Effect of bio–additives and compression ratio on performance of diesel Engine

CONTENTS

Cover Page…………………………………………………………………………………. i

Candidate's Declaration……………………………………………………………………. ii

Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………… iii

Contents…………………………………………………………………………………… v

List of Tables………………………………………………………………………………. ix

List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………… ix

Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………………… x

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………. 1

Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................................. 10

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 10

1.1 Present situation of diesel engine .................................................................................. 10

1.1.1 Use of CI engine in agriculture and rural area .................................................. 11

1.1.2 Impact of CI engine emissions on environment ............................................... 12

1.1.3 Effect of CI engine emissions on human health ............................................... 12

1.2 Use of additives ............................................................................................................. 13

1.2.1 Advantages of additives [10-12]............................................................................. 14

1.2.2 2–Methoxyethyl ether (Diglyme) .......................................................................... 14

1.2.3 Nitromethane (NM) ................................................................................................ 15

1.4 Properties of diesel and additives: ................................................................................. 17

1
 1.5 Work motivation: .......................................................................................................... 18

Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................................. 19

LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 19

2.1 Additives as diesel engine fuel: ..................................................................................... 21

2.2 2–Methoxyethyl ether (Diglyme) as a fuel additives .................................................... 25

2.3 Nitromethane as a fuel additives ................................................................................... 28

2.4 Effect of compression ratio (CR) .................................................................................. 30

2.5 Motivation and research gap ......................................................................................... 31

2.6 Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 32

2.7 Research procedure ....................................................................................................... 33

Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................................. 34

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND METHODOLOGY ........................................................... 34

3.1 Blend preparation .......................................................................................................... 34

3.2 Measurement of performance parameter....................................................................... 35

3.3 Measurement of exhaust emissions ............................................................................... 38

3.4 Test procedure and condition ........................................................................................ 40

3.5 Precaution taken during the experiment ....................................................................... 41

Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................................. 43

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................. 43

4.1 Performance and emissions analysis ............................................................................. 43

4.1.1 Brake thermal efficiency ........................................................................................ 43

4.1.2 Brake specific fuel consumption ............................................................................ 44

4.1.3 Smoke ..................................................................................................................... 45

4.1.4 Carbon monoxide ................................................................................................... 46

2
 4.1.5 Hydrocarbon ........................................................................................................... 47

4.1.6 Nitrogen oxides....................................................................................................... 48

4.2 Optimum CR Selection for best blend (D–MXEE5–NM2.5) ....................................... 49

4.2.1 Brake thermal efficiency ........................................................................................ 49

4.2.2 Brake specific fuel consumption ............................................................................ 50

4.2.3 Smoke ..................................................................................................................... 50

4.2.4 Carbon monoxide ................................................................................................... 51

4.2.5 Hydrocarbon ........................................................................................................... 52

4.2.6 Nitrogen oxides....................................................................................................... 53

Chapter 5 ................................................................................................................................. 54

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE ............................................................................... 54

5.1 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 54

5.2 Future scope .................................................................................................................. 55

Chapter 6 ................................................................................................................................. 56

UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 56

6.1 Sample calculation ........................................................................................................ 56

6.2 Uncertainty analysis ...................................................................................................... 57

Refrences................................................................................................................................. 60

Appendix A: Formulae used for calculations ......................................................................... 69

A.1 Formula used for calculation of calorific value for different blends used ................... 69

A.2 Formula used for calculation of brake power ............................................................... 69

A.3 Formula used for calculation of BSFC ......................................................................... 69

A.4 Formula used for calculation of BTE ........................................................................... 70

Appendix B: Observations for diesel and its blends with MXEE and NM ............................ 71

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B.1: BTE results for different fuels at 200 bar 17.5 CR 23deg btdc .................................. 71

B.2: BSFC results for different fuels at 200 bar 17.5 CR 23deg btdc ................................ 71

B.3: Smoke results for different fuels at 200 bar 17.5 CR 23deg btdc .............................. 71

B.4: CO results for different fuels at 200 bar 17.5 CR 23deg btdc ..................................... 71

B.5: HC results for different fuels at 200 bar 17.5 CR 23deg btdc ..................................... 72

B.6: NOx results for different fuels at 200 bar 17.5 CR 23deg btdc ................................... 72

