2 2
 The two waves moved together and remained in
phase up to B where splitting occurred.
2 =
 The extra path travelled by the wave transmitted
from D is the path inside the film, BC + CD.
28
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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7. Discuss diffraction at single slit and obtain the
condition for nth minimum and maximum.
 Let a parallel beam of light fall normally on a single
slit AB of width 'a' as shown in Figure.

 The diffracted beam falls on a screen kept at a

distance.
 Light waves from different corresponding points
 The center of the slit is C. A straight line through meet at point P and interfere destructively to make
C perpendicular to the plane of slit meets the it first minimum.
center of the screen at O.
 The path difference δ between waves from these
 We would like to find the intensity at any point P corresponding points is,
on the screen. = sin
2
 The lines joining P to the different points on the slit
can be treated as parallel lines, making an angle  The condition for P to be first minimum,
θ with the normal CO.
sin =
2 2
 All the waves start parallel to each other from sin = ( )
different points of the slit and interfere at point P
and other points to give the resultant intensities. (b) Condition for P to be second minimum:
 Let us divide the slit AB into four equal parts.
 The point P is in the geometrically shadowed
region, up to which the central maximum is spread  Now, the width of each part is a/4. We have
due to diffraction as shown in figure above. several corresponding points on the slit which are
separated by the same width a/4.
 We need to give the condition for the point P to be  The path difference δ between waves from these
of various minima. corresponding points is,

 The basic idea is to divide the slit into much = sin

smaller even number of parts. 4
 The condition for P to be second minimum,
 Then, add their contributions at P with the proper
path difference to show that destructive sin =
interference takes place at that point to make it
4 2
sin =2 ( )
minimum.
(c) Condition for P to be third order minimum:
 To explain maximum, the slit is divided into odd  The same way the slit is divided in to six equal
number of parts. parts to explain the condition for P to be third
minimum is,
(a) Condition for P to be first minimum:
 Let us divide the slit AB into two half ’s AC and sin =
6 2
CB.
sin =3 ( ℎ )
 Now the width of AC is (a/2). We have different (d) Condition for P to be nth order minimum:
points on the slit which are separated by the same  Dividing the slit into 2n number of (even number
width (here a/2) called corresponding points as of) equal parts makes the light produced by one of
shown in Figure. the corresponding points to be cancelled by its
counterpart.

29
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 Thus, the condition for nth order minimum is,  Points on successive slits separated by a distance
equal to the grating element are called
sin = corresponding points.
2 2
sin = ( )
 A plane transmission grating is represented by AB
Condition for maxima: in Figure.
 For points of maxima, the slit is to be divided in to
odd number of equal parts so that one part
remains un-cancelled making the point P appear
bright.

 The condition for first maximum is,

sin =
3 2
3
sin =
2
 The condition for second maximum is,
 Let a plane wavefront of monochromatic light with
sin = wave length λ be incident normally on the grating.
5 2
5
sin =  As the slits size is comparable to that of
2 wavelength, the incident light diffracts at the
 The condition for third maximum is, grating.
 A diffraction pattern is obtained on the screen
sin =
7 2 when the diffracted waves are focused on a
7 screen using a convex lens.
sin =
2  Let us consider a point P at an angle θ with the
 In the same way, the condition for n maximum is,
th normal drawn from the center of the grating to the
screen.
sin = (2 + 1) ( )
2  The path difference δ between the diffracted
waves from one pair of corresponding points is,
Where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , is the order of diffraction
maximum. = ( + ) sin
 This path difference is the same for any pair of
 The central maximum is called 0th order corresponding points.
maximum. The points of the maximum intensity lie
nearly midway between the successive minima.  The point P will be bright, when
= ; ℎ = 0,1,2,3, …
8. Discuss the diffraction at a grating and obtain the
 Combining the above two equations, we get,
condition for the mth maximum.
 Grating has multiple slits with equal widths of size ( + ) sin =
comparable to the wavelength of diffracting light. Here, m is called order of diffraction.
 Grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on (a) Condition for zero order maximum, m = 0 :
which opaque rulings are made with a fine  For (a + b) sinθ = 0, the position, θ = 0. sinθ = 0
diamond pointer. and m = 0.

 The modern commercial grating contains about  This is called zero order diffraction or central
6000 lines per centimetre. maximum.

(b) Condition for first order maximum, m = 1 :

 The rulings act as obstacles having a definite
 If (a + b) sinθ1 = λ, the diffracted light meet at an
width b and the transparent space between the
rulings act as slit of width a. angle θ1 to the incident direction and the first order
maximum is obtained.
 The combined width of a ruling and a slit is called (c) Condition for second order maximum, m = 2 :
grating element (e = a + b).  Similarly, (a + b) sinθ2 = 2λ forms the second order
maximum at the angular position θ2.

30
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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(d) Condition for higher order maximum :  The wavelength of light is calculated from the
 On either side of central maxima different higher equation,
orders of diffraction maxima are formed at different sin
angular positions. =

 If we take,  Here, N is the number of rulings per metre in the

1 grating and m is the order of the diffraction image.
=
+
10.Discuss the experiment to determine the wavelength
Then, N gives the number of grating elements or of different colours using diffraction grating.
rulings drawn per unit width of the grating.  When white light is used, the diffraction pattern
consists of a white central maximum and on both
 Normally, this number N is specified on the grating sides continuous coloured diffraction patters are
itself. Now, the equation becomes, formed.
1
sin =  The central maximum is white as all the colours
sin = meet here constructively with no path difference.

9. Discuss the experiment to determine the wavelength  As θ increases, the path difference, (a+b)sinθ,
of monochromatic light using diffraction grating. passes through condition for maxima of diffraction
 The wavelength of a spectral line can be very of different orders for all colours from violet to red.
accurately determined with the help of a diffraction
grating and a spectrometer.  It produces a spectrum of diffraction pattern from
 Initially all the preliminary adjustments of the violet to red on either side of central maximum as
spectrometer are made. shown in Figure.

 The slit of collimator is illuminated by a

monochromatic light, whose wavelength is to be
determined.
 The telescope is brought in line with collimator to
view the image of the slit.

 The given plane transmission grating is then

mounted on the prism table with its plane
perpendicular to the incident beam of light coming
from the collimator.

 The telescope is turned to one side until the first

order diffraction image of the slit coincides with the
vertical cross wire of the eye piece.

 The reading of the position of the telescope is

noted.

 Similarly the first order diffraction image on the

 By measuring the angle at which these colours
other side is made to coincide with the vertical
appear for various orders of diffraction, the
cross wire and corresponding reading is noted.
wavelength of different colours could be
 The difference between two positions gives 2θ. calculated using the formula,
Half of its value gives θ, the diffraction angle for sin
=
first order maximum as shown in Figure.

 Here, N is the number of rulings per metre in the

grating and m is the order of the diffraction image.

11.State and prove Brewster’s law.

Brewster’s law:
 The tangent of the polarising angle for a
transparent medium is equal to its refractive index.

31
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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Proof:  The plates are inclined at an angle of 33.70 to the
 At the incidence of polarising angle, the reflected axis of the tube.
and transmitted rays are perpendicular to each
other.  A beam of unpolarised light is allowed to fall on the
pile of plates along the axis of the tube.

 So, the angle of incidence of light will be at 56.30

which is the polarising angle for glass.

 The vibrations perpendicular to the plane of

incidence are reflected at each surface and those
parallel to it are transmitted.

 The larger the number of surfaces, the greater is

the intensity of the reflected plane polarised light.

 The pile of plates is used as a polarizer and also

 Suppose, ip is the polarising angle and rp is the as an analyser.
corresponding angle of refraction. Then from
figure, 13.Explain about Nicol prism.
+ 90 + = 180  Nicol prism is an optical device incorporated in
= 90 − −→ (1) optical instruments both for producing and
analysing plane polarised light.
 From Snell’s law, the refractive index of the
transparent medium is,  The construction of a Nicol prism is based on the
sin phenomenon of Double refraction.
=
sin  One of the most common forms of the Nicol prism
Where n is the refractive index of the medium with is made by taking a calcite crystal which is a
respect to air. double refracting crystal with its length three times
its breadth.
 Substituting the value of rp from Equation(1),
sin  As shown in figure below, ABCD represents the
= principal section of a calcite crystal.
sin(90 − )
sin
=
cos
tan =
 This relation is known as Brewster’s law.

12.Discuss about pile of plates.

 The phenomenon of polarisation by reflection is
used in the construction of pile of plates.

 It consists of a number of glass plates placed one

over the other in a tube as shown in figure.  It is cut into two halves along the diagonal so that
their face angles are 720 and 1080.

 The two halves are joined together by a layer of

canada balsam, a transparent cement.

 Let us consider a ray of unpolarised light from

monochromatic source such as a sodium vapour
lamp is incident on the face AC of the Nicol prism.

 Double refraction takes place and the ray is split

into ordinary and extraordinary rays. They travel
with different velocities.

32
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 The refractive index of the crystal for the ordinary  The magnification m is given by the relation,
ray (monochromatic sodium light) is 1.658 and for
extraordinary ray is 1.486. =

 The refractive index of canada balsam is 1.523.

 With the help of lens equation, − = the
Canada balsam does not polarise light.
magnification can further be written as,
 The ordinary ray is total internally reflected at the =1−
layer of canada balsam and is prevented from
emerging from the other face.
 Substituting for v with sign convention, v = –D
 The extraordinary ray alone is transmitted through
the crystal which is completely plane polarised. =1+

14.Discuss about simple microscope and obtain the

 This is the magnification for near point focusing.
equations for magnification for near point focusing
(b) Magnification in normal focusing:
and normal focusing.
(angular magnification)
 A simple microscope is a single magnifying
 The normal focusing is shown in Figure(b). We will
(converging) lens of small focal length.
now find the magnification for the image formed at
infinity.
 The idea is to get an erect, magnified and virtual
image of the object.

 For this, the object is placed between F and P on

one side of the lens and viewed from other side of
the lens.

 There are two magnifications to be discussed for

two kinds of focussing.

(1) Near point focusing :

 The image is formed at near point, i.e. 25 cm  If we take the ratio of height of image to height of
for normal eye.
object = to find the magnification, we will
 This distance is also called as least distance not get a practical relation, as the image will also
D of distinct vision. be of infinite size when the image is formed at
infinity.
 In this position, the eye feels comfortable but  Hence, we can practically use the angular
there is little strain on the eye. magnification.

(2) Normal focusing :  The angular magnification is defined as the ratio

 The image is formed at infinity. In this position of angle subtended by the image with aided eye
the eye is most relaxed to view the image. to the angle subtended by the object with
unaided eye.
(a) Magnification in near point focusing :
 The near point focusing is shown in Figure. Object =
distance u is less than f. The image distance is the
near point D.  For unaided eye shown in Figure(a),
ℎ
tan ≈ =

 For aided eye shown in Figure(b),

ℎ
tan ≈ =

33
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 The angular magnification is,  On the object side,
ℎ⁄ 2 ≈2 = [∵ = 2 sin ]
= =
ℎ⁄
= 1.22
=
2 sin
 This is the magnification for normal focusing.
 To further reduce the value of dmin the optical path
 The magnification for normal focusing is one less of the light is increased by immersing the objective
than that for near point focusing. of the microscope in to a bath containing oil of
refractive index n.
 But, the viewing is more comfortable in normal 1.22
focusing than near point focusing. =
2 n sin
 For large values of D/f, the difference in  Such an objective is called oil immersed objective.
magnification is usually small. The term n sin β is called numerical aperture NA.
1.22
15.Obtain the equation for resolving power of =
microscope. 2( )
 The diagram related to the calculation of resolution
of microscope is illustrated in Figure. 16.Explain about compound microscope and obtain the
equation for magnification.
 The diagram of a compound microscope is shown
in Figure.

 A microscope is used to see the details of the

object under observation.

 The ability of microscope depends not only in

magnifying the object but also in resolving two
points on the object separated by a small distance
dmin.

 Smaller the value of dmin better will be the resolving

power of the microscope.  The lens near the object, called the objective,
forms a real, inverted, magnified image of the
 We know the radius of central maxima as, object.
1.22
=  This serves as the object for the second lens
which is the eyepiece.
 In the place of focal length f we have the image
distance v.  Eyepiece serves as a simple microscope that
produces finally an enlarged and virtual image.
 If the difference between the two points on the
object to be resolved is dmin, then the magnification  The first inverted image formed by the objective is
m is, to be adjusted close to, but within the focal plane
= of the eyepiece so that the final image is formed
nearly at infinity or at the near point.
1.22 1.22 1.22
= = = = ∵ =  The final image is inverted with respect to the
( ⁄ ) original object.
1.22
= [∵ ≈ ]  We can obtain the magnification for a compound
microscope.

34
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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Magnification of compound microscope:
 From the ray diagram, the linear magnification due
to the objective is,
ℎ′
=
ℎ

 From the Figure, tan = = then,

ℎ
=
ℎ′

 Light from a distant object enters the objective and

= a real image is formed in the tube at its second
focal point.
 Here, the distance L is between the first focal point
of the eyepiece to the second focal point of the  The eyepiece magnifies this image producing a
objective. final inverted image.

 This is called the tube length L of the microscope Magnification of astronomical telescope :
as fo and fe are comparatively smaller than L.  The magnification m is the ratio of the angle β
subtended at the eye by the final image to the
 If the final image is formed at P (near point angle α which the object subtends at the lens or
focussing), the magnification me of the eyepiece is, the eye.

=
=1+
 From the diagram,
ℎ⁄
 The total magnification m in near point focusing is, =
ℎ⁄

= = 1+
=
 If the final image is formed at infinity (normal
focusing), the magnification me of the eyepiece is,  The length of the telescope is approximately,
= +
=
18.Mention different parts of spectrometer and explain
the preliminary adjustments.
 The total magnification m in normal focusing is,  The spectrometer is an optical instrument used to
study the spectra of different sources of light and
to measure the refractive indices of materials. It is
= = shown in Figure.

17.Discuss about astronomical telescope and obtain the

equation for magnification.

 An astronomical telescope is used to get the

magnification of distant astronomical objects like
stars, planets, moon etc.

 The image formed by astronomical telescope will

be inverted.
 It consists of basically three parts. They are,
 It has an objective of long focal length and a much  Collimator
larger aperture than the eyepiece as shown in  Prism table
Figure.  Telescope.
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(i) Collimator: (b) Adjustment of the telescope:
 The collimator is an arrangement to produce a  The telescope is adjusted to receive parallel rays
parallel beam of light. by turning it towards a distant object and adjusting
the distance between the objective lens and the
 It consists of a long cylindrical tube with a convex eyepiece to get a clear image on the cross wire.
lens at the inner end and a vertical slit at the outer
end of the tube. (c) Adjustment of the collimator :
 The telescope is brought along the axial line with
 The distance between the slit and the lens can be the collimator.
adjusted such that the slit is at the focus of the
lens.  The slit of the collimator is illuminated by a source
of light.
 The slit is kept facing the source of light. The width
of the slit can be adjusted.  The distance between the slit and the lens of the
collimator is adjusted until a clear image of the slit
 The collimator is rigidly fixed to the base of the is seen at the cross wire of the telescope.
instrument.
 Since the telescope is already adjusted for parallel
(ii) Prism table: rays, a well-defined image of the slit can be
 The prism table is used for mounting the prism, formed, only when the light rays emerging from the
grating etc. collimator are parallel.
(d) Levelling the prism table :
 It consists of two circular metal discs provided with  The prism table is adjusted or levelled to be in
three levelling screws. horizontal position by means of levelling screws
and a spirit level.
 It can be rotated about a vertical axis passing
through its centre and its position can be read with 19.Explain the experimental determination of refractive
verniers V1 and V2 . index of the material of the prism using spectrometer.
 The preliminary adjustments of the telescope,
 The prism table can be raised or lowered and can collimator and the prism table of the spectrometer
be fixed at any desired height. are made.
(iii) Telescope :  The refractive index of the prism can be
 The telescope is an astronomical type. It consists determined by knowing the angle of the prism and
of an eyepiece provided with cross wires at one the angle of minimum deviation.
end and an objective lens at its other end.
(a) Angle of the prism (A):
 The distance between the objective lens and the  The prism is placed on the prism table with its
eyepiece can be adjusted so that the telescope refracting edge facing the collimator as shown in
forms a clear image at the cross wires, when a Figure.
parallel beam from the collimator is incident on it.