B.7: BTE results of D-MXEE5-NM2.5 blend for different CR at 200 bar 23deg btdc ...... 72

B.8: BSFC results of D-MXEE5-NM2.5 blend for different CR at 200 bar 23deg btdc .... 72

B.9: Smoke results of D-MXEE5-NM2.5 blend for different CR at 200 bar 23deg btdc... 73

B.10: CO results of D-MXEE5-NM2.5 blend for different CR at 200 bar 23deg btdc ...... 73

B.11: HC results of D-MXEE5-NM2.5 blend for different CR at 200 bar 23deg btdc ...... 73

B.12: NOx results of D-MXEE5-NM2.5 blend for different CR at 200 bar 23deg btdc .... 73

4
 List of Tables
Table 1: Combustion and physico–chemical properties of diesel, MXEE and NM [12-14] .. 17
Table 2: Equipment specification and set up .......................................................................... 39

List of Figures
Figure 1: Structure of 2–methoxyethyl ether .......................................................................... 15
Figure 2: Structure of Nitromethane ....................................................................................... 15
Figure 3: Production and consumption of petroleum products [15] ....................................... 19
Figure 4: Different stage of blend preparation ........................................................................ 35
Figure 5: Pictorial view of experimental setup ....................................................................... 36
Figure 6: Pictorial view of control pannel .............................................................................. 36
Figure 7: Exhaust smoke meter and gas analyzer ................................................................... 39
Figure 8: BTE v/s BP curve for diesel and different blends ................................................... 44
Figure 9: BSFC v/s BP curve for diesel and different blends ................................................. 44
Figure 10: Smoke v/s BP curve for diesel and different blends ............................................. 45
Figure 11: CO v/s BP curve for diesel and different blends ................................................... 46
Figure 12: HC v/s BP curve for diesel and different blends ................................................... 47
Figure 13: NOx v/s BP curve for diesel and different blends ................................................. 48
Figure 14: BTE v/s BP curve for D–MXEE5–NM5 at different CR ...................................... 49
Figure 15: BSFC v/s BP curve for D–MXEE5–NM5 at different CR ................................... 50
Figure 16: Smoke v/s BP curve for D–MXEE5–NM5 at different CR .................................. 50
Figure 17: CO v/s BP curve for D–MXEE5–NM5 at different CR........................................ 51
Figure 18: HC v/s BP curve for D–MXEE5–NM5 at different CR........................................ 52
Figure 19: NOx v/s BP curve for D–MXEE5–NM5 at different CR ..................................... 53

5
 ABBREVIATIONS

S.N. Abbreviation Meaning

1 BP Brake power
2 BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption
3 btdc Before top dead center
4 BTE Brake thermal efficiency
5 CI Compression ignition
6 CN Cetane number
7 CO Carbon monoxide
8 CO2 Carbon dioxide
9 CR Compression ratio
10 CV Calorific value
11 DI Direct injection
12 DEE Diethyl ether
13 DME Dimethyl ether
14 DMF Dimethyl furan
15 DNBE Di–n–butyl ether
16 EGR Exhaust gas recirculation
17 ETBE Ethyl ter–butyl ether
18 EXEE 2–Ethoxyethyl ether
19 FY Financial year
20 HC Hydrocarbon
21 IC Internal combustion
22 IP Injection pressure
23 IT Injection timing
24 LPM Litre per minute
25 MXEE 2–Methoxy ethyl ether
26 NDIR Non dispersive infra red

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27 NE Nitroethane
28 NM Nitromethane
29 NOx Oxides of nitrogen
30 PAH Poly aromatic hydrocarbon
31 PM Particulate matter
32 SO2 Sulphur dioxide
33 TAEE Ter–amylethyl ether
34 VCR Variable compression ratio

7
 ABSTRACT

Diesel engines are participating a vital responsibility in the field of automobile, agriculture,

construction and power generation. In present world, much research is going on in the field of

renewable energy to replace conventional sources of energy. But it is not very easy to replace

diesel engines with other engines when the power and reliability are the factors that matter. The

emissions from diesel engines are very harmful for the environment and for human health. The

major emissions are smoke and NOx which need to be controlled in an effective manner. A

numerous research is going on to diminish the emissions from CI engines by using some

additives as well as the use of alternative fuels. Variable compression ratio (VCR) engine

provides facility to change engine parameters to optimize the perfomance and emissions.

This investigation focuses on determining the outcome of additives on exhaust emissions and

performance characteristics of a CI engine. This experimental investigation was carried out to

find out suitable additive for reduced exhaust emissions and enhance performance of CI engine.

For that purpose, detailed experiments were conducted with different sets of diesel–2–methoxy

ethyl ether–nitromethane blends. 2–Methoxy ethyl ether and nitromethane (NM) were selected as

additives on the basis of literature review, physical and chemical properties, availability in the

market and cost. The experiments were performed with pure diesel and diesel–2–methoxy ethyl

ether–nitromethane blends with different blend ratio.

Mixing of 5% MXEE and 2.5% NM with 92.5% diesel on volume basis (D–MXEE5–NM2.5)

showed optimum results of emission and performance. By comparison of fuel blend D–MXEE5–

NM2.5 (at advanced compression ratio 19.5) with diesel (at standard compression ratio 17.5),

8
emission decline (HC 66.66%, CO 70.00% and Smoke 16.09%) was found significant at peak

load and performance improvement (decrement in BSFC 7.07% and increment in BTE 4.41%).

However negligible NOx increases (3.58%).

9
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Present situation of diesel engine

Energy contributes a extremaly essential role in our modern life and economy. It makes our life

comfortable and provides the facility for lighting, food preparation and storage, water cooling

and heating, education, construction, manufacturing and automobile etc. Our present life,

personal and societal equally reliant on its potential, ease and plenty. For the travelling,

automobile is a major way of various developed economies. According to the current study, It is

observed that approximately one thousand million motor vehicles run on the road nowaday with

the prospect that the global fleet will grow to one thousand three hundread million by 2020

[1].The annual production rate of automotive in India is one of the largest production countries in

the world, which has led to a simultaneous increase in crude oil and petroleum demand in India

as well as in the world [2]. Compression ignition (CI) engines take pleasure in importance among

all internal combustion (IC) engines because of the relatively superior fuel economy, lesser

exhaust emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC). However, smoke and oxides

of nitrogen (NOx) emissions are higher in diesel engines than that of gasoline engine.

For developing clean alternative fuel for engine and control the exhaust emissions (i.e., smoke,

NOx, etc.) by the engine, many research work going by the various researchers of worldwide to

resolve the problems simultaneously. A slight modification in design of CI engine can

significantly reduce emission levels. However, the exhaust emission standards required by

10
engine design modifications alone are quite difficult to control. Mixing of different additives

(chemicals) in diesel has superior option to achieve the low emissions and high performance of

engine as compared to pure diesel. From the last two decades this has been the main research

topic for most of researchers. [3].

In India, the fast population growth and urbanization are responsible for the environmental

pollution. Fast population growth, are leading to an increses the number of motor vehicles. It is

also responsible for industrial growth and power consuption. These are exerting tremendous

pressure on the environment pollution. The human health are at larger risk due to emit the tonnes

of pollutants from the industries and automobile vehicles. These are responsible for deterioration

of air quality [4].

1.1.1 Use of CI engine in agriculture and rural area

India is an agricultural based country. Here agriculture plays a very important role in the

development of the country's economy. Thus many initiatives steps have been taken for the

development of this region [5]. Diesel engines have a very important role in agriculture sector,

such that in tractors, threshers, pump sets and other agricultural equipment. CI engines dominate

our agriculture and transportation sector due to some special features of diesel engines such as

low specific fuel consumption, high power generation, durability and reliability [6–8].

The power consumed in the agricultural and rural area is basically depends on the diesel fuel.

These diesel engines are nearly impossible to replace, it is advantageous that the concentration

be directed to find additives that can be used in existing diesel engines. A major objective of the

present work is to evaluate the reliability and suitability of additives in 4-S, CI engines for non-

11
moving applications. However, the principles of work may be developed for various CI engines

used in rural, agricultural areas [9].