 The telescope is attached to an arm which is

capable of rotation about the same vertical axis as
the prism table.

 A circular scale graduated in half degree is

attached to it.

 Both the telescope and prism table are provided

with radial screws for fixing them in a desired
position and tangential screws for fine
adjustments.  The slit is illuminated by a sodium light
(monochromotic light).
Adjustments of the spectrometer :  The parallel rays coming from the collimator fall on
 The following adjustments must be made before the two faces AB and AC.
doing the experiment using spectrometer.
 The telescope is rotated to the position T1 until the
(a) Adjustment of the eyepiece: image of the slit formed by the reflection at the
 The telescope is turned towards an illuminated face AB is made to coincide with the vertical cross
surface and the eyepiece is moved to and fro until wire of the telescope. The readings of the verniers
the cross wires are clearly seen. are noted.
36
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 The telescope is then rotated to the position T2
where the image of the slit formed by the reflection
at the face AC coincides withthe vertical cross
wire. The readings are again noted.
 The difference between these two readings gives
the angle rotated by the telescope, which is twice
the angle of the prism.
 Half of this value gives the angle of the prism A.
www.nammakalvi.in
(b) Angle of minimum deviation (D):
 The prism is placed on the prism table so that the
light from the collimator falls on a refracting face,
and the refracted image is observed through the
telescope as shown in Figure.

 The prism table is now rotated so that the angle of

deviation decreases.

 A stage comes when the image stops for a

moment and if we rotate the prism table further in
the same direction, the image is seen to recede
and the angle of deviation increases.

 The vertical cross wire of the telescope is made to

coincide with the image of the slit where it turns
back.

 This gives the minimum deviation position. The

readings of the verniers are noted.

 Now, the prism is removed and the telescope is

turned to receive the direct ray and the vertical
cross wire is made to coincide with the image. The
readings of the verniers are noted.

 The difference between the two readings gives the

angle of minimum deviation D.

 The refractive index of the material of the prism n

is calculated using the formula,

sin
=
sin

 The refractive index of a liquid may be determined

in the same way using a hollow glass prism filled
with the given liquid.

37
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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8. Dual nature of radiation and matter 10.What is secondary emission?Give examples.
 When a beam of fast moving electrons strikes the
1. What is a particle and a wave? surface of the metal, the free electrons on the
 Particle is a material object which is considered as metal surface gain kinetic energy and come out
a tiny concentration of matter. from the surface. This is called secondary
emission.
 Wave is a broad distribution of energy.  Ex: Image intensifiers, photo multiplier tubes etc.
11.What is photoelectric effect?
2. What is surface barrier?
The ejection of electrons from a metal plate
The potential barrier which prevents free electrons
when illuminated by light or any other electromagnetic
from leaving the metallic surface is called surface barrier.
radiation of suitable wavelength (or frequency) is called
photoelectric effect.
3. Why do metals have a large number of free
electrons? 12.What are photosensitive materials?
In metals, the electrons in the outer most shells The materials which eject photoelectrons upon
are loosely bound to the nucleus. So even at room irradiation of electromagnetic wave of suitable
temperature, there are a large number of free electrons wavelength are called photosensitive materials.
moving randomly inside the metal. 13.What are the factors affecting photoelectric current?
 Intensity of incident light.
4. What is electron emission?  The potential difference between the electrodes.
The liberation of electrons from any surface of a  The nature of the material.
substance is called electron emission.  Frequency of incident light.
14. How does photocurrent vary with the intensity of the
5. What is work function?Give its unit. incident light?
The minimum energy needed for an electron to Photocurrent is directly proportional to the
escape from the metal surface is called work function(0) intensity of the incident light.
of that metal. Its unit is electron volt(eV).
[1 = 1.602 × 10 ] 15. Give the definition of intensity of light and its unit.
Intensity(brightness) of light is defined as the rate
6. What are the types of electron emission? at which light energy is delivered to a unit of surface. Its
 Thermionic emission. unit is candela(Cd).
 Field emission. 16.What is stopping or cut-off potential?
 Photo electric emission. The negative potential of the collecting electrode
 Secondary emission. at which photocurrent gets zero is called stopping or cut-
off potential(V0) .
7. What is thermionic emission?Give examples.
 When a metal is heated to a high temperature, the 17.What is threshold frequency?
free electrons on the surface of the metal are The minimum frequency above which the
emitted due to thermal energy. This type of emission of photoelectrons takes place for given surface
emission is known as thermionic emission. is called the threshold frequency.
18.State laws of photoelectric effect.
 Ex: Cathode ray tubes, electron microscopes,  For a given frequency of incident light, the number
X-ray tubes, etc., of photoelectrons emitted is directly proportional to
the intensity of the incident light. The saturation
8. What is field emission?Give examples. current is also directly proportional to the intensity
 When strong electric field is applied across the of incident light.
metal, electron emission takesplace. This is called
field emission.  Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is
independent of intensity of the incident light.
 Ex: Field emission scanning electron
microscopes, Field-emission display etc.  Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons
from a given metal is directly proportional to the
9. What is photoelctric emission?Give examples. frequency of incident light.
 When an electromagnetic radiation of suitable  For a given surface, the emission of
frequency is incident on the surface of the metal, photoelectrons takes place only if the frequency of
electron emission takesplace. This is called photo incident light is greater than a certain minimum
electric emission. frequency called the threshold frequency.

 Ex: Photo diodes, photo electric cells etc.  There is no time lag between incidence of light and
ejection of photoelectrons.
38
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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19.What is photoelectric cell or photocell? Write its 29. Write the relationship of de Broglie wavelength λ
principle. associated with a particle of mass m in terms of its
 Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device which kinetic energy K.
converts light energy into electrical energy. ℎ ℎ ℎ
ℎ = = =
 Principle: Photoelectric effect. √2
Where, h –Planck’s constant
20.Mention the types of photoelectric cells.
 Photo emissive cell. 30. An electron and an alpha particle have same kinetic
 Photo voltaic cell. energy. How are the de Broglie wavelengths
 Photo conductive cell. associated with them related?
de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to
21.What is photo emissive cell? the mass of the object for a given kinetic energy. Since
The photocell, which generates electrical energy the mass of the electron is very less compared to mass
by electron emission due to irradiation of light or other of the alpha particle, de Broglie wavelength of electron is
radiations is called photo emissive cell. greater than alpha particle.

22.What is photo voltaic cell? 31.Why electron is preferred over X-ray microscope?
The photocell, which generates electrical energy  X-rays cannot be converged or diverged through
when the intensity of light or other radiations incident on any optical or magnetic lenses.
the sensitive element made of semiconductor.
 Object which is to be observed in microscope will
23.What is photo conductive cell? be ionised by X-rays.
The photocell, which generates electrical energy  Due to these reasons, electron is preferred over
when the resistance of the semiconductor changes in X-ray microscope
accordance with the radiant energy incident on it.
32.What are X-rays?
X-rays are electromagnetic waves of short
24. State de Broglie hypothesis or What is de Broglie or
wavelength ranging from 0.1 to 100Å.
matter waves?
According to de Broglie hypothesis, all matter 33.What are the properties of X-rays?
particles like electrons, protons, neutrons in motion are  X-rays travel along straight lines with the velocity
associated with waves. These waves are called de of light.
Broglie waves or matter waves.
 X-rays are not affected by electric and magnetic
25.What is de Broglie w avelength? fields.
This wavelength of the matter waves is known as
 X-ray photons are highly energetic because of its
de Broglie wavelength. . . = = high frequency or short wavelength. Therefore,
they can pass through materials which are opaque
26. Why we do not see the wave properties of a to visible light.
baseball?
de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to 34. Mention the two features of x-ray spectra, not
the mass of the object for a given velocity. So, the bigger explained by classical electromagnetic theory.
objects like base ball do not show wave properties  For a given accelerating voltage, the lower limit for
considerably. the wavelength of continuous x-ray spectra is
same for all targets. This minimum wavelength is
27. Write the expression for the de Broglie wavelength
called cut-off wavelength.
associated with a charged particle of charge q and
mass m, when it is accelerated through a potential V.  The intensity of x-rays is significantly increased at
ℎ ℎ certain well-defined wavelengths as in the case of
= = characteristic x-ray spectra for molybdenum.
2
35. What is Bremsstralung or braking radiation?
28. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. The radiation produced from decelerating
Which one has greater de Broglie wavelength? electron is called Bremsstrahlung or braking radiation.
Justify.
de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to
the mass of the object for a given kinetic energy. Since
the mass of the electron is very less compared to mass
of the proton, de Broglie wavelength of electron is greater
than proton.

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 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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5 Marks Q & A: 2. Explain experimentally observed facts of
1. Obtain Einstein’s photoelectric equation with photoelectric effect with the help of Einstein’s
necessary explanation. explanation.
 When a photon of energy hν is incident on a metal  As each incident photon liberates one electron,
surface, it is completely absorbed by a single then the increase of intensity of the light increases
electron and the electron is ejected. the number of electrons emitted thereby
increasing the photocurrent. The same has been
 In this process, a part of the photon energy is used experimentally observed.
for the ejection of the electrons from the metal
surface (photoelectric work function ϕ0 ) and the  From =ℎ − , it is evident that Kmax is
remaining energy as the kinetic energy of the proportional to the frequency of the light and is
ejected electron. independent of intensity of the light.

 From the law of conservation of energy,  As given in equation (2), there must be minimum
1 energy (equal to the work function of the metal) for
ℎ = + −→ (1) incident photons to liberate electrons from the
2 metal surface. Below which, emission of electrons
Where m is the mass of the electron and υ its
velocity. is not possible. Correspondingly, there exists
minimum frequency called threshold frequency
below which there is no photoelectric emission.

 According to quantum concept, the transfer of

photon energy to the electrons is instantaneous so
that there is no time lag between incidence of
photons and ejection of electrons.

36.What are the characteristics of photons?

 The photons of light of frequency ν and
wavelength λ will have energy, given by,

 If we reduce the frequency of the incident light, the

ℎ
speed or kinetic energy of photo electrons is also =ℎ =
reduced.
 The energy of a photon is determined by the
 At some frequency ν0 of incident radiation, the
frequency of the radiation and not by its intensity
photo electrons are ejected with almost zero
and the intensity has no relation with the energy of
kinetic energy (Figure above).
the individual photons in the beam.
 Then the equation (1) becomes,
 The photons travel with the velocity of light and its
ℎ = momentum is given by,
where ν0 is the threshold frequency.

 By rewriting the equation (1), we get, ℎ ℎ

= =
1
ℎ =ℎ + −→ (2)
2  Since photons are electrically neutral, they are
 The equation(2) is known as Einstein’s unaffected by electric and magnetic fields.
photoelectric equation.
 When a photon interacts with matter (photon-
 If the electron does not lose energy by internal electron collision), the total energy, total linear
collisions, then it is emitted with maximum kinetic momentum and angular momentum are
energy Kmax. Then, conserved. Since photon may be absorbed or a
new photon may be produced in such interactions,
1
= the number of photons may not be conserved.
2
Where υmax is the maximum velocity of the electron
ejected.

 The equation (1) is rearranged as follows:

=ℎ − −→ (3)
40
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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3. Give the construction and worki ng of photo emissive 5. Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength.
cell.  The momentum of photon of frequency ν is given
Construction: by,
 It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz bulb in ℎ ℎ
which two metallic electrodes – that is, a cathode = = [∵ = ]
and an anode are fixed as shown in figure.
 The wavelength of a photon in terms of its
momentum is,
ℎ
= − −(1)

 According to de Broglie, the above equation is

completely a general one and this is applicable to
material particles as well.

 Therefore, for a particle of mass m travelling with

speed υ , the wavelength is given by,
ℎ ℎ
= = −→ (2)

 This wavelength of the matter waves is known as

 The cathode C is semi-cylindrical in shape and is de Broglie wavelength.
coated with a photo sensitive material.
 This equation relates the wave character (the
 The anode A is a thin rod or wire kept along the wave length λ) and the particle character (the
axis of the semi-cylindrical cathode. momentum p) through Planck’s constant.

 A potential difference is applied between the 6. Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength of
anode and the cathode through a galvanometer G. electrons.
 An electron of mass m is accelerated through a
Working: potential difference of V volt. The kinetic energy
 When cathode is illuminated, electrons are acquired by the electron is given by,
emitted from it. 1
 These electrons are attracted by anode and hence =
a current is produced which is measured by the 2
galvanometer.  Therefore, the speed υ of the electron is,

 For a given cathode, the magnitude of the current 2

= −→ (1)
depends on,
 The intensity to incident radiation.  The de Broglie wavelength of the electron is,
 The potential difference between anode and ℎ ℎ
cathode. = =
√2
4. What are the applications of photo cells?
 Substituting the known values in the above
 It is used in switches and sensors. equation, we get,
6.626 × 10
 It is used to automatic on or off the street lights
=
√2 × 1.6 × 10 × 9.11 × 10
during night and day respectively. 12.27 × 10
=
 It is used for reproduction of sound in motion √
pictures. 12.27
= Å
√
 It is used as timers to measure the speeds of
athletes during a race.  Since the kinetic energy of the electron, K = eV,
then the de Broglie wavelength associated with
 It is used in exposure meters to measure the electron can be also written as,
intensity of the given light and to calculate the ℎ
exact time of exposure of light in photography. =
√2
41
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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7. Describe briefly Davisson – Germer experiment  Above figure shows the variation of intensity of the
which demonstrated the wave nature of electrons. scattered electrons with the angle θ for the
 Figure below shows a schematic representation of accelerating voltage of 54V.
the apparatus for the experiment.
 For a given accelerating voltage V, the scattered
wave shows a peak or maximum at an angle of 500
to the incident electron beam.
 This peak in intensity is attributed to the
constructive interference of electrons diffracted
from various atomic layers of the target material.
 From the known value of interplanar spacing of
Nickel, the wavelength of the electron wave has
been experimentally calculated as 1.65 Å.
 The wavelength can also be calculated from de
Broglie relation for V = 54 V as,
12.27 12.27
= Å= = 1.67Å
√ √54
 This value agrees well with the experimentally
observed wavelength of 1.65 Å.
 Thus, this experiment directly verifies de Broglie’s
hypothesis of the wave nature of moving particles.
 The filament F is heated by a low tension (L.T.)
battery. Electrons are emitted from the hot filament 8. Briefly explain the principle and working of electron
by thermionic emission. microscope.
Principle:
 They are then accelerated due to the potential  Wave nature of an electron.
difference between the filament and the anode
aluminium cylinder by a high tension (H.T.) Description:
battery.  The resolving power of a microscope is inversely
proportional to the wavelength of the radiation
 Electron beam is collimated by using two thin used for illuminating the object under study.
aluminium diaphragms and is allowed to strike a
single crystal of Nickel.  Higher magnification as well as higher resolving
power can be obtained by employing the waves of
 The electrons scattered by Ni atoms in different shorter wavelengths.
directions are received by the electron detector  De Broglie wavelength of electron is very much
which measures the intensity of scattered electron less than (a few thousands less) that of the visible
beam. light being used in optical microscopes.

 The detector is rotatable in the plane of the paper  As a result, the microscopes employing de Broglie
so that the angle θ between the incident beam and waves of electrons have very much higher
the scattered beam can be changed at our will. resolving power than optical microscope.
 Electron microscopes giving magnification more
 The intensity of the scattered electron beam is than 2,00,000 times are common in research
measured as a function of the angle θ. laboratories.

Working:
 The construction and working of an electron
microscope is similar to that of an optical
microscope except that in electron microscope
focussing of electron beam is done by the
electrostatic or magnetic lenses.

 The electron beam passing across a suitably

arranged either electric or magnetic fields
undergoes divergence or convergence thereby
focussing of the beam is done (Figure).

42
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 The face of the target is inclined at an angle with
respect to the electron beam so that x-rays can
leave the tube through its side.

 When high-speed electrons strike the target, they

are decelerated suddenly and lose their kinetic
energy. As a result, x-ray photons are produced.

 Since most of the kinetic energy of the bombarding

electrons gets converted into heat, targets made
of high-melting-point metals and a cooling system
are usually employed.

10.Explain about continuous X-ray spectra.

 When a fast moving electron penetrates and
approaches a target nucleus, the interaction
between the electron and the nucleus either
accelerates or decelerates it which results in a
change of path of the electron.

 The radiation produced from such decelerating

electron is called Bremsstrahlung or braking
radiation (Figure).