1.1.2 Impact of CI engine emissions on environment

CI engines are the main cause of environmental pollution because large quantities of emissions

are emitted by the engines. The exhaust emissions of the CI engine include a variety of organic

compounds and inorganic compounds divided as a gaseous phases and particulate. The major

harmful emissions generated by CI engines are smoke, CO, HC, CO2 (carbon dioxide), NOx, PM

(particulate matter), SO2 (sulphur dioxide), benzene, lead and heavy metals. The particulate

concentration in the exhaust of the CI engine is high due to the rich fuel and high combustion

temperature; as air and fuel do not premiere, the locally enriched fuel field.

The burning of fossil fuels is mainly responsible for increasing CO2 emissions in the

environment.

It is also seen that burning of biomass (agriculture, industries and household purpose) produce

greenhouse gases and affect the composition of the environment [10].

1.1.3 Effect of CI engine emissions on human health

CI engine emissions are likely to adversely affect the human health. This could the main cause of

the lung and heart diseases, cancer and other dieseases. The CI engine, in addition to producing

other pollutants, is a major contributor to the spread of PM in major area of the world. In recent

times, the potential effects of microscopic particles (below 10 μm) on respiratory morbidity and

mortality, especially on subjects with established chest disease have been reduced. It is clear that

12
by contact of large amounts of diesel smoke can cause irritation to the nose and eyes, but there is

not such strong proof. However, there is some proof that coughing and spitting develop with

prolonged inhalation of diesel smoke. High risk can cause acute symptoms, mainly causing

upper respiratory tract and conjunctiva problems that are almost reversible within a few days.

The poor quality of air effect are not far away from human health, At present time it mainly

affect the body's cardiovascular system and respiratory system.

NOx is responsible to form acid rain and smog as well as accelerates the formation of ground

level ozone. The formation of oxides of nitrogen is takes place at high temperature produced by

burnt gases in combustion chamber. As the temperature in combustion chamber increases

tendency to form NOx is also increases. The major effect of NOx is on respiratory system.

Inhalation of NOx leads to lung infection and failure of respiratory system. NOx also encourages

the problem of asthma [11].

1.2 Use of additives

Several additives are easily available at low cost to produce blends of diesel and additives in

proportionate quantities for used in diesel engines. Among these additives, oxygeneted additives

are more famous because more amount of oxygen is present in their molecular structures that

help to smooth combustion. It was discovered that 10–20% of oxygeneted additives can be

mixed with diesel fuel to reduce exhaust emission. The mixing of additives in diesel with

appropriate quantities will enhance the combustion properties of blends, such as: cetane number,

density, viscosity, volatility, and boiling point. Nitropraphene compounds have also high oxygen

13
content available in their molecular structure and may improve the combustion quality of diesel

engines [12].

1.2.1 Advantages of additives [10-12]

Following are the advantages of additives:–

• Large amount of oxygen available in their molecular structure.

• It can be very simply mixed with diesel without any reagent.

• It can be used in engine without any alteration.

• Normally it does not harm any components of engine.

• There are no health and safety problems during the preparation of blends.

• It may improve the cetane number of blends.

• It may improve the combustion properties of a blend, due to high availability of oxygen.

1.2.2 2–Methoxyethyl ether (Diglyme)

Ether additives are renewable bio-fuels which generally produce by the reaction of isomyelin

and isobutene with ethanol [13]. It can burn mainly and easily consist of diethyl ether (DEE), 2–

Methoxyethyl ether (MXEE), 2–ethoxyethyl ether (EXEE), dimethyl ether (DME), Ter–

amylethyl ether (TAEE), ethyl ter–butyl ether (ETBE), di–n–butyl ether (DNBE), etc.

2–methoxyethyl ether is a organic compound and the chemical formula C6H14O3. It contents the

high cetane number, oxygen content and boiling point in their physico–chemimal and

combustion properties. It is an organic compound which is the DME of diethylene glycol. It is

famous by the name of "diglyme" (portmanteau of "diglycol methyl ether). The chemical

structure of 2–methoxyethyl ether is shown in Fig. 1.1.

14
 Figure 1: Structure of 2–methoxyethyl ether

It is a 99% pure, colorless liquid with a just like ether odor. It is fully miscible with diethyl ether,

diesel, alcohols, water, and hydrocarbon solvents..

1.2.3 Nitromethane (NM)

It is also an nitrogeneted organic additives and it chemical formula is CH3NO2. The viscosity of

NM is faintly higher than diesel and it is highly polar liquid. Nitromethane is generally used in

various industrial applications like as extractions solvent, reaction medium,cleaning solvent. NM

is widely used in a drag racing car and element of fuel for small I.C. engines as a racing fuel. The

other used of NM are for making explosives, pharmaceuticals, fibers, pesticides and coatings

[14]. The chemical structure of NM is shown in Fig. 1.2.

Figure 2: Structure of Nitromethane

15
The NM is obtained by treating the propane with nitric acid at particular temperature (350–

450°C). This reaction produces (exothermic reaction) four kind of industrially important

nitroalkanes: 1-nitropropane, 2-nitropropane, nitroethane and nitromethane, Although all are

easily and cheaply available in market. NM may also be developed by other method that are of

instructional value.

The chemical reaction of sodium chloroacetate with sodium nitrite in aqueous solution produces

this compound:

ClCH2COONa + NaNO2 + H2O → CH3NO2 + NaCl + NaHCO3

Oxygen content of nitromethane enables it to burn with much less atmospheric oxygen.

4CH3NO2 + 3O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O + 2N2

The air amount required to burn 1 kg of diesel is 14.6 kg, but 1.7 kg of air only is needed for 1

kg of NM. The engine cylinder may hold a restricted amount of air at every engine stroke, a

single shock can burn 10.3 times more NM than a diesel. However, NM has a lower density of

energy.

Diesel gives around 42000–44000 kJ/kg whereas NM only gives 11300 kJ/kg. This study

specify that NM create around 2.3 times the more power as compared to diesel when combined

with a given amount of oxygen. NM can also be used as a monopropellant, i.e., a fuel that burns

without oxygen added.

2CH3NO2 → 2 CO + 2 H2O + H2 + N2

equation explain the above process.

16
1.4 Properties of diesel and additives:

Diesel engines have certain properties required to being tested before using additives. The

various combustion and physico-chemical properties of diesel, MXEE and NM is compared in

Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Combustion and physico–chemical properties of diesel, MXEE and NM [12-14]

Diesel 2–methoxyethyl Nitromethane

ether

Chemical Formula C10H20–C15H28 C6H14O3 CH3NO2

Molecular Weight (g/mol) 170 135 60

Density (kg/m3) (25°C) 845 950 1138

Boiling Point (°C) 190 162 101

Flash Point (°C) 70 51 38

Auto–ignition temperature 315 190 418

(°C)

Specific Gravity 0.827 0.945 1.138

Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 45 24.5 11.4

Latent heat of vaporization 245 322 561

(kJ/kg)

17
 Cetane Number 50 124 NA

Viscosity (40°C) cSt 2.54 1.08 0.62

Oxygen Content (wt%) 0 36 50

Carbon Content (wt%) 86 53.7 19.6

Hydrogen Content (wt%) 13 10.3 4.9

2-methoxyethyl ether and nitromethane have high oxygen content and very low hydrogen

content, carbon content. The viscosity of both additives is close to that of diesel. Combustion

efficiency is increased due to the higher satin number available in 2-methoxyethyl ether.

Nitromethane also acts as a cetane number improvisation. Therefore, MXEE and NM can be

used as additives with diesel for C.I. engines due to superior physico-chemical and combustion

properties.

1.5 Work motivation:

The increasing the consumption of diesel fuel against its supply is motivates to replace diesel

fuel by diesel-additive blended fuel. Global warming is one more important issue that encourage

us to try to reduce exhaust emissions from tailpipe of stationary engine or an automotive engines.

By comparing various combustion and physico–chemical properties of MXEE and NM with

diesel, it is seen that 2–methoxyethyl ether and nitromethane is having high potential to enhance

the ignition quality of the engine due to high oxygen content and cetane number. [12,14].

18
 Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Fast development of infrastructure, increased industrialization, modern lifestyle and growth of

population needs more energy. Petroleum fuel contributes a large percentage of total energy

demand for transportation as well as for thermal energy. Over the year I.C. engines have become

much advanced and fuel–efficient but they have their own limitation viz. high fuel cost and high

emissions.

The consumption of petroleum products in India was 206.17 MMT in FY 2017-18 with an

increase of 5.95% compared to 194.60 MMT consumption during FY 2016-17.