 The electrons emitted from the source are

accelerated by high potentials.
 The beam is made parallel by magnetic condenser
lens.
 When the beam passes through the sample
whose magnified image is needed, the beam
carries the image of the sample.
 With the help of magnetic objective lens and  The energy of the photon emitted is equal to the
magnetic projector lens system, the magnified loss of kinetic energy of the electron.
image is obtained on the screen.
9. Explain the production of X-rays using discharge  Since an electron may lose part or all of its energy
tube. to the photon, the photons are emitted with all
 X-rays are produced in x-ray tube which is possible energies (or frequencies).
essentially a discharge tube as shown in figure.
 The continuous x-ray spectrum is due to such
radiations.

 When an electron gives up all its energy, then the

photon is emitted with highest frequency ν0 (or
lowest wavelength λ0 ).

 The initial kinetic energy of an electron is given by

eV where V is the accelerating voltage. Therefore,
 A tungsten filament F is heated to incandescence we have,
by a battery. As a result, electrons are emitted ℎ =
from it by thermionic emission.
 The electrons are accelerated to high speeds by ℎ
=
the voltage applied between the filament F and the
anode.
 The target materials like tungsten, molybdenum ℎ
are embedded in the face of the solid copper
=
anode. Where λ0 is the cut-off wavelength.
43
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 Substituting the known values in the above  Similarly, the longer wavelength L-series
equation, we get, originates when an L-electron is knocked out of
12400 the atom and the corresponding vacancy is filled
= Å by the electronic transitions from M, N, O,... and
so on.
 The above equation is known as the Duane – Hunt
formula. 12.What are the applications of X-rays?
Medical diagnosis:
11.Explain about characteristic X-ray spectra.  X-rays can pass through flesh more easily than
 X – ray spectra show some narrow peaks at some through bones. Thus an X-ray radiograph
well – defined wavelengths when the target is hit containing a deep shadow of the bones and a light
by fast electrons. shadow of the flesh may be obtained.
 The line spectrum showing these peaks is called  X-ray radiographs are used to detect fractures,
characteristic x – ray spectrum. foreign bodies, diseased organs etc.
 This x – ray spectrum is due to the electronic Medical therapy:
transitions within the atoms.  Since X-rays can kill diseased tissues, they are
employed to cure skin diseases, malignant
 When an energetic electron penetrates into the tumours etc.
target atom and removes some of the K-shell
electrons. Industry:
 X-rays are used to check for flaws in welded joints,
 Then the electrons from outer orbits jump to fill up motor tyres, tennis balls and wood. At the custom
the vacancy so created in the K-shell. post, they are used for detection of contraband
goods.
 During the downward transition, the energy Scientific research:
difference between the levels is given out in the X-ray diffraction is important tool to study the
form of x– ray photon of definite wavelength. structure of the crystalline materials – that is, the
arrangement of atoms and molecules in crystals.
 Such wavelengths, characteristic of the target,
constitute the line spectrum.
 From the figure, it is evident that K-series of lines
in the x-ray spectrum of an element arises due to
the electronic transitions from L, M, N, . . levels to
the K-level.
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 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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9. Atomic and Nuclear Physics  The negatively charged particles known as
electrons are embedded in it like seeds in water
1. What is discharge tube? melon as shown in Figure.
A device used to study the conduction of
electricity through gases is known as gas discharge tube.
2. What are events happend in electric discharge
through a gas at various mercury pressures?
 Upto 110 mm of Hg – No discharge takesplace.

 At 100 mm of Hg - Irregular streaks and

crackling sound.

 At 10 mm of Hg - Luminous positive column.  The atoms are electrically neutral, this implies that
the total positive charge in an atom is equal to the
 At 0.01 mm of Hg - Positive column disappears, total negative charge.
Crooke’s dark space formed,
tube walls appear green 6. Write the drawbacks of J.J. Thomson’s atom model.
colour.  According to this model, all the charges are
assumed to be at rest.
3. What are cathode rays?
At 0.01 mm of Hg in discharge tube, some  But from classical electrodynamics, no stable
invisible rays emanate from cathode, which is called equilibrium points exist in electrostatic
cathode rays. configuration (this is known as Earnshaw’s
theorem) and hence such an atom cannot be
4. Write the properties of cathode rays. stable.
 Cathode rays possess energy and momentum.
 Further, it fails to explain the origin of spectral lines
 It travels in a straight line with high speed of the observed in the spectrum of hydrogen atom and
order of 107m s-1. other atoms.

 It can be deflected by application of electric and 7. Give the results of Rutherford alpha scattering
magnetic fields. experiment.
 Most of the alpha particles are undeflected
 The direction of deflection indicates that they are through the gold foil and went straight.
negatively charged particles.
 Some of the alpha particles are deflected through
 When the cathode rays are allowed to fall on a small angle.
matter, they produce heat.
 A few alpha particles (one in thousand) are
 They affect the photographic plates. deflected through the angle more than 900.

 It produces fluorescence when they fall on certain  Very few alpha particles returned back (back
crystals and minerals. scattered) –that is, deflected back by 1800.

 When the cathode rays fall on a material of high 8. Write the concepts of Rutherford atom model.
atomic weight, X-rays are produced.  An atom has a lot of empty space and contains a
tiny matter known as nucleus whose size is of the
 Cathode rays ionize the gas through which they order of 10-14m.
pass.
 The nucleus is positively charged and most of the
mass of the atom is concentrated in nucleus.
 The speed of cathode rays is up to th of the
speed of light.  The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged
electrons.
5. Write the concepts of J.J. Thomson’s atom model
(Water melon model).  Since static charge distribution cannot be in a
 The atoms are visualized as homogeneous stable equilibrium, he suggested that the electrons
spheres which contain uniform distribution of are not at rest and they revolve around the nucleus
positively charged particles. in circular orbits like planets revolving around the
sun.
45
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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9. Define distance of closest approach. 14. Define excitation potential.
The minimum distance between the centre of the Excitation potential is defined as excitation energy
nucleus and the alpha particle just before it gets reflected per unit charge.
back through 1800 is defined as the distance of closest
approach or contact distance(r0). 15. What is ionization energy?
The minimum energy required to remove an
10. Define impact parameter. electron from an atom in the ground state is known as
The impact parameter(b) is defined as the binding energy or ionization energy.
perpendicular distance between the centre of the gold
nucleus and the direction of velocity vector of alpha 16. What is first ionization energy?
particle when it is at a large distance. The amount of energy spent to remove an electron
from the ground state of an atom is known as first
11. Write the drawbacks of Rutherford atom model. ionization energy. Its value is13.6 eV.
 This model fails to explain the distribution of
electrons around the nucleus and also the stability 17. Define ionization potential.
of the atom. Ionization potential is defined as ionization energy
per unit charge.
 According to this model, emission of radiation
must give continuous emission spectrum but 18. What is wave number?
experimentally we observe only line emission Inverse of wavelength is known as wave number.
spectrum for atoms.
. . ̅=
12. Write down the postulates of Bohr atom model.
 The electron in an atom moves around nucleus in 19. What are the limitations of Bohr atom model?
circular orbits under the influence of Coulomb  Bohr atom model is valid only for hydrogen atom
electrostatic force of attraction. or hydrogen like-atoms but not for complex atoms.

 Electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus  When the spectral lines are closely examined,
only in certain discrete orbits called stationary individual lines of hydrogen spectrum is
orbits where it does not radiate electromagnetic accompanied by a number of faint lines. These are
energy. often called fine structure. This is not explained by
Bohr atom model.
 The angular momentum of the electron in these
stationary orbits are quantized.  Bohr atom model fails to explain the intensity
variations in the spectral lines.
ℎ ℎ
. . = = ℏ ℎ ℏ=
2 2  The distribution of electrons in atoms is not
completely explained by Bohr atom model.
Here,
l – angular momentum. 20. What is atomic number?
h – Planck’s constant. The number of protons in the nucleus is called the
n – Principal quantum number of the orbit. atomic number(Z).
ℏ - Reduced Planck’s constant.
21. What is mass number?
This condition is known as angular momentum The total number of neutrons and protons in the
quantization condition. nucleus is called the mass number. i.e. A = Z+N.

 Energy of orbits are not continuous but discrete. 22. Write a general notation of nucleus of element X.
This is called the quantization of energy. An What each term denotes?
electron can jump from one orbit to another orbit The general notation of any element is,
by absorbing or emitting a photon whose energy
is equal to the difference in energy (ΔE) between Where,
the two orbital levels. X – the chemical symbol of the element.
ℎ A – the mass number.
△ = − =ℎ = Z – the atomic number.

13. What is meant by excitation energy? 23. What are isotopes? Give an example.
The energy required to excite an electron from Isotopes are atoms of the same element having
lower energy state to any higher energy state is known same atomic number Z, but different mass number A.
as excitation energy. Ex: , ,
46
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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24. What are isobars? Give an example. 31. Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 atomic mass
Isobars are the atoms of different elements having unit.
the same mass number A, but different atomic number  1 atomic mass unit(1 u) = 1.66 X 10-27 kg.
Z.
 The speed of light in vacuum, c= 3 X 108 ms-1.
Ex: , , ,
 Using Eintein’s mass-energy equivalence,
25. What are isotones? Give an example. =
Isotones are the atoms of different elements = 1.66 X 10−27 × (3 X 108 )
having same number of neutrons. = 14.94 X 10−11 J
Ex: 14.94 X 10−11
= = 931 × 106 = 931
1.6 × 10−19
26. Define atomic mass unit u.
One atomic mass unit (u) is defined as the 1/12th 32. What is strong nuclear force?
of the mass of the isotope of carbon . The attractive force, which holds the nucleus
1 = 1.66 × 10 together is called strong nuclear force.

27. Show that nuclear density is almost constant for 33. What are the properties of strong nuclear force?
nuclei with Z > 10.  The strong nuclear force is of very short range,
 The radius of the nuclei for Z > 10 is, acting only up to a distance of a few Fermi.

=  Nuclear force is stronger than gravitational and

Coulomb forces. Hence, it is the strongest force in
 The volume of the nucleus, nature.
4 4
= =  The strong nuclear force is attractive and acts with
3 3
an equal strength between proton-proton, proton-
 The total mass of the nucleus, neutron, and neutron – neutron.
=
where m – mass of the proton or neutron.  Strong nuclear force does not act on the electrons.
So, it does not alter the chemical properties of the
 Therefore, nuclear density, atom.
ℎ 34. What is meant by radioactivity?
=
ℎ The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of
. highly penetrating radiations such as α, β and γ rays by
= = an element with Z>82 is called radioactivity.

 It show that nuclear density is almost constant for 35. Give the symbolic representation of alpha decay,
nuclei with Z > 10. beta decay and gamma decay.
  - decay:
28. What is mass defect? → +
The experimental mass of any nucleus is less than Here,
the total mass of its individual constituents. This X - Parent nucleus.
difference in mass is called mass defect(∆m). Y – Daughter nucleus.
△ = + − A – Mass number.
Z – Atomic number.
29. What is binding energy of a nucleus? Give its -  - particle.
expression.
The energy corresponds to the mass defect of the   - decay:
nucleus is called binding energy(BE).
1. - decay:
= (△ )
→ + + ̅
30. Give the physical meaning of binding energy per Here,
nucleon. X - Parent nucleus.
The average binding energy per nucleon is the Y – Daughter nucleus.
energy required to separate single nucleon from the A – Mass number.
particular nucleus. Z – Atomic number.
(△ ) - Electron.
= =
̅ – Antineutrino.
47
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2. + decay: 40. What are the properties of neutrino?
→ + +  It has zero charge .
Here,  It has an antiparticle called anti-neutrino.
X - Parent nucleus.
Y – Daughter nucleus.  Recent experiments showed that the neutrino has
A – Mass number. very tiny mass.
Z – Atomic number.
 It interacts very weakly with the matter.
- Positron.
– Neutrino. 41. What is meant  -decay? Give an example.
In gamma decay, there is no change in the mass
  - decay: number or atomic number of the nucleus. Only energy
∗
→ + − changes.
Here, Ex:
X - Parent nucleus. ∗
→ + −
Z – Atomic number.
42. Define activity(R). Give its unit.
36. What is meant -decay? Give an example. Activity or decay rate is defined as the number of
When unstable nuclei decay by emitting an nuclei decayed per second. Its unit is Bequerel(Bq). The
α-particle, its atomic number decreases by 2, the mass another unit is Curie(Ci).
number decreases by 4. It is called - decay. 43. Define 1 Bequerel.
Ex: One Bequerel is defined as one decay per
second.
→ ℎ+
44. Define 1 Curie.
37. In alpha decay, why does the unstable nucleus emit
One Curie is defined as 3.7 X 1010 decays per
nucleus? Why it does not emit four separate second. It is equal to activity of 1g of radium.
nucleons?
45. State law of radioactive decay.
 consists of four nucleons viz. two protons
At any instant t, the number of decays per unit
and two neutrons.
time(or rate of decay (dN/dt)) is proportional to the
 Suppose nucleus decays into ℎ by number of nuclei ( N ) at the same instant.
emitting 4 separate nucleons (2 protons and 2 46. Define half-life. Give the expression.
neutrons) instead of , then the disintegration Half-life(T1/2) if defined as the time required for
energy Q for this process turns out to be negative. the number of atoms initially present to reduce to one half
of the initial amount.
 It implies that the total mass of products is greater
0.6931
than that of parent( ) nucleus. =

 This kind of process cannot occur in nature 47. Define Mean life. Give the expression.
because it would violate conservation of energy. The mean life time() of the nucleus is the ratio
 In any decay process, the conservation of energy, of sum or integration of life times of all nuclei to the total
linear momentum and angular momentum must number nuclei present initially.
be obeyed. 1
= =
0.6931
38. What is meant - decay? Give an example. 48. What is Carbon dating?
When unstable nuclei decay by emitting an The method of finding the age of the ancient
- particle(i.e. electron), its atomic number increases by object or non-living organism is called Carbon dating.
1, the mass number remains the same. It is called
49. What are the properties of neutron?
- decay.
 Neutrons are chargeless. So they are not affected
Ex:
by electric and magnetic fields.
→ + + ̅
 It has slighly higher mass than the proton.
39. What is meant + decay? Give an example.
When unstable nuclei decay by emitting an  It has high penetrating power and it can easily
 particle(i.e. positron), its atomic number decreases by
+ penetrate the thick layer of lead.
1, the mass number remains the same. It is called
 It is stable inside the nucleus. But outside the
+ decay.
necleus, it decays into proton, electron and
Ex:
antineutrino.
→ + +
48
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 Neutrons are classified into two according to their 5 Marks Q & A:
kinetic energies as, 1. Explain the J.J. Thomson experiment to determine
the specific charge of electron. Explain the
(i) Slow neutrons (0 eV to 1000 eV) J.J. Thomson experiment to determine the specific
charge of electron.
(ii) Fast neutrons (0.5 MeV to 10 MeV)  The charge per unit mass(e/m) is called mass
normalized charge or specific charge.
 The neutrons with average energy of about
0.025 eV in thermal equilibrium are called thermal  The arrangement of J. J. Thomson’s experiment
neutron. is shown in Figure.

50. What is nuclear fission?

The process of breaking up of the nucleus of a
heavier atom into two smaller nuclei with the release of
a large amount of energy is called nuclear fission.

51. What is chain reaction?Write their types.

When one nucleus undergoes fission, the
energy released might be small. But from each fission
 A highly evacuated discharge tube is used and
reaction, three neutrons are released. These three
cathode rays (electron beam) produced at
neutrons cause further fission in another three cathode are attracted towards anode disc A.
nuclei which in turn produce nine neutrons. These nine
 Anode disc is made with pin hole in order to allow
neutrons initiate fission in another nuclei and so on.
only a narrow beam of cathode rays.
This is called a chain reaction.
 These cathode rays are now allowed to pass
Types:
through the parallel metal plates, maintained at
(i) Uncontrolled chain reaction.
high voltage.
(ii) Controlled chain reaction.
 Further, this gas discharge tube is kept in between
52. What is a nuclear reactor? pole pieces of magnet such that both electric and
Nuclear reactor is a system in which the nuclear magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other.
fission takes place in a self-sustained controlled manner.
 When the cathode rays strike the screen, they
53. What is a nuclear fusion? produce scintillation and hence bright spot is
When two or more light nuclei (A<20) combine observed. This is achieved by coating the screen
to form a heavier nucleus, then it is called nuclear fusion. with zinc sulphide.

(i) Determination of velocity of cathode rays:

54. Write the proton-proton cycle happend in Sun.
 For a fixed electric field between the plates, the
+ → + + magnetic field is adjusted such that the cathode
+ → + (27 ) rays strike at the original position O.
+ → + +
 This means that the magnitude of electric force is
55. What are quarks? Give their types. balanced by the magnitude of force due to
Quarks are elementary particles and have magnetic field. Let e be the charge of the cathode
fractional charges. rays, then
Types: Up, down,charm,strange, top and bottom. =
= −→ (1)
56. What are the constituent particles of neutron and
proton? (ii) Determination of specific charge:
 Since the cathode rays are accelerated from
 Charge of top quark = +
cathode to anode, the potential energy of the
electron beam at the cathode is converted into
 Charge of down quark = -
kinetic energy of the electron beam at the anode.
 Proton is made up of two up quarks and one down  Let V be the potential difference between anode
quark. (1 p = uud) and cathode, then the potential energy is eV. Then
 Neutron is made up of one up quark and two down from law of conservation of energy,
quarks. ( 1 n = udd) 1
=
2
49
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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1
= = −→ (6) ∵ =
2 2
 Substituting the value of velocity from equation (1),  Therefore, the deflection y on the screen is,
we get, ∝
1 =
= −→ (2) Where C is proportionality constant which
2
depends on the geometry of the discharge tube.
 Substituting the values of E, B and V, the specific
charge can be determined as,  Substituting yʹ value from equation(6), we get
= 1.7 × 10 1
=
2
(iii)Deflection of charge only due to uniform electric field  Rearranging the above equation as,
 When the magnetic field is turned off, the
2
deflection is only due to electric field. =
 The deflection in vertical direction is due to the
 Substituting the values on RHS, the value of
electric force.
specific charge is calculated as,
= −→ (3)
= 1.7 × 10
 Let m be the mass of the electron and by applying
Newton’s second law of motion, acceleration of
the electron is, 2. Discuss the Millikan’s oil drop experiment to
determine the charge of an electron.
= −→ (4)  The experimental arrangement is shown in Figure.

 Substituting equation (3) in equation (4),

= −→ (4)

 Let y be the deviation produced from original

position on the screen as shown in Figure.

 The apparatus consists of two horizontal circular

metal plates A and B each with diameter around
20 cm and are separated by a small distance
1.5 cm.
 Let the initial upward velocity of cathode ray be
u = 0 before entering the parallel electric plates.
 These two parallel plates are enclosed in a
 Let t be the time taken by the cathode rays to travel chamber with glass walls.
in electric field. Let l be the length of one of the
plates, then the time taken is,  Further, plates A and B are given a high potential
difference around 10 kV such that electric field
= −→ (5) acts vertically downward.

 Hence, the deflection yʹ of cathode rays is,  A small hole is made at the centre of the upper
plate A and atomizer is kept exactly above the hole
1
= + to spray the liquid.
2
 Substituting u = 0 , ae from equation(4) and t from
 When a fine droplet of highly viscous liquid (like
equation(5), we get,
glycerine) is sprayed using atomizer, it falls freely
1 downward through the hole of the top plate only
= under the influence of gravity.
2

50
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 Few oil drops in the chamber can acquire electric  The gravitational force can be written in terms of
charge (negative charge) because of friction with density as,
air or passage of x-rays in between the parallel 4
plates. = =
3
 Further the chamber is illuminated by light which
is passed horizontally and oil drops can be seen  Let σ be the density of the air, the upthrust force
clearly using microscope placed perpendicular to experienced by the oil drop due to displaced air is,
the light beam. 4
=
 These drops can move either upwards or 3
downward. Let m be the mass of the oil drop and
 Once the oil drop attains a terminal velocity υ, the
q be its charge.
net downward force acting on the oil drop is equal
to the viscous force acting opposite to the direction
 Then the forces acting on the droplet are
of motion of the oil drop.
(a) gravitational force Fg = mg
(b) electric force Fe = qE  From Stokes law, the viscous force on the oil drop
is,
(c) buoyant force Fb
=6
(d) viscous force Fv
 From the free body diagram as shown in Figure(a),
(a) Determination of radius of the droplet: the force balancing equation is,
 When the electric field is switched off, the oil drop = +
accelerates downwards.
4 4
 Due to the presence of air drag forces, the oil = +6
drops easily attain its terminal velocity and moves
3 3
4
with constant velocity. ( − ) =6
3
 This velocity can be carefully measured by noting 2
( − ) =3
down the time taken by the oil drop to fall through 3
a predetermined distance. 9
= −→ (1)
 The free body diagram of the oil drop is shown in 2( − )
Figure(a), we note that viscous force and buoyant
force balance the gravitational force.  Thus, equation (1) gives the radius of the oil drop.

(b) Determination of electric charge:

 When the electric field is switched on, charged oil
drops experience an upward electric force (qE).

 Among many drops, one particular drop can be

chosen in the field of view of microscope and
strength of the electric field is adjusted to make
that particular drop to be stationary.

 Under these circumstances, there will be no

 Let the gravitational force acting on the oil drop viscous force acting on the oil drop.
(downward) be Fg = mg.
 Then, from the free body diagram shown
 Let us assume that oil drop to be spherical in Figure(b), the net force acting on the oil droplet is,
shape. + =
4 4
 Let ρ be the density of the oil drop, and r be the + =
radius of the oil drop, then the mass of the oil drop 3 3
can be expressed in terms of its density as, 4
= ( − )
3
=
4
4 4 = ( − ) −→ (2)
= = ∵ = 3
3 3
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 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 Substituting equation (1) in equation (2), we get,  From Bohr’s assumption, the angular momentum
quantization condition,
18 = = ℏ
=
2( − )
4 ( ℏ) 4 ℏ
 Millikan repeated this experiment several times = =
and computed the charges on oil drops.
ℎ ℎ
 He found that the charge of any oil drop can be = ∵ℏ=
written as integral multiple of a basic value,
2
−1.6 X10−19C, which is nothing but the charge of  Since, ε0, h, e and π are constants. Therefore, the
an electron. radius of the orbit becomes,
3. Derive the expression for radius of the orbit and
= −→ (1)
velocity of an electron of hydrogen atom using Bohr
2
atom model. ℎ
Where = 0 2 , is known as Bohr radius, which
(a) Radius of the orbit:
is the smallest radius of the orbit in an atom.
 Consider an atom which contains the nucleus at
rest and an electron revolving around the nucleus  Bohr radius is also used as unit of length called
in a circular orbit of radius rn as shown in Figure. Bohr. 1 Bohr = a0 = 0.53 Å.
 For hydrogen atom (Z = 1), the radius of nth orbit
is,
=
 For n=1, r1 = a0 = 0.53Å
 For n=2, r1 = 4a0 = 2.116Å
 For n=3, r1 = 9a0 = 4.761Å
and so on.

 Thus, ∝

 Nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons. (b) Velocity of the orbit:

Since proton is positively charged and neutron is  Bohr’s angular momentum quantization condition
electrically neutral, the charge of a nucleus is is,
purely the total charge of protons. ℎ
= =
 Let Z be the atomic number of the atom, then +Ze 2
ℎ
is the charge of the nucleus. Let –e be the charge =
of the electron. 2
 From Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction
between the nucleus and the electron is,  Thus, ∝
1 (+ )(− )
⃗ = ̂  Note that the velocity of electron decreases as the
4 principal quantum number increases as shown in
1 Figure.
⃗ =− ̂
4
 This force provides necessary centripetal force,

⃗ = ̂
Where m be the mass of the electron that moves
with a velocity υn in a circular orbit.
 Therefore,
⃗ = ⃗
1
=
4  This curve is the rectangular hyperbola. This
4 ( ) implies that the velocity of electron in ground state
=
is maximum when compared to excited states.
52
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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4. Derive the energy expression for hydrogen atom  The various spectral series are discussed below:
using Bohr atom model. (a) Lyman series:
 Since the electrostatic force is a conservative  Put n = 1 and m = 2,3,4....... in equation (1). The
force, the potential energy for the nth orbit is, wave number or wavelength of spectral lines of
1 (+ )(− ) 1 Lyman series which lies in ultra-violet region is,
= =− 1 1 1
4 4 ̅= = −
1
(b) Balmer series:
1 ℎ  Put n = 2 and m = 3,4,5....... in equation (1). The
=− ∵ =
4 ℎ wave number or wavelength of spectral lines of
Balmer series which lies in visible region is,
 The kinetic energy for the nth orbit is,
1 1 1
1 ̅= = −
= = 2
2 8 ℎ (c) Paschen series :
 Put n = 3 and m = 4,5,6....... in equation (1). The
wave number or wavelength of spectral lines of
Paschen series which lies in infra-red region
(near IR) is,
1 1 1
̅= = −
3
(d) Brackett series :
 Put n = 4 and m = 5,6,7........ in equation (1). The
wave number or wavelength of spectral lines of
Brackett series which lies in infra-red region
(middle IR) is,
1 1 1
̅= = −
 This implies that Un = –2 KEn. Total energy in the 4
(e) Pfund series :
nth orbit is,
 Put n = 5 and m = 6,7,8........ in equation (1). The
= + = −2 =− wave number or wavelength of spectral lines of
Pfund series which lies in infra-red region (far IR)
=− is,
8 ℎ
1 1 1
 For hydrogen atom (Z = 1), ̅= = −
5
1 1
=− = −13.6 6. Explain the variation of average binding energy with
8 ℎ the mass number by graph and discuss its features.
 The average value of BE/A rises as the mass
 For n=1, E1 = -13.6 eV
number increases until it reaches a maximum
 For n=2, E2 = -3.4 eV value of 8.8 MeV for A = 56 (iron) and then it slowly
 For n=3, E3 = -1.51 eV decreases.
and so on.
 The ground state energy of hydrogen (–13.6 eV )  The average binding energy per nucleon is about
is used as a unit of energy called Rydberg. 8.5 MeV for nuclei having mass number between
A= 40 and 120. These elements are comparatively
(1 = – 13.6 ) more stable and not radioactive.
8 ℎ
 For higher mass numbers, the curve reduces
5. Discuss the spectral series of hydrogen atom. slowly and BE for uranium is about 7.6 MeV. They
 The wavelengths of spectral lines of hydrogen are unstable and radioactive.
atom perfectly agree with the equation derived
from Bohr atom model.  From Figure, if two light nuclei with A<28 combine
1 1 1 with a nucleus with A<56, the binding energy per
̅= = − −→ (1)
nucleon is more for final nucleus than initial nuclei.
Where, Thus, if the lighter elements combine to produce a
 - wave number(inverse of wavelength) nucleus of medium value A, a large amount of
R - Rydberg constant(1.09737 X 107 m-1). energy will be released. This is the basis of
m,n - positive integers such that m > n. nuclear fusion.

53
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 Note that the number of atoms is decreasing
exponentially over the time. This implies that the
time taken for all the radioactive nuclei to decay
will be infinite.

 If a nucleus of heavy element is split (fission) into

two or more nuclei of medium value A, the energy
released would again be large.

7. Obtain the law of radioactivity.

8. Describe the working of nuclear reactor with a block
 At any instant t, the number of decays per unit
diagram.
time, called rate of decay is proportional to
the number of nuclei ( N ) at the same instant. Nuclear reactor:
 Nuclear reactor is a system in which the nuclear
∝ fission takes place in a self-sustained controlled
manner and the energy produced is used either for
research purpose or for power generation.
 By introducing a proportionality constant, the
relation can be written as,
(a) Fuel:
=− −→ (1)  The fuel is fissionable material, usually uranium or
plutonium.
Here, λ is called decay constant which is different
 Naturally occurring uranium contains only 0.7% of
for different radioactive sample and the negative
sign idicates that the N is decreasing with time. and 99.3% are only .

 By rewriting the equation (1), we get,  So the must be enriched such that it
contains at least 2 to 4% of .
=− −→ (2)
 In addition to this, a neutron source is required to
Here dN represents the number of nuclei decaying
initiate the chain reaction for the first time.
in the time interval dt.
 A mixture of beryllium with plutonium or polonium
 Let
is used as the neutron source.
N0 - the number of nuclei present in the
radioactive sample at time t = 0s,
N - the number of nuclei present in the  During fission of , only fast neutrons are
radioactive sample at any time t. emitted but the probability of initiating fission by it
in another nucleus is very low.
 Integrating the equation (2), we get,
 Therefore, slow neutrons are preferred for
sustained nuclear reactions.
=−

[ln ] =−
ln − ln =−
ln =−

=
54
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(b) Moderators:
 The moderator is a material used to convert fast
neutrons into slow neutrons.

 Usually the moderators are chosen in such a way

that it must be very light nucleus having mass
comparable to that of neutrons.

 Hence, these light nuclei undergo collision with

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fast neutrons and the speed of the neutron is
reduced.

 Most of the reactors use water, heavy water (D2O)

and graphite as moderators.

 The blocks of uranium stacked together with

blocks of graphite (the moderator) to form a large
pile is shown in the Figure.

(c) Control rods:

 The control rods are used to adjust the reaction
rate.

 During each fission, on an average 2.5 neutrons

are emitted and in order to have the controlled
chain reactions, only one neutron is allowed to
cause another fission and the remaining neutrons
are absorbed by the control rods.

 Usually cadmium or boron acts as control rod

material and these rods are inserted into the
uranium blocks.

(d) Shielding:
 For a protection against harmful radiations, the
nuclear reactor is surrounded by a concrete wall
of thickness of about 2 to 2.5 m.

(e) Cooling system:

 The cooling system removes the heat generated
in the reactor core.

 Ordinary water, heavy water and liquid sodium are

used as coolant since they have very high specific
heat capacity and have large boiling point under
high pressure.

 This coolant passes through the fuel block and

carries away the heat to the steam generator
through heat exchanger.

 The steam runs the turbines which produces

electricity in power reactors.

55
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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10. Electronics And Communication 11. What is p-type semiconductor?
A semiconductor, which is obtained by doping a
1. What is energy band? pure Germanium (or Silicon) crystal with a dopant from
The band of very large number of closely spaced group III trivalent elements like Boron, Aluminium,
energy levels in a very small energy range is known as Gallium and Indium is called p-type semiconductor.
energy band.
12. What are donor impurities?
2. What is valence band? The group V pentavalent impurity atoms donate
The energy band formed due to the valence electrons to the conduction band and are called donor
orbitals is called valence band. impurities.

3. What is conduction band? 13. What are acceptor impurities?

The energy band formed due to the unoccupied The group III trivalent impurity atoms accept
orbitals to which electron can jump when energised is electrons from neighbouring atoms and are called
called conduction band. acceptor impurities.
4. What is forbidden energy gap?
The energy gap between the valence band and 14. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic
the conduction band is called forbidden energy gap. semiconductors.
Extrinsic
S.No. Intrinsic Semiconductor
5. Give the forbidden energy gap and resistivity values Semiconductor
of insulator, conductor and semiconductor. It is doped with 3
It is pure and not doped
Forbidden Resistivity 1. valance or 5 valance
S.No. Materials with any dopants.
energy gap dopants.
(m)
2. Its conductivity is low. Its conductivity is high.
1. Insulators 6eV 10 – 1019
11
Here, Number of free Here, Number of free
2. Conductors 0eV 10-2 – 10-8
3. electrons are equal to electrons are not equal
Semiconductor <3eV
number of holes. to holes.
3. (a) Silicon(Si) 1.1 eV 10-5 – 106
(b) Germanium(Ge) 0.7 eV
15. How p-n junction is formed?
6. Why is temperature co-efficient of resistance A p-n junction is formed by joining n-type and p-
negative for semiconductor? type semiconductor materials.
When the temperature of the semiconductor is
increased, more number of electrons are promoted to 16. What is depletion region?
conduction band. It increases the conduction and The region at either side of p-n junction junction
decreases resistance. Hence, semiconductors are said consists of immovable ions is called depleted region.
to have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
17. What is barrier potential?
7. What is intrinsic semiconductor?Give examples. The difference in potential across the depletion
A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity layer is called the barrier potential.
is called an intrinsic semiconductor. [For Si ->0.7 V and for Ge -> 0.3V]
Ex: Pure Si and Ge.
18. What is p-n junction diode?Give its symbol.
8. What is doping and dopants?
A device with single p-n junction is called p-n
 The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic
junction diode.
semiconductor is called doping. (Normal doping
Value is approximately 100ppm(parts per million)).
 The impurity atoms are called dopants.