Figure 3: Production and consumption of petroleum products [15]

The production of petroleum products was recorded at 254.40 MMT in FY 2017-18, while it

achieved 243.55 MMT in FY 2016-17, an increase of about 4.46%. Crude oil imports were

19
220.43 MMT during FY 2017-18, amounting to Rs 566450 crores, while in FY 2016-17, imports

were Rs 47359 crores, with an increase of 3.04% in terms of volume and value terms Was

20.43%. The consumption and production of petroleum products is shown in figure year-wise

From the above figure it is clear that the consumption rate of petroleum product is higher than

production rate [15].

Limited resources of diesel fuel and ecological concerns promote research in the field of

emission control technologies and alternative fuels. Various types of additives/alternative fuels

i.e., alcohol [16–22], biodiesel [23–25] and vegetable oils [26–28] may be used in diesel engines

with sufficient performance and low exhaust emissions. Improved fuel can also be obtained by

adding the appropriate percentage of these options to diesel. Among these, oxygen-rich and

nitrogenous additives have gained more attention due to their ability to reduce emissions without

greatly affecting engine performance [29,30]. Oxygen-rich and nitrogenous additives are

renewable in nature and support the local agriculture industry as well. Various research in the

field of alternative fuels for CI engines showed that fuels having oxygen in their molecular

structure are capable of reducing emissions of smoke, NOx, CO and HC with unaltered or even

improved performance (in some cases). The fuel–bound oxygen plays an important role in more

efficient and complete combustion by leaning the fuel rich zone. However, emissions are also

affected by fuel type, injection techniques, engine design, operating parameters and engine

running conditions [31,32]. In view of these facts, an extensive literature review related to use of

oxygenated and nitrogenated additives in CI engines was done to find scope for work on

enhancement in performance and decline in exhaust emissions using these additives.

20
2.1 Additives as diesel engine fuel:

In diesel engines, alcohol–diesel blends have improved exhaust emissions to a certain extent, but

at the same time, adverse effects were observed on CN and fuel viscosity. Some cetane number

dependents may need to be mixed into alcohol–diesel mixtures to recover these properties. When

the oxygen-containing additive and a minute percentage of the NM additive were mixed with

pure diesel, the CN of the mixture and the combustion characteristics inside the engine cylinder

were improved [33,34].

In a study on different oxygen contained additives, it was accounted that when 30 % to 40 %

quantity of oxygen by mass is available in the fuel, the generation of smoke precursors was

insignificant. Due to the high levels of oxygen content in the fuel and the high heat of

evaporation of oxygen-containing additives, more hot air is needed to achieve self-ignition

temperature, the overall equilibrium ratio is reduced in the premix area. This further reduces the

production of smokers. It was accounted that in addition to fuel and oxygen additives, HC and

CO emissions have also decreased. However, it was happenied due to slight increase in fuel

consumption [34].

Diesel and ethylene-glycol-monoacetate (5% and 10%)-fuel blends was used on marine CI

engines. Experimental results showed that addition of additive increased BSFC and decreased

excess air, CO, CO2, exhaust gas temperature, and NOx emissions [35].

The 2, 5-dimethylfuran (DMF)-diesel, diesel-gasoline and diesel-butanol blends were tested on a

fueled CI engine. The amount of 30% additives was added to these three fuels and the resulting

mixtures were referred to as D30, B30 and G30. It was reported that the D30 has a higher

21
ignition delay than the B30 and G30. This is due to its low cetane number, which leads to a high

rate of burns and high pressures. The D30 showed the lowest smoke emissions with higher EGR

rates. Long ignition delay and high oxygen content in fuel were two key factors that reduced

smoke emissions. It was reported that ignition delay has more effect on smoke reduction than

fuel oxygen. Moreover, at medium EGR rates (<40%), D30 and B30 both showed improved

smoke–NOx trade–off and expansion of low–emission region without reducing fuel efficiency

[36,37].

A study was performed with two ignition promoters, DTBP (di-tertiary butyl peroxide) and IAN

(iso-amyl nitrate) mixed with 50B:50D (50% pine oil and 50% diesel) on CI engine. It was

reported that in addition to ignition promoters, NOx emissions for 50B:50D: IAN and 50B:50D-

DTBP decreased by 12.8% and 19.2% compared to 50B:50D, respectively. The reduction of CO

and HC emissions were 40% and 34%, respectively, compared to 50D: 50B. In reducing the

qualified DTBP NOx emissions, two ignition promoters were reported to be superior.