9. What is extrinsic semiconductor?Give their types.

A semiconductor with impurity added is called 19. What is biasing? Give their types.
an extrinsic semiconductor. Biasing means providing external energy to
charge carriers to overcome the barrier potential and
Types: (a) n-type semiconductor. make them move in a particular direction.
(b) p-type semiconductor.
Types: (a) Forward bias.
(b) Reverse bias.
10. What is n-type semiconductor?
A semiconductor, which is obtained by doping a
20. What is bias voltage?
pure Germanium (or Silicon) crystal with a dopant from
The external voltage applied to the p-n junction
group V pentavalent elements like Phosphorus, Arsenic,
is called bias voltage.
and Antimony is called n-type semiconductor.
56
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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21. What is forward bias? 31. What is breakdown voltage?
If the positive terminal of the external voltage The reverse voltage at which the p-n junction
source is connected to the p-side and the negative breaks down and the reverse current rises sharply is
terminal to the n-side, it is called forward bias. called break down voltage.

22. What is reverse bias? 32. What is Zener breakdown?

If the positive terminal of the external voltage When a reverse voltage across the heavily
source is connected to the n-side and the negative doped p-n junction which has narrow depletion layer
terminal to the p-side, it is called reverse bias. (<10-6 m) is increased to the breakdown limit, a very
strong electric field(3 X107 Vm–1) is set up across the
23. A diode is called as a unidirectional device. Explain. narrow layer. This strong electric field breaks the
A diode is called as a unidirectional device covalent bonds in the lattice and thereby generating
because it conducts more electricity in forward bias than electron-hole pairs. This effect is called Zener effect or
in reverse bias. zener breakdown.
24. What is forward V-I characteristics of p-n junction 33. What is avalanche breakdown?
diode? When a reverse voltage across the lighly doped
A graph is plotted by taking the forward bias p-n junction which has wide depletion layer is increased
voltage (V) along the x-axis and the current (I) through to the breakdown limit, a weak electric field is set up
the diode along the y-axis. This graph is called the across the wide layer. This weak electric field accelerate
forward V-I characteristics of the p-n junction diode minority charge carriers, which collide with atoms in
covalent bonds in the lattice and breaks it. Thereby
25. What is threshold or cut-in or knee voltage?
generating electron-hole pairs. This effect is called
The potential difference of forward biased p-n
avalanche breakdown.
junction diode, beyond which the forward current
increases significantly is called threshold or cut-in or 34. Distinguish between avalanche and zener
knee voltage. breakdown.
S.No. Avalanche breakdown Zener breakdown
26. What do you mean by leakage current in a diode?
It occurs in lightly doped It occurs in heavily
When diode is given reverse bias, a very small 1.
diode. doped diode.
current in A, flows across the junction. This is due to the
In this process, depletion In this process,
flow of the minority charge carriers called the leakage 2.
layer is narrowed. depletion layer is widen.
current or reverse saturation current.
Weak electric field is Strong electric field is
3. developed across developed across
27. What is rectification?
depletion layer. depletion layer.
The process of converting alternating current
Here covalent bonds are
into direct current is called rectification.
broken due to collision of Here covalent bonds
4. of accelerated minority are broken due to
28. What is rectifier? Name their types.
charge carriers with Strong electric field.
A device, which is doing rectification is called
atoms.
rectifier.
35. What is Zener diode?Give its symbol.
Types: Half wave rectifier, Full wave rectifier. Zener diode is a heavily doped silicon diode
used in reverse biased condition and is specially
29. Define efficiency of a rectifier. designed to be operated in the breakdown region.
Efficiency() of a rectifier is defined as the ratio
of the output dc power to the ac input power supplied to
the circuit.
36. What is Zener breakdown voltage?
 For half wave rectifier,  = 40.6 % The reverse voltage of Zener diode at which the
 For full wave rectifier,  = 80.2 % reverse current increases rapidly is called Zener
30. Draw the input and output waveform of a full wave breakdown voltage(VZ).
rectifier.
37. What are the applications of Zener diode?
 Voltage regulators.
 Calibrating voltages.
 Provide fixed reference voltage in a network for
biasing.

 Protection of any gadget against damage from

accidental application of excessive voltage.

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38. What is Optoelectronics? 46. What is solar cell?Give its types.
Optoelectronics deals with devices which A solar cell isalso known as photovoltaic cell
convert electrical energy into light and light into electrical which converts light energy directly into electricity or
energy through semiconductors. electric potential difference by photovoltaic effect.
Types: (a) n - type solar cell.
39. What is Optoelectronic devices? Give examples. (b) p – type solar cell.
Optoelectronic device is an electronic device
which utilizes light for useful applications. 47. Give the principle of solar cells.
Ex: Light emitting diodes(LED), photo diodes Solar cells are working under the principle of
and solar cells. photovoltaic effect in which emf is generated when solar
radiation falls on it.
40. What is light emitting diode(LED)?Give its symbol. 48. What are the applications of solar cell?
LED is a p-n junction diode which emits visible  Solar cells are widely used in calculators, watches,
or invisible light when it is forward biased. toys, portable power supplies, etc.
 Solar cells are used in satellites and space
applications.
 Solar panels are used to generate electricity.
49. What is transistor?Give its types.
41. What is electroluminescence? Transistor is a semiconductor device which has
The process of converting electrical energy in to two p-n junctions and consists of three ohmic contacts in
light energy is called electroluminenscence. three regions namely emiiter, base and collector.
Types: (a) NPN transistors.
42. What are the applications of light emitting diode?
(b) PNP transistors.
 Indicator lamps on the front panel of the scientific
and laboratory equipments.
50. Why can’t we interchange the emitter and collector
 Seven-segment displays. even though they are made up of the same type of
semiconductor material?
 Traffic signals, emergency vehicle lighting etc. Because of the differing size and the amount of
doping, the emitter and collector cannot be interchanged
 Remote control of television, airconditioner etc. even though they are made up of the same type of
semiconductor material.
43. What is photodiode?Give its symbol. 51. What is transistor biasing?
A p-n junction diode which converts an optical The application of suitable dc voltages across
signal into electric signal is known as photodiode. the transistor terminals is called transistor biasing.
52. Discuss the biasing polarities(modes of transistor
biasing) in an NPN and PNP transistors.
(a) Forward Active:
 Emitter-base junction is forward biased.
 Collector-base junction is reverse biased.
44. What is dark current in photodiode? How it is
generated?  The transistor is in the active mode of operation.
The reverse current produced in the photodiode,  In this mode, the transistor functions as an
in the absence of incident light is called dark current. It is amplifier.
due to the thermally generated minority carriers. (b) Saturation:
 Here, the emitter-base junction and collector-base
45. What are the applications of photodiode? junction are forward biased.
 Alarm system.
 The transistor has a very large flow of currents
 Count items on a conveyer belt. across the junctions.
 Photoconductors.  In this mode, transistor is used as a closed switch.
 Compact disc players, smoke detectors. (c) Cut-off:
 Medical applications such as detectors for  In this bias, the emitter-base junction and
computed tomography etc. collector-base junction are reverse biased.

 Transistor in this mode is an open switch.

58
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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53. Explain the current flow in a NPN transistor. 58. What are the three static characteristics of the
 When transistor is biased, the majority charge Bipolar Junction Transistor(BJT)?
carriers in emitter region flow through forward  Input characteristics.
biased emitter-base junction constitutes the
emitter current IE.  Output characteristics.

 Transfer characteristics.
 At base, some of the majority charge carriers
recombine with their opposite pair forms small 59. What is input impedance?
base current IB in A. The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage
to the change in base current at a constant collector-
 Then most of the majority charge carriers reach emitter voltage is called the input impedance.
collector, which constitue collector current IC. ∆
=
∆
 Therefore,
= + 60. What is output impedance?
The ratio of the change in collector-emitter
54. What are the types of circuit connections in voltage to the change in collector current at a constant
transistors? base current is called the output impedance.
 Common-Base(CB) configuartion. ∆
 Common-Emitter(CE) configuartion. =
∆
 Common-Collector(CC) configuartion.
61. What is forward current gain?
55. Draw the schematic circiut diagram of CB The ratio of the change in collector current to the
configuration. change in base current at a constant collector-emitter
voltage is called the output impedance.
∆
=
∆
62. Write the relation between  and ?

= =
1+ 1−
Where,
 - Current gain in CB configuration.
56. Draw the schematic circiut diagram of CE  - Current gain in CE configuartion.
configuration.
63. What is Operating point?
The operating point is a point where the
transistor can be operated efficiently.

64. What is dc load line?

A line that is drawn with the values VCC
(when IC = 0) and IC (when VCE = 0) is called the dc load
line.

65. What is amplification?

57. Draw the schematic circiut diagram of CC Amplification is the process of increasing the
configuration. signal strength (increase in the amplitude).

66. What is the phase relationship between the AC input

and output voltages in a common emitter amplifier?
What is the reason for the phase reversal?
 The phase relationship between the AC input and
output voltages in a CE amplifier is 1800.

 When base current increase, it will increase

collector current and hence the voltage drop
across collector resistor. Therefore, the output
voltage decreases. This makes phase reversal.

59
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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67. What is an electronic oscillator?Give their types. 75. Why are NOR and NAND gates called universal
An electronic oscillator basically converts dc gates?
energy into ac energy of high frequency ranging from a The basic logic gates like OR, AND and NOT
few Hz to several MHz. can be formed by using NOR and NAND gates.So NOR
and NAND gates are called universal gates.
Types: (a) Sinusoidal oscillators.
(b) non-sinusoidal oscillators. 76. Write the circuit symbol, truth table and Boolean
equation for AND gate.
68. Write the Barkhausen conditions for sustained
oscillations. Circuit Symbol:
 The loop phase shift must be 00 or integral
multiples of 2π.

 The loop gain must be unity. Aβ =1.

Here, A→Voltage gain of the amplifier. Truth table:
b →feedback ratio.

69. Explain the need for a feedback circuit in a transistor

oscillator.
 If feedback circuit is not used in transistor
oscillator, damped oscillations are produced.

 Therefore, for undamped sustained oscillations,

feedback circuit is necessary in a transistor
oscillator. Boolean equation: = .

70. What are the applications of oscillators? 77. Write the circuit symbol, truth table and Boolean
 to generate a periodic sinusoidal or non sinusoidal equation for OR gate.
wave forms. Circuit Symbol:

 to generate RF carriers.

 to generate audio tones.

Truth table:
 to generate clock signal in digital circuits.

 as sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO.

71. What is digital electronics?

Digital Electronics is the sub-branch of
electronics which deals with digital signals.

72. What is an analog signal?

An analog signal is a continuously varying Boolean equation: = +
voltage or current with respect to time.
78. Write the circuit symbol, truth table and Boolean
73. What is digital signals? equation for NOT gate.
Digital signals are signals which contain only Circuit Symbol:
discrete values of voltages. Digital signals need two
states: switch ON and OFF.

74. What are logic gates?Name their types. Truth table:

Logic gates are electronic circuits, they function
based on digital signals.

Types:
Basic logic gates Other logic gates
AND gate NAND gate
OR gate NOR gate
NOT gate Ex-OR gate Boolean equation: = ̅
60
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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79. Write the circuit symbol, truth table and Boolean 82. Write the laws of Boolean operations.
equation for NAND gate.
(a) Commutative laws:
Circuit Symbol:
+ = +
⋅ = ⋅
Truth table: (b) Associative laws:
+( + )=( + )+
⋅( ⋅ )=( ⋅ )⋅
(c) Distributive laws:
( + )= +
+ =( + )+( + )

83. What is Integrated Circuits(IC) or Chip or

microchip?write their types.
IC is a device, which consists of thousands to
Boolean equation: = . millions of transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc.
integrated on a small flat piece of semiconductor material
80. Write the circuit symbol, truth table and Boolean that is normally Silicon.
equation for NOR gate.
Circuit Symbol: Types: (a) Linear IC or Analog IC.
(b) Digital IC.

84. What are advantages of IC?

Truth table:  Low cost.
 High performance.
 Miniature size.
 High speed.
 High capacity.

85. What are difference between linear and digital ICs?

S.No. Linear IC Digital IC
1. It process analog signals It process digital signals
It works with continuous It works with two discret
2.
Boolean equation: values. values namely 0 and 1.
= + It is used in computers,
It is used in audio and
networking equipment
3. radio frequency
81. Write the circuit symbol, truth table and Boolean and most consumer
amplification.
equation for Ex-OR gate. electronics.
Circuit Symbol:
86. What is meant by modulation? Give its types.
The process of superposition of low frequency
baseband signal onto a high frequency radio
signal(carrier wave) is called modulation.

Truth table: Types:

 Amplitude modulation(AM).
 Frequency modulation(FM).
 Phase modulation(PM).

87. What is amplitude modulation(A M)?

If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified
in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the
baseband , then it is called amplitude modulation.
88. What are the advantages of amplitude modulation?
 Easy transmission and reception.
Boolean equation:  Lesser bandwidth requirements.
= ∙ + ̅∙ = ⨁  Low cost.
61
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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89. What are the limitations of amplitude modulation? 98. What is meant by Attenuation in communication
 Noise level is high. system?
 Low transmission efficiency. The loss of strength of a signal while propagating
 Small operating range. through a medium is known as attenuation.

90. What is frequency modulation(FM)? 99. What is bandwidth of baseband signal?

If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified The frequency range over which the baseband
in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the signals or the information signals such as voice, music,
baseband , then it is called amplitude modulation. picture etc is transmitted is known as bandwidth.

91. What is centre or resting frequency? 100. What is bandwidth of transmission system?
The frequency of the carrier wave for zero The range of frequencies required to transmit a
baseband signal voltage, is called centre frequency or piece of specified information in a particular channel is
resting frequency. called channel bandwidth or the bandwidth of the
transmission system.
92. What are the advantages of frequency modulation?
 Noise level is low. 101. What are modes of propagation of electromagnetic
 High operating range. waves?
 High transmission efficiency.  Ground wave propagation (or) surface wave
 Better quality than AM. propagation. (2 kHz to 2 MHz)

93. What are the limitations of frequency modulation?  Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric
 Requires wider bandwidth. propagation. (3 MHz to 30 MHz)

 FM transmitters and receivers are more complex  Space wave propagation. (30 MHz to 400 GHz)
and costly.
102. What is ground wave propagation?
 In FM reception, less area is covered compared to If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the
AM. transmitter glide over the surface of the earth to reach
the receiver, then the propagation is called ground wave
94. What is phase modulation(PM)? propagation.
If the phase of the carrier signal is modified in
proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the 103. What is sky wave propagation?
baseband , then it is called phase modulation. The mode of propagation in which the
electromagnetic waves radiated from an antenna,
95. What are the advantages of phase modulation? directed upwards at large angles, gets reflected by the
 FM signal produced from PM signal is very ionosphere back to earth is called sky wave propagation
stable. or ionospheric propagation.

 The centre frequency called resting frequency is 104. What is skip distance?
extremely stable. The shortest distance between the transmitter
and the point of reception of the sky wave along the
96. What is meant by range in communication system? surface is called as the skip distance.
The maximum distance between the source and
the destination up to which the signal is received with 105. Wha t is skip zone or skip area?
sufficient strength is called range. A zone at which no reception of electromagnetic
waves neither ground nor sky is called skip zone or skip
97. What is meant by noise in communication system? area.
Give examples.
 The undesirable electrical signal that interferes 106. What is space wave propagation?
with the transmitted signal is called noise. The process of sending and receiving
information signal through space is called space wave
 Examples: propagation.
 Man-made noises: Automobiles, Welding
machines, Electric motors etc. 107. What is satellite communication?
The satellite communication is a mode of
 Natural noises: Lightning, Environmental communication of signal between transmitter and
effects, Radiation from sun and stars. receiver via satellite.

62
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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108. What are the applications of satellite 114. What are the applications of Radar?
communication?  In military, it is used for locating and detecting the
 Weather satellites: predict rain and dangerous targets.
storms like hurricanes, cyclones etc.
 It is used in navigation systems such as ship borne
 Communication satellites: used to transmit surface search, air search and missile guidance
television, radio, internet signals etc. systems.

 Navigation satellites: to determine the geographic  Measuring precipitation rate and wind speed in
location of ships, aircrafts or any other object. meteorological observations.

109. What is fibre optic communication?Write its  Locate and rescue people in emergency
principle. situations.
 The method of transmitting information from one
place to another in terms of light pulses through an 115. What is mobile communication?
optical fiber is called fiber optic communication. Mobile communication is used to communicate
with others in different locations without the use of any
 It works under the principle of total internal physical connection like wires or cables.
reflection.
116. What are the applications of mobile
110. What are the applications of fibre optic communication?
communication?  It is used for personal communication and cellular
 International communication. phones offer voice and data connectivity with high
speed.
 Inter-city communication.
 Transmission of news across the globe is done
 Data links. within a few seconds.

 Plant and traffic control.  Using Internet of Things (IoT), it is made possible
to control various devices from a single device.
 Defense applications.
Example: home automation using a mobile phone.
111. What are the merits of fibre optic communication?
 Fiber cables are very thin and weigh lesser than  It enables smart classrooms, online availability of
copper cables. notes, monitoring student activities etc. in the field
of education.
 This system has much larger band width. This
means that its information carrying capacity is 117. What do you mean by Internet of Things?
larger. The Internet of Things(IoT) is a network method,
in which physical objects are connected through internet
 Fiber optic system is immune to electrical with unique IP address and the communication can be
interferences. done through these objects.

 Fiber optic cables are cheaper than copper cables. 118. What is Internet?
Internet is the largest computer network
112. What are the demerits of fibre optic recognized globally that connects millions of people
communication? through computers.
 Fiber optic cables are more fragile when
compared to copper wires. 119. What are the applications of Internet?
 Search engine : Search information on world wide
 It is an expensive technology. web.

113. What does Radar stands for? What does it use?  Communication: Connects people through social
networking like emails,instant messaging services
 Radar basically stands for RAdio Detection and and social networking tools.
Ranging System.
 E-Commerce: Buying and selling of goods and
 It is used to sense, detect, and locate distant services, transfer of funds.
objects like aircraft, ships, spacecraft, etc.

63
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
5 Marks Q & A:  It is important to note that the energy required for
1. Elucidate the formation of a n-type and p-type an electron to jump from the valence band to the
semiconductors. conduction band (Eg) in an intrinsic semiconductor
(a) Formation of n-type semiconductor: is 0.7 eV for Ge and 1.1 eV for Si, while the energy
 A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a required to set free a donor electron is only 0.01
pure Germanium (or Silicon) crystal with a dopant eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.
from group V pentavalent elements like
 The group V pentavalent impurity atoms donate
Phosphorus, Arsenic, and Antimony as shown in
electrons to the conduction band and are called
Figure.
donor impurities.
 Therefore, each impurity atom provides one extra
electron to the conduction band in addition to the
thermally generated electrons.
 These thermally generated electrons leave holes
in valence band.

 Hence, the majority carriers of current in an n-type

 The dopant has five valence electrons while the semiconductor are electrons and the minority
Germanium atom has four valence electrons. carriers are holes.

 During the process of doping, a few of the  Such a semiconductor doped with a pentavalent
Germanium atoms are replaced by the group V impurity is called an n-type semiconductor.
dopants.
(b) Formation of p-type semiconductor:
 Four of the five valence electrons of the impurity
 Here, a trivalent atom from group III elements such
atom are bound with the 4 valence electrons of the
as Boron, Aluminium, Gallium and Indium is added
neighbouring replaced Germanium atom.
to the Germanium or Silicon substrate.
 The fifth valence electron of the impurity atom will
 The dopant with three valence electrons are
be loosely attached with the nucleus as it has not
bound with the neighbouring Germanium atom as
formed the covalent bond.
shown in Figure.
 The energy level of the loosely attached fifth
electron from the dopant is found just below the
conduction band edge and is called the donor
energy level as shown in Figure.

 As Germanium atom has four valence electrons,

 At room temperature, these electrons can easily one electron position of the dopant in the
move to the conduction band with the absorption Germanium crystal lattice will remain vacant.
of thermal energy. It is shown in the Figure below.
 The missing electron position in the covalent bond
is denoted as a hole.

 To make complete covalent bonding with all four

neighbouring atoms, the dopant is in need of one
more electron.

 These dopants can accept electrons from the

neighbouring atoms.

 Besides, an external electric field also can set free  Therefore, this impurity is called an acceptor
the loosely bound electrons and lead to impurity.
conduction.

64
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 The energy level of the hole created by each  If the electrons and holes were not charged, this
impurity atom is just above the valence band and diffusion process would continue until the
is called the acceptor energy level, as shown in concentration of electrons and holes on the two
Figure. sides were the same.

 But, in a p-n junction, when the electrons and

holes move to the other side of the junction, they
leave behind exposed charges on dopant atom
sites, which are fixed in the crystal lattice and are
unable to move.
 On the n-side, positive ion cores are exposed and
on the p- side, negative ion cores are exposed as
 For each acceptor atom, there will be a hole in the
shown in Figure (b).
valence band in addition to the thermally
generated holes.

 In such an extrinsic semiconductor, holes are the

majority carriers and thermally generated
electrons are minority carriers as shown in Figure.

 An electric field E forms between the positive ion

cores in the n-type material and negative ion cores
in the p-type material.

 The electric field sweeps free carriers out of this

region and hence it is called depletion region as it
is depleted of free carriers.

 The semiconductor thus formed is called a p-type  A barrier potential Vb due to the electric field E is
semiconductor. formed at the junction as shown in Figure (c).

2. Explain the formation of PN junction diode. Discuss its

V–I characteristics.
 A p-n junction is formed by joining n-type and p-
type semiconductor materials as shown in
Figure(a).

 As this diffusion of charge carriers from both sides

continues, the negative ions form a layer of
negative space charge region along the p-side.

 Similarly, a positive space charge region is formed

 Since the n-region has a high electron by positive ions on the n-side.
concentration and the p-region a high hole
concentration, electrons diffuse from the n-side to  The positive space charge region attracts
the p-side. electrons from p-side to n-side and the negative
space charge region attracts holes from n-side to
 This causes diffusion current which exists due to p-side.
the concentration difference of electrons.
 This movement of carriers happen in this region
 The electrons diffusing into the p-region may
due to the formed electric field and it constitutes a
occupy holes in that region and make it negative.
current called drift current.
 The holes left behind by these electrons in the
n-side are equivalent to the diffusion of holes from  The diffusion current and drift current flow in the
the p-side to the n-side. opposite direction and at one instant they both
become equal. Thus, a p-n junction is formed.
65
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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V-I characteristics: The current flow is negligible when the applied
 A graph plotted by taking the voltage (V) along the voltage is less than the threshold voltage.
x-axis and the current (I) through the diode along
the y-axis is called the V-I characteristics of the Beyond the threshold voltage, increase in
p-n junction diode. current is significant even for a small increase in
voltage.
 There are two types V-I characteristics namely
forward and reverse. (ii) The graph clearly infers that the current flow is
not linear and is exponential. Hence it does not
(a) Forward V-I characteristics: obey Ohm’s law.
 It is the study of the variation in current through the
diode with respect to the applied voltage across (iii) The forward resistance (rf) of the diode is the
the diode when it is forward biased. ratio of the small change in voltage (ΔV)to the
small change in current(ΔI),
 The p-n junction diode is forward biased as shown ∆
in Figure (a). =
∆
(iv) Thus the diode behaves as a conductor when it
is forward biased.

However, if the applied voltage is increased

beyond a rated value, it will produce an
extremely large current which may destroy the
junction due to overheating. This is called as the
 An external resistance (R) is used to limit the flow
breakdown of the diode.
of current through the diode.
The voltage at which the diode breaks down is
 The voltage across the diode is varied by varying called the breakdown voltage.
the biasing voltage across the dc power supply.
Thus, it is safe to operate a diode well within the
 The forward bias voltage and the corresponding threshold voltage and the breakdown voltage.
forward bias current are noted.
(b) Reverse V-I characteristics:
 A graph is plotted by taking the forward bias  The circuit to study the reverse characteristics is
voltage (V) along the x-axis and the current (I) shown in Figure (a).
through the diode along the y-axis.

 In the reverse bias, the p-region of the diode is

connected to the negative terminal and n-region to
the positive terminal of the dc power supply.

 A graph is drawn between the reverse bias voltage

and the current across the junction, which is called
the reverse characteristics of a p-n junction diode.

 Three inferences can be brought out from the

graph:
(i) At room temperature, a potential difference
equal to the barrier potential is required before a
reasonable forward current starts flowing across
the diode.

This voltage is known as threshold voltage or

cut-in voltage or knee voltage (Vth).

It is approximately 0.3 V for Germanium and

0.7V for Silicon.
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 Under this bias, a very small current in A, flows (b) During the negative half cycle:
across the junction.  When the negative half cycle of the ac input signal
passes through the circuit, terminal A is negative
 This is due to the flow of the minority charge with respect to terminal B.
carriers called the leakage current or reverse
saturation current.  Now the diode is reverse biased and does not
 Besides, the current is almost independent of the conduct and hence no current passes through RL.
voltage.
 The reverse saturation current in a diode is
 The reverse bias voltage can be increased only up negligible.
to the rated value otherwise the diode will enter
into the breakdown region.  Since there is no voltage drop across RL, the
negative half cycle of ac supply is suppressed at
3. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier and the output.
explain its working.
 The half wave rectifier circuit is shown in Figure(a).  The output waveform is shown in Figure (c).

 The output of the half wave rectifier is not a steady

dc voltage but a pulsating wave.

 This pulsating voltage can not be used for

electronic equipments.
 The circuit consists of a transformer, a p-n junction
 A constant or a steady voltage is required which
diode and a resistor.
can be obtained with the help of filter circuits and
 In a half wave rectifier circuit, either a positive half voltage regulator circuits.
or the negative half of the AC input is passed
through while the other half is blocked.  Efficiency () is the ratio of the output dc power to
the ac input power supplied to the circuit.
 Only one half of the input wave reaches the output.
Therefore, it is called half wave rectifier.  Its value for half wave rectifier is 40.6 %
 Here, a p-n junction diode acts as a rectifier diode.
4. Explain the construction and working of a full wave
(a) During the positive half cycle: rectifier.
 When the positive half cycle of the ac input signal  The positive and negative half cycles of the AC
passes through the circuit, terminal A becomes input signal pass through the full wave rectifier
positive with respect to terminal B. circuit and hence it is called the full wave rectifier.

 The diode is forward biased and hence it  The circuit is shown in Figure (a).
conducts.

 The current flows through the load resistor RL and

the AC voltage developed across RL constitutes
the output voltage V0 and the waveform of the
diode current is shown in Figure (c).

 It consists of two p-n junction diodes, a center

tapped transformer, and a load resistor (RL).

 The centre is usually taken as the ground or zero

voltage reference point.

 Due to the centre tap transformer, the output

voltage rectified by each diode is only one half of
the total secondary voltage.

67
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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(a) During positive half cycle:
 When the positive half cycle of the ac input signal
passes through the circuit, terminal M is positive,
G is at zero potential and N is at negative potential.
 This forward biases diode D1 and reverse biases
diode D2.
 Hence, being forward biased, diode D1 conducts
and current flows along the path  The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode is shown
MD1AGC. in Figure (c).

 As a result, positive half cycle of the voltage

appears across RL in the direction G to C.

(b) During negative half cycle :

 When the negative half cycle of the ac input signal
passes through the circuit, terminal N is positive,
G is at zero potential and M is at negative
potential.
 This forward biases diode D2 and reverse biases
diode D1.
 Hence, being forward biased, diode D2 conducts
and current flows along the path ND2BGC.
 As a result, -ve half cycle of the voltage appears
across RL in the same direction from G to C.
 Hence in a full wave rectifier both postive and
negative half cycles of the input signal pass
through the load in the same direction as shown in
Figure (b).  The forward characteristics of a Zener diode is
similar to that of an ordinary p-n junction diode. It
starts conducting approximately around 0.7 V.

 However, the reverse characteristics is highly

significant in Zener diode.

 The increase in reverse voltage normally

generates very small reverse current.

 While in Zener diode, when the reverse voltage is

 Though both positive and negative half cycles of
increased to the breakdown voltage (VZ), the
ac input are rectified, the output is still pulsating in
increase in current is very sharp.
nature.

 The efficiency (η) of full wave rectifier is twice that  The voltage remains almost constant throughout
of a half wave rectifier and is found to be 81.2 %. the breakdown region.

 It is because both the positive and negative half  In Figure (c), IZ(max) represents the maximum
cycles of the ac input source are rectified. reverse current.
5. Discuss the V–I characteristics of Zener diode.
 If the reverse current is increased further, the diode
 The circuit to study the forward and reverse
will be damaged.
characteristics of a Zener diode is shown in
Figure(a) and Figure (b).
 The important parameters on the reverse
characteristics are
 VZ→Zener breakdown voltage
 IZ(min)→minimum current to sustain breakdown
 IZ(max)→maximum current limited by maximum
power dissipation.

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 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
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 The Zener diode is operated in the reverse bias  Since, electrical energy is converted into light
having the voltage greater than VZ and current less energy, this process is also called
than IZ(max). electroluminescence.

 The reverse characteristics is not exactly vertical  The circuit symbol of LED is shown in Figure (a).
which means that the diode possesses some small
resistance called Zener dynamic impedance.

 Zener resistance is the inverse of the slope in the

breakdown region.

 It means an increase in the Zener current produces

only a very small increase in the reverse voltage.
However this can be neglected.
 The voltage of an ideal Zener diode does not  The cross-sectional view of a commercial LED is
change once it goes into breakdown. shown in Figure (b).

 It means that VZ remains almost constant even

when IZ increases considerably.

6. Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator. Explain.

 A Zener diode working in the breakdown region
can serve as a voltage regulator.
 It maintains a constant output voltage even when
input voltage Vi or load current IL varies.

 The circuit used for the same is shown in Figure.  It consists of a p-layer, n-layer and a substrate. A
transparent window is used to allow light to travel
in the desired direction.

 An external resistance in series with the biasing

source is required to limit the forward current
through the LED.

 In addition, it has two leads; anode and cathode.

 Here in this circuit, the input voltage Vi is regulated
at a constant voltage, Vz (Zener voltage) at the  When the p-n junction is forward biased, the
output represented as V0 using a Zener diode. conduction band electrons on n-side and valence
band holes on p-side diffuse across the junction.
 The output voltage is maintained constant as long
as the input voltage does not fall below Vz .  When they cross the junction, they become
excess minority carriers (electrons in p-side and
 When the potential developed across the diode is
holes in n-side).
greater than VZ , the diode moves into the Zener
breakdown region.
 These excess minority carriers recombine with
 It conducts and draws relatively large current oppositely charged majority carriers in the
through the series resistance Rs. respective regions, i.e. the electrons in the
conduction band recombine with holes in the
 The total current I passing through Rs equals the valence band as shown in the Figure (c).
sum of diode current IZ and load current IL
( I = IZ + IL).
 It is to be noted that the total current is always less
than the maximum Zener diode current.
 Under all conditions Vo = VZ . Thus, output voltage
is regulated.
7. What is LED? Give the principle of operation with a
diagram.
 LED is a p-n junction diode which emits visible or
invisible light when it is forward biased.
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 During recombination process, energy is released  The amount of electronhole pairs generated
in the form of light (radiative) or heat (non- depends on the intensity of light incident on the
radiative). p-n junction.

 For radiative recombination, a photon of energy hv  These electrons and holes are swept across the
is emitted. p-n junction by the electric field created by reverse
voltage before recombination takes place.
 For non-radiative recombination, energy is
liberated in the form of heat.  Thus, holes move towards the n-side and
 The colour of the light is determined by the energy electrons towards the p-side.
band gap of the material.
 When the external circuit is made, the electrons
 Therefore, LEDs are available in a wide range of flow through the external circuit and constitute the
colours such as blue (SiC), green (AlGaP) and red photocurrent.
(GaAsP).
 When the incident light is zero, there exists a
 Now a days, LED which emits white light (GaInN) reverse current which is negligible.
is also available.
 This reverse current in the absence of any incident
8. Write notes on Photodiode. light is called dark current and is due to the
 A p-n junction diode which converts an optical thermally generated minority carriers.
signal into electric signal is known as photodiode.
9. Explain the working principle of a solar cell.
 Thus, the operation of photodiode is exactly  A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell,
inverse to that of an LED. converts light energy directly into electricity or
 Photo diode works in reverse bias. Its circuit electric potential difference by photovoltaic effect.
symbol is shown in Figure (a).
 It is basically a p-n junction which generates emf
when solar radiation falls on the p-n junction.

 A solar cell is of two types: p-type and n-type. Both

types use a combination of p-type and n-type
silicon which together forms the p-n junction of the
solar cell.
 The direction of arrows indicates that the light is
incident on the photo diode.  The difference is that p-type solar cells use p-type
Silicon as the base with an ultra-thin layer of
 The device consists of a p-n junction n-type Silicon as shown in Figure, while n-type
semiconductor made of photosensitive material solar cell uses the opposite combination.
kept safely inside a plastic case as shown in
Figure (b).

 It has a small transparent window that allows light

to be incident on the p-n junction.
 The other side of the p-Silicon is coated with metal
 Photodiodes can generate current when the p-n which forms the back electrical contact.
junction is exposed to light and hence are called
as light sensors.  On top of the n-type Silicon, metal grid is
deposited which acts as the front electrical
 When a photon of sufficient energy (h) strikes the contact.
depletion region of the diode, some of the valence
band electrons are elevated into conduction band,  The top of the solar cell is coated with anti-
in turn holes are developed in the valence band. reflection coating and toughened glass.
This creates electron-hole pairs.
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 In a solar cell, electron–hole pairs are generated (a) Input Characteristics:
due to the absorption of light near the junction.  Input Characteristics curves give the relationship
between the base current (IB) and base to emitter
 Then the charge carriers are separated due to the voltage (VBE) at constant collector to emitter
electric field of the depletion region. voltage (VCE) and are shown in Figure.

 Electrons move towards n–type Silicon and holes

move towards p-type Silicon layer.

 The electrons reaching the n-side are collected by

the front contact and holes reaching p-side are
collected by the back electrical contact.

 Thus a potential difference is developed across

solar cell.

 When an external load is connected to the solar

cell, photocurrent flows through the load.

 Many solar cells are connected together either in

series or in parallel combination to form solar
panel or module.

 Many solar panels are connected with each other

to form solar arrays.

 For high power applications, solar panels and

solar arrays are used.  Initially, the collector to emitter voltage (VCE) is set
to a particular voltage (above 0.7 V to reverse bias
10.Sketch the static characteristics of a common emitter the junction).
transistor and bring out the essence of input, output
and current transfer characteristics.  Then the base-emitter voltage (VBE) is increased
 The circuit to study the static characteristics of an in suitable steps and the corresponding base-
NPN transistor in the common emitter mode is current (IB) is recorded.
given in Figure.
 A graph is plotted with VBE along the x-axis and IB
along the y-axis.

 The procedure is repeated for different values of

VCE.

 The following observations are made from the

graph.
 The bias supply voltages VBB and VCC bias the  The curve looks like the forward characteristics
base-emitter junction and collectoremitter junction of an ordinary p-n junction diode.
respectively.
 There exists a threshold voltage or knee
 The junction potential at the base-emitter is voltage (Vk) below which the base current is
represented as VBE and the collector-emitter as very small. The value is 0.7 V for Silicon and
VCE. 0.3 V for Germanium transistors. Beyond the
knee voltage, the base current increases with
 The rheostats R1and R2 are used to vary the base the increase in base-emitter voltage.
and collector currents respectively.
 It is also noted that the increase in the collector-
 The static characteristics of the BJT are emitter voltage decreases the base current.
1. Input characteristics This shifts the curve outward. This is because
2. Output characteristics the increase in collector-emitter voltage
3. Transfer characteristics increases the width of the depletion region in
turn, reduces the effective base width and
thereby the base current.
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Input impedance: (iii) Active region: In this region, the emitter-base
 The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage junction is forward biased and the collector-base
(ΔVBE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at a junction is reverse biased. The transistor in this
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called region can be used for voltage, current and power
the input impedance (ri). amplification.

 The input impedance is not linear in the lower (iv) Breakdown region: If the collector-emitter
region of the curve. voltage (VCE) is increased beyond the rated value
∆ given by the manufacturer,the collector current (IC)
= increases enormously leading to the junction
∆
breakdown of the transistor. This avalanche
 The input impedance is high for a transistor in breakdown can damage the transistor.
common emitter configuration.
(b) Output Characteristics: Output impedance:
 The output characteristics give the relationship  The ratio of the change in the collector-emitter
between collector current (IC) with respect to the voltage (ΔVCE) to the corresponding change in the
collector-emitter voltage (VCE) at constant input collector current (ΔIC) at constant base current (IB)
current (IB) as shown in Figure. is called output impedance (rO).
∆
=
∆
 The output impedance for transistor in common
emitter configuration is very low.

(C) Current transfer characteristics:

 This gives the variation of collector current (IC) with
changes in base current (IB) at constant collector-
emitter voltage (VCE) as shown in Figure.

 Initially, the base current (IB) is set to a particular

value.

 Then collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is increased in

suitable steps and the corresponding collector
current (IC) is recorded.
 It is seen that a small IC flows even when IB is zero.
 A graph is plotted with the VCE along the x-axis and This current is called the common emitter leakage
IC along the y-axis.This procedure is repeated for current (ICEO), which is due to the flow of minority
different values of IB. charge carriers.

 The four important regions in the output Forward current gain :

characteristics are:  The ratio of the change in collector current (ΔIC) to
the change in base current (ΔIB) at constant
(i) Saturation region: When VCE is increased above collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called forward
0 V, the IC increases rapidly to a saturation value
current gain (β).
almost independent of IB (Ohmic region, OA)
∆
called knee voltage. Transistors are always =
operated above this knee voltage. ∆

(ii) Cut-off region: A small collector current (IC)  Its value is very high and it generally ranges from
exists even after the base current (IB) is reduced 50 to 200.
to zero. This current is due to the presence of
 It depends on the construction of the transistor and
minority carriers across the collector-base junction
will be provided by the manufacturer.
and is called surface leakage current (ICEO). This
region is called as the cut-off region, because the  There are transistors with β as high as 1000 as
main collector current is cut-off. well.

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11.Transistor functions as a switch. Explain. 12.Describe the function of a transistor as an amplifier
 A transistor in saturation region acts as a closed with the neat circuit diagram. Sketch the input and
switch while in cut-off region; it acts as an open output wave form.
switch.
 A single stage transistor amplifier as shown in
 It functions like an electronic switch that helps to Figure.
turn ON or OFF a given circuit by a small control
signal which keeps the transistor either in
saturation region or in cut-off region. The circuit is
shown in Figure

(a) When the input is low:

 When the input is low (say 0V), the base current is
zero and transistor is not properly forward biased.
 Single stage indicates that the circuit consists of
It is in cut off region.
one transistor with the allied components.
 As a result, the collector current is zero and
 An NPN transistor is connected in the common
correspondingly the voltage drop across RC also
emitter configuration.
becomes nearly zero.
 To start with, the Q point or the operating point of
 The output voltage is high and is equal to VCC.
the transistor is fixed so as to get the maximum
signal swing at the output (neither towards
 It means that there is no current flows through the
saturation point nor towards cutoff).
transistor and it is said to be switched off. The
transistor acts as an open switch.
 A load resistance, RC is connected in series with
the collector circuit to measure the output voltage.
(b) When the input is high:
 When the input voltage is increased to a certain
 The capacitor C1 allows only the ac signal to pass
high value (say +5 V), the base current (IB)
through.
increases and in turn increases the collector
current to its maximum. The transistor will move
 The emitter bypass capacitor CE provides a low
into the saturation region.
reactance path to the amplified ac signal.
 The increase in collector current (IC) increases the
 The coupling capacitor CC is used to couple one
voltage drop across RC, thereby lowering the
stage of the amplifier with the next stage while
output voltage, close to zero (∵ V0 = VCC – ICRC). constructing multistage amplifiers.
 It means that maximum current flows through the  VS is the sinusoidal input signal source applied
transistor and it is said to be switched on. The across the base-emitter.
transistor acts as a closed switch.
 The output is taken across the collector-emitter.
 It is manifested that a high input to the transistor
gives a low output and a low input gives a high
output. , = ∵ =

 In addition, we can say that the output voltage is  Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage law in the output
opposite to the applied input voltage. loop, the collector-emitter voltage is given by,

 Therefore, a transistor can be used as an inverter

(NOT gate) in computer logic circuitry. = −

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Working of the amplifier:  The feedback circuit provides a portion of the
output to the tank circuit to sustain the oscillations
(a) During the positive half cycle:
without energy loss.
 Input signal (Vs) increases the forward voltage
across the emitter-base.  Hence, an oscillator does not require an external
input signal. The output is said to be self-
 As a result, the base current (IB) increases.
sustained.
Consequently, the collector current (IC) increases
β times. (a) Amplifier:
 The transistor amplifier circuit is amplifies the input
 This increases the voltage drop across RC (IC Rc)
signal.
which in turn decreases the collector-emitter
voltage (VCE) . (b) Feedback network:
 Therefore, the input signal in the positive direction  The circuit used to feedback a portion of the output
produces an amplified signal in the negative to the input is called the feedback network.
îù¢irection at the output.
 If the portion of the output fed to the input is in
 Hence, the output signal is reversed by 1800 as phase with the input, then the magnitude of the
shown in Figure below. input signal increases. It is necessary for
sustained oscillations.

(c) Tank circuit :

 The LC tank circuit consists of an inductance and
a capacitor connected in parallel. as shown in
Figure.

(b) During the negative half cycle:

 Input signal (Vs) decreases the forward voltage
across the emitter-base.  Whenever energy is supplied to the tank circuit
from a DC source, the energy is stored in inductor
 As a result, base current (IB) decreases and in turn
and capacitor alternatively.
increases the collector current (IC).
 This produces electrical oscillations of definite
 The increase in collector current (IC) decreases
frequency.
the potential drop across RC and increases the
collector-emitter voltage (VCE).  But in practical oscillator circuits there will be loss
 Thus, the input signal in the negative direction of energy across resistors, inductor coils and
produces an amplified signal in the positive capacitors.
direction at the output.
 A small amount of energy is used up in
 Therefore, 1800 phase reversal is observed during overcoming these losses during every cycle of
the negative half cycle of the input signal as well charging and discharging of the capacitor.
as shown in Figure above.
 Due to this, the amplitude of the oscillations
13.Transistor functions as an oscillator. Explain. decreases gradually.
 An oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, an
amplifier and a feedback circuit as shown in  Hence, the tank circuit produces damped
Figure. electrical oscillations.

 Therefore, in order to produce undamped

oscillations, a positive feedback is provided from
the output circuit to the input circuit.

 The frequency of oscillations is determined by the

values of L and C using the equation.
 The tank circuit generates electrical oscillations 1
and acts as the ac input source to the transistor =
amplifier. Amplifier amplifies the input ac signal. 2 √
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14.State Boolean laws. Elucidate how they are used to 15.State and proove De Morgan’s theorems.
simplify Boolean expressions with suitable example.
(a) First theorem:
(a) Complement law: The complement of the sum of two logical inputs
The complement law can be is equal to the product of its complements.
realised as, + = ̅⋅
̿=
(b) Second theorem:
The complement of the product of two inputs is
equal to the sum of its complements.
(b) OR laws: ⋅ = ̅+

Proof:
(a) First theorem:

(c) AND laws:

(b) Second theorem:

(d) Commutative laws:

+ = +
⋅ = ⋅
(e) Associative laws:
+( + )=( + )+
⋅( ⋅ )=( ⋅ )⋅
(f) Distributive laws:
( + )= +
+ = ( + )+( + )

Elucidation with an example:

 Simplify the Boolean identity,
+ =
 Solution:

: (1 + ) = .1 [ − ]

: .1 = [ − ]

ℎ , + =

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16.Explain the amplitude modulation(AM) with  Here the amplitude and the phase of the carrier
necessary diagrams. signal remain constant.
 If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified in  Increase in the amplitude of the baseband signal
proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the increases the frequency of the carrier signal and
baseband , then it is called amplitude modulation. vice versa.
 Here the frequency and the phase of the carrier
 This leads to compressions and rarefactions in the
signal remain constant.
frequency spectrum of the modulated wave as
 Amplitude modulation is used in radio and TV shown in Figure.
broadcasting.
 The signal shown in Figure (a) is the baseband
signal that carries information.

 Louder signal leads to compressions and

relatively weaker signals to rarefactions.
 Figure (b) shows the high-frequency carrier signal
and Figure (c) gives amplitude modulated signal.  When the amplitude of the baseband signal is zero
in Figure (a), the frequency of the modulated
signal is the same as the carrier signal.

 The frequency of the modulated wave increases

when the amplitude of the baseband signal
increases in the positive direction (A, C).
 The increase in amplitude in the negative half
cycle (B, D) reduces the frequency of the
modulated wave (Figure (c)).
 When the frequency of the baseband signal is zero
(no input signal), there is no change in the
frequency of the carrier wave.

 It is at its normal frequency and is called as centre

frequency or resting frequency.

 Practically this is the allotted frequency of the FM

 We can see that amplitude of the carrier is transmitter.
modified in proportion to the amplitude of the
baseband signal.  Internationally alloted frequency shift of
broadcasting stations is 75 kHz.
17.Explain the frequency modulation(FM) with
necessary diagrams. 18.Explain the phase modulation(PM) with necessary
 If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified in diagrams.
proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the  If the phase of the carrier signal is modified in
baseband , then it is called amplitude modulation. proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the
baseband , then it is called phase modulation.

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 This modulation is used to generate frequency (ii) Input transducer :
modulated signals.  A transducer is a device that converts variations in
a physical quantity (pressure, temperature, sound)
 It is similar to frequency modulation except that the into an equivalent electrical signal or vice versa.
phase of the carrier is varied instead of varying
frequency.  In communication system, the transducer converts
 The carrier phase changes according to increase the information which is in the form of sound,
or decrease in the amplitude of the baseband music, pictures or computer data into
signal. corresponding electrical signals.

 When the modulating signal goes positive, the  The electrical equivalent of the original information
amount of phase lead increases with the is called the baseband signal.
amplitude of the modulating signal.
 Due to this, the carrier signal is compressed or its  The best example for the transducer is the
frequency is increased. microphone that converts sound energy into
electrical energy.
 On the other hand, the negative half cycle of the
baseband signal produces a phase lag in the (iii) Transmitter :
carrier signal.  It feeds the electrical signal from the transducer to
the communication channel.
 This appears to have stretched the frequency of
the carrier wave.
 It consists of circuits such as amplifier, oscillator,
 Hence similar to frequency modulated wave, modulator and power amplifier.
phase modulated wave also comprises of
compressions and rarefactions.  The transmitter is located at the broadcasting
station.
 When the signal voltage is zero (A, C and E) the  Amplifier: The transducer output is very weak
carrier frequency is unchanged. and is amplified by the amplifier.
 The frequency shift in carrier wave frequency
exists in phase modulation as well.  Oscillator: It generates high-frequency carrier
wave (a sinusoidal wave) for long distance
 The frequency shift depends on (i) amplitude of transmission into space. As the energy of a
the modulating signal and (ii) the frequency of the wave is proportional to its frequency, the carrier
signal. wave has very high energy.

19.Explain the basic elements of communication system  Modulator: It superimposes the baseband
with the necessary block diagram. signal onto the carrier signal and generates the
 The elements of the basic communication system modulated signal.
are explained with the block diagram shown in
Figure.  Power amplifier: It increases the power level of
the electrical signal in order to cover a large
distance.

(iv) Transmitting antenna :

 It radiates the radio signal into space in all
directions.

 It travels in the form of electromagnetic waves with

the velocity of light (3 × 108 m s–1).

(v) Communication channel:

 Communication channel is used to carry the
electrical signal from transmitter to receiver with
(i) Information (Baseband or input signal): less noise or distortion.
 Information can be in the form of speech, music,
pictures, or computer data.  The examples for communication medium are
wires, cables and optical fibers in wireline
 This information is given as input to the input communication and free space in wireless
transducer. communication.

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(vi) Receiver:  Here both transmitting and receiving antennas
 The signals that are transmitted through the must be close to the earth surface.
communication medium are received by a
receiving antenna which converts em waves into  It is mainly used in local broadcasting, radio
RF signals and are fed into the receiver. navigation, for ship-to-ship, shipto- shore
communication and mobile communication.
 The receiver consists of electronic circuits like
demodulator, amplifier, detector etc. (b) Sky Wave Probagation:
 The demodulator extracts the baseband from the  The mode of propagation in which the
modulated signal. electromagnetic waves radiated from an antenna,
directed upwards at large angles, gets reflected by
 Then the baseband signal is detected and the ionosphere back to earth is called sky wave
amplified using amplifiers. Finally, it is fed to the propagation or ionospheric propagation. The
output transducer. corresponding waves are called sky waves.

(vii) Repeaters:  Ionosphere acts as a reflecting surface. It is at a

 Repeaters are used to increase the range or distance of approximately 50 km and spreads up
distance through which the signals are sent. It is a to 400 km above the Earth surface.
combination of transmitter and receiver.
 Due to the absorption of ultraviolet rays, cosmic
 The signals are received, amplified and
ray, and other high energy radiations like α, β rays
retransmitted with a carrier signal of different
from sun, the air molecules in the ionosphere get
frequency to the destination.
ionized.
 The best example is the communication satellite in
space.  This produces charged ions and these ions
provide a reflecting medium for the reflection of
(viii) Output transducer: radio waves or communication waves back to
 It converts the electrical signal back to its original Earth within the permitted frequency range.
form such as sound, music, pictures or data.
 The phenomenon of bending the radio waves back
 Examples of output transducers are loudspeakers, to earth is nothing but the total internal reflection.
picture tubes, computer monitor, etc.
 When the angle of incidence at the ionosphere is
20.Explain the three modes of propagation of large, the sky wave returns to the ground at a long
electromagnetic waves through space. distance from the transmitter.
 The electromagnetic wave transmitted by the
transmitter travels in three different modes to  As this angle is reduced, the wave returns closer
reach the receiver according to its frequency and closer to the transmitter.
range:
 Ground wave propagation (or) surface wave  If the angle of incidence is reduced further, the
propagation. (2 kHz to 2 MHz) radio waves penetrate through the ionosphere.

 Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric  For a particular angle of incidence, the point of
propagation. (3 MHz to 30 MHz) reception (B) is at the minimum distance from
transmitter.
 Space wave propagation. (30 MHz to 400 GHz)
 The shortest distance between the transmitter and
(a) Ground Wave Probagation: the point of reception of the sky wave along the
 If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the surface is called as the skip distance.
transmitter glide over the surface of the earth to
reach the receiver, then the propagation is called  The ground waves get attenuated as they move
ground wave propagation. away from the transmitter.
 The pictorial representation is shown in Figure (a).
 At a particular point (A), there is no reception
ground wave.

 The zone (in between A and B) where there is no

reception of electromagnetic waves neither
ground nor sky is known as skip zone or skip area

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21.Fiber optic communication is gaining popularity

among the various transmission media -justify.
(c) Space Wave Probagation:
 Fiber optic cables provide the fastest transmission
 The process of sending and receiving information
rate compared to any other form of transmission.
signal through space is called space wave
communication (Figure (c)).
 It can provide data speed of 1 Gbps for homes and
business.

 Multimode fibers operate at the speed of 10 Mbps.

 Recent developments in optical communication

provide the data speed at the rate of 25 Gbps.

 Fiber cables are very thin and weigh lesser than

copper cables.
 The electromagnetic waves of very high
frequencies above 30 MHz are called as space
 This system has much larger band width. This
waves.
means that its information carrying capacity is
larger.
 These waves travel in a straight line from the
transmitter to the receiver. Hence, it is used for a
 Fiber optic system is immune to electrical
line of sight communication (LOS).
interferences.
 The communication systems like television
 Fiber optic cables are cheaper than copper cables.
telecast, satellite communication and RADAR are
based on space wave propagation.
 Hence, Fiber optic communication is gaining
popularity among the various transmission media.
 Microwaves having high frequencies (super high
frequency band) are used against radio waves due
to certain advantages:
 Larger bandwidth,
 High data rates,
 Better directivity,
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 Small antenna size,
 Low power consumption, etc.

 The range or distance (d) of coverage of the

propagation depends on the height (h) of the
antenna given by the equation,
= √2 ℎ
Where R is the radius of the Earth and it is
6400 km.

 The distance of coverage is shown pictorially in

Figure below.

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 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
11. Recent Developments In Physics 10. What are applications of nanomaterial in automotive
industry?
1. What is Nanoscience?  Lightweight construction.
Nanoscience is the study of structures and  Painting(fillers, base coat, clear coat).
materials on the scale of nanometers(10-9 m).  Catalysts.
 Tires (fillers).
2. What is Nanotechnology?  Sensors.
Nanotechnology is a technology involving the  Coatings for wind-screen and car bodies.
design, production, characterization and applications of
nano structured materials. 11. What are applications of nanomaterial in chemical
industry?
3. What is Nanoparticles or nano solid?  Fillers for paint systems.
If the particles of solid is of size less than 100nm,  Coating systems based on nanocomposites.
it is called nanoparticles or nano solid.  Impregnation of papers.
 Switchable adhesives.
4. What is bulk solid?  Magnetic fluids.
If the particle size is greater than 100nm, it is
called bulk solid. 12. What are applications of nanomaterial in
engineering?
5. What are the two important phenomena which  Wear protection for tools and machines(anti
govern nano properties? blocking coatings, scratch resistant coatings on
 Quantum confinement effects. plastic parts,etc.)
 Surface effects.
 Lubricant-free bearings.
6. What are the fields involving nanotechnology?
 Electrical and mechanical engineering. 13. What are applications of nanomaterial in electronic
 Material science. industry?
 Molecular biology.  Data memory.
 Applied mathematics and computer science.  Displays.
 Physics  Laser diodes.
 Chemistry.  Glass fibres.
 Optical switches.
7. What are the two approaches in synthesis of  Filters (IR-blocking)
nanoparticles?  Conductive, antistatic coatings.
 Top down approach.
 Bottom up approach. 14. What are applications of nanomaterial in
construction?
8. How nanomaterials are synthesised in top down  Construction materials.
approach? Give some examples.  Thermal insulation.
In this approach, nanomaterials are synthesised  Flame-retardants.
by breaking down bulk solids into nano sizes.  Surface-functionalised building materials for wood,
floors, stone, facades, tiles, roof tiles, etc.
Ex: Ball milling, Sol-gel, Lithography.  Facade coatings.
 Groove mortar.

15. What are applications of nanomaterial in medicine?

 Drug delivery systems.
 Active agents.
 Contrast medium.
9. How nanomaterials are synthesised in bottom up  Medical rapid tests.
approach? Give some examples.  Prostheses and implants.
In this approach, nanomaterials are synthesised  Antimicrobial agents and coatings.
by asembling the atoms or molecules together.  Agents in cancer therapy.

Ex: Plasma etching, Chemical vapour 16. What are applications of nanomaterial in textile and
deposition. fabrics and non-wovens?
 Surface-processed textiles.
 Smart clothes.

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 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
17. What are applications of nanomaterial in energy? 26. What are the three main parts of robots?
 Fuel cells.  The Controller - also known as the "brain" which is
 Solar cells. run by a computer program. It gives commands for
 Batteries. the moving parts to perform the job.
 Capacitors.
 Mechanical parts - motors, pistons, grippers,
18. What are applications of nanomaterial in Cosmetics? wheels, and gears that make the robot move,
 Sun protection. grab, turn, and lift.
 Lipsticks.
 Skin cream.  Sensors - to tell the robot about its surroundings.
 Tooth paste. It helps to determine the sizes and shapes of the
objects around, distance between the objects, and
19. What are applications of nanomaterial in food and directions as well.
drinks?
 Package materials. 27. What are the types of robots?
 Storage life sensors.  HUMAN ROBOTS - Certain robots are made to
 Additives. resemble humans in appearance and replicate the
 Clarification of fruit juices. human activities like walking, lifting, and sensing,
etc.
20. What are applications of nanomaterial in household?
 Ceramic coatings for irons.  INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS – Certain robots are made
 Odors catalyst. for industrial purpose.
 Cleaner for glass, ceramic, floor , windows.
28. Draw the flow chart for key components of robotics.
21. What are applications of nanomaterial in sports and
outdoor?
 Ski wax.
 Antifogging of glasses and goggles.
 Antifouling coatings for ships and boats.
 Reinforced tennis rackets and balls.

22. What is robotics?

Robotics is an integrated study of mechanical
engineering, electronic engineering, computer
engineering, and science.
29. What are the six main types of industrial robots?
23. What is robot?  Cartesian
Robot is a mechanical device designed with  SCARA - Selective Compliance Assembly Robot
electronic circuitry and programmed to perform a specific Arm.
task.  Cylindrical.
 Delta.
24. What are fields in which robotics involved?  Polar.
 Security.  Vertically articulated.
 Services.
 Logistics. 30. What are the purposes six-axis robots are used?
 Manufacture and automation macro.  Arc welding.
 Manufacture and automation micro and nano.  Spot welding.
 Medical surgery.  Material handling.
 Rehabilitate orthotics prosthetics.  Machine tending.
 Unmanned vehicles.  Other applications.
 Intelligent transportation.
 Monitoring inspection. 31. What is artificial intelligence(AI)?
Artificial intelligence is a technology which brings
25. What are the components of robotic system? human like behavior in robots.
The robotic system mainly consists of sensors,
power supplies, control systems, manipulators and 32. What are the functions of artificial intelligence?
necessary software.  Face recognition.
 Providing response to player’s actions in
computer games

81
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
 Taking decisions based on previous actions  The existence of black holes is studied when the
 To regulate the trafic by analyzing the density of stars orbiting the black hole behave differently
trafic on roads. from the other stars.
 Translate words from one language to another.
 Every galaxy has black hole at its center.
33. What are the applications of robotics? Sagittarius A* is the black hole at the center of the
 Outer space: Exploring stars, planets etc., Milky Way galaxy.
investigation of the mineralogy of the rocks and
soils on Mars, analysis of elements found in rocks
and soils.

 Other applications: Little robot, welding, cutting,

assembling, vacuum cleaner, packing, transport,
surgery, weaponry, lawn mowing, laboratory,
underwater, hospitals, agriculture, pool cleaning.

 Nano robots: perform small surgical procedures

through blood stream, fight against bacteria,
repairing cell in the body, autonomous DNA robots
to combat cancer tumours.

34. What are the materials used to make robots?

Aluminium and steel are commonly used to
make robots in the form of sheet, bar, rod, channel and
other shapes.

35. Why steel is preferred in making Robots?

Robots are used for doing hardworks which is
not possible by normal human. Due to this reason, long
living very strong steel is preferred in making Robots.

36. What is particle physics?

Particle physics deals with the theory of
fundamental particles of nature.

37. What are sub atomic particles?

Particles that are smaller than the atom are
called subatomic particles. The three main subatomic
particles are protons, neutrons and electrons.

38. What is cosmology?

Cosmology is the branch that involves the origin
and evolution of the universe. It deals with formation of
stars, galaxy etc.

39. What are gravitational waves?

Gravitational waves are the disturbances in the
curvature of space-time and it travels with speed of light.
Any accelerated mass emits gravitational waves.

40. Write a short note on black hole.

 Black holes are end stage of stars which are highly
dense massive object.

 Its mass ranges from 20 times mass of the sun to

1 million times mass of the sun. It has very strong
gravitational force such that no particle or even
light can escape from it.

82
 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
5 Marks Q & A:  Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors: Basically, we
1. Tabulate the Nano objects in nature and their use it for industrial robots.
corresponding mimic in laboratories.
Object Nano action Mimic in Laboratory  Sensors: Generally used in task environments as
Single It is 3nm wide and is it provides information of real-time knowledge.
strand of building block of all living -
DNA things.  Robot locomotion: Provides the types of
movements to a robot. The different types are
Nanostructure in wings Manipulation of (a) Legged.
makes interaction of light colours by adjusting (b) Wheeled.
Morpho
waves and produces the size of nano (c)Combination of Legged and Wheeled
butterfly
brilliant metallic blue and particles of the Locomotion.
green hues in the wings. material. (d) Tracked slip and skid.
10nm photonic crystal
Nanostructures are 3. What are the advantages of robotics?
Peacock interacts with light and  The robots are much cheaper than humans.
made to glow in
feathers gives iridescent
different colours.  Robots never get tired like humans. It can work for
coloration in feathers.
24 x 7. Hence, absenteeism in work place can be
Nano structured
reduced.
ultra-durable
synthetic materials  Robots are more precise and error free in
Nanostructured
are useful for performing the task.
flurapatite chain mail-like
mechanical
Parrot interwoven fibre crystal  Stronger and faster than humans.
components in
fish gives incredible durability  Robots can work in extreme environmental
electronics and in
to teeth. So that it conditions: extreme hot or cold, space or
other devices which
crunches up coral all day. underwater. In dangerous situations like bomb
undergo repitative
movement,abrasion detection and bomb deactivation.
and contact stress.  In warfare, robots can save human lives.
Water repellant
Nanostructure on the paints are made to  Robots are significantly used in handling materials
Lotus in chemical industries especially in nuclear plants,
surface is the reason for give durability, stain
leaf which can lead to health hazards in humans.
self cleaning process in and dust protection
surface
lotus leaf. and also give fuel
efficiency in ships. 4. What are the disadvantages of robotics?
 Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience.
2. Explain the key components of robotics.  They lack empathy and hence create an
 Power conversion unit: Robots are powered by emotionless workplace.
batteries, solar power, and hydraulics.
 If ultimately, robots would do all the work, and the
 Actuators: Converts energy into movement. The humans will just sit and monitor them, health
majority of the actuators produce rotational or hazards will increase rapidly.
linear motion.
 Unemployment problem will increase.
 Electric motors: ey are used to actuate the parts of  Robots can perform defined tasks and cannot
the robots like wheels, arms, fingers, legs, handle unexpected situations
sensors, camera, weapon systems etc. Different
 The robots are well programmed to do a job and if
types of electric motors are used. The most often
a small thing goes wrong it ends up in a big loss to
used ones are AC motor, Brushed DC motor,
the company.
Brushless DC motor, Geared DC motor, etc.
 If a robot malfunctions, it takes time to identify the
 Pneumatic Air Muscles: They are devices that can problem, rectify it, and even reprogram if
contract and expand when air is pumped inside. It necessary.
can replicate the function of a human muscle.
They contract almost 40% when the air is sucked  This process requires significant time.
inside them.  Humans cannot be replaced by robots in decision
making.
 Muscle wires: They are thin strands of wire made
of shape memory alloys. They can contract by 5%  Till the robot reaches the level of human
when electric current is passed through them. intelligence, the humans in work place will exit.
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 Higher Secondary Second Year 2 , 3 & 5 marks Question and Answers (For Toppers)
R.SRIDHARAN, PGT(PHYSICS), GBHSS, MELPALLIPATTU-606 703.
5. Explain the recent advancements in medical  Robotically-assisted surgery helps to overcome
technology? the limitations of pre-existing minimally-invasive
(a)Virtual reality: surgical procedures and to enhance the
 It is used to stop the brain from processing pain capabilities of surgeons performing open surgery.
and cure soreness in the hospitalized patients.
(h)Smart inhalers:
 Virtual reality has enhanced surgeries by the use  Inhalers are the main treatment option for asthma.
of 3D models by surgeons to plan operations.
 Smart inhalers are designed with health systems
 It helps in the treatment of Autism, Memory loss, and patients in mind so that they can offer
and Mental illness. maximum benefit.

(b)Precision medine :  Smart inhalers use bluetooth technology to detect

 Precision medicine is an emerging approach for inhaler use, remind patients when to take their
disease treatment and prevention that takes into medication and gather data to help guide care.
account individual variability in genes,
environment, and lifestyle for each person.

 In this medical model it is possible to customise

healthcare, with medical decisions, treatments,
practices, or products which are tailored to the
individual patient.
www.nammakalvi.in
(c)Health wearables:
 A health wearable is a device used for tracking a
wearer's vital signs or health and fitness related
data, location, etc.

 Medical wearables with articial intelligence and big

data provide an added value to healthcare with a
focus on diagnosis, treatment, patient monitoring
and prevention.

(d)Artificial organs:
 An articial organ is an engineered device or tissue
that is implanted or integrated into a human. It is
possible to interface it with living tissue or to
replace a natural organ.

 It duplicates or augments a specific function or

functions of human organs so that the patient may
return to a normal life as soon as possible.

(e)3D printing:
 Advanced 3D printer systems and materials assist
physicians in a range of operations in the medical
field from audiology, dentistry, orthopedics and
other applications.

(f)Wireless brain sensors:

 Wireless brain sensors monitor intracranial
pressure and temperature and then are absorbed
by the body.

 Hence there is no need for surgery to remove

these devices.

(g)Robotic surgery:
 Robotic surgery is a type of surgical procedure
that is done using robotic systems.
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