Improvements in engine performance were reported for 50B:50D-DTBP [38].

In a review study, the effects of biodiesel and diesel additives were investigated in CI engines. It

was reported that oxygenated additives were mostly preferred due to their easy availability and

low cost. In most of the cases it was reported that addition of these additives results in decreased

engine performance (particularly at lower loads) due to cooling effect and low calorific value.

However, upon addition of some alcohols and DEE (up to 10% v/v), the engine showed some

improvement in performance. In general, addition of alcohols reduces smoke and HC, but

22
ncreases NOx and CO emissions. The simultaneous reduction of fumes, NOx and CO by

blending ether in diesel fuel has been suggested [39].

Yanfeng Gong et al. [33] an experiment performed on 4-S, water cooled, single cylinder CI

engine fuelled by 2–methoxyethyl acetate (MEA) (10%, 15% and 20%) and diesel blends.

Under the same load and speed conditions, the maximum cylinder pressure is reduced when

fueled with blends, while ignition is delayed and the combustion period is reduced. When MEA

is added to diesel, engine emissions of fumes, CO and HC are reduced. However, MEA has little

effect on NOx emissions. When fueled with MEA15, the coefficient of light absorption of the

smoke opacimeter decreases by about 50% with 5% power expense, and the thermal efficiency

of the engines increases by about 2%.

Karabektas Murat and Hosoz Murat [40] investigated the suitability of fuel blends (isobutanol-

diesel) as an alternative fuel for diesel engines and experimentally engine performance (BP,

BTE, BSFC) and exhaust emission (CO, HC, NOx) was tested. For testing, 4- different fuel

blends were prepared on the basis of 5, 10, 15 and 20% amounts of isobutanol. A 4-stroke direct

injection diesel engine with an interval of 200 rpm was used. The test results indicated that BP

decreases slightly with mixtures containing 10% isobutanol, whereas it significantly decreases

with mixtures containing 15 and 20% isobutanol. Diesel fuel produces the highest BTE, with a

mixture of 10% isobutanol that slightly improves the higher engine speed in BTE.The results

also suggest that compared to diesel fuel, NOx and CO emissions are reduced with the use of

mixtures, while HC emissions increase significantly.

23
Keskin Ali et al. [41] studied the effect of metal-based additives for the performance and

emissions characteristic of CI engines. Metallic-based additives were developed by the synthesis

of resin acids with MgO or MnO2. These additives were added to diesel fuel with different rate

(8 mol/l and 16μmol/l) to prepare the test blends. Additives improved the properties of blend

fuel i.e., density, cloud point, viscosity, pour point and flash point. The fuel with and without

additives was tested in a DI CI engine at peak load. The maximum reduction in BSFC was

recorded at 4.16%. Smoke opacity and CO emissions were reduced by 29.82% and 16.35%

respectively.

Menezes Eliana Weber de et al. [13] evaluates the effect of ether additives in diesel and

ether/ethanol/diesel blends with different properties (i.e., viscosity, volatility, density)

characteristics at low temperatures. The blends prepared on the amount of 5, 10 and 20%

vol./vol. of ethyl ter-butyl ether (ETBE) and with ter-amyl ethyl ether (TAEE). For ether or

ethanol blends of 5, 10 and 20% vol./vol. were prepared with a base diesel. Formulations of

TAEE up to 5% vol./vol. demonstrated satisfactory results with greater efficiency in the

evaluation of physicochemical properties and engine tests. The results suggest that ETBE and

TAEE ethers act as co-solvents of ethanol in diesel. The presence of ethanol and ETBE

significantly alters the characteristics of volatility and reduces CN, impairing fuel performance in

engine tests.

Yang W.M.et al. [42] evaluated the performance and emissions characteristic of CI engines by

emulsion fuel and compared with diesel. The results indicated that an improved BTE can be

obtained with used fuel. It is caused by the occurrence of micro-explosions, that is, instantaneous

24
and violent evaporation of water droplets within the fuel droplets, as the fuel is exposed to high-

temperature gas, the larger fuel droplets break into several smaller droplets, causing the fuel to

evaporate and improves the combustion rates. NOx emissions are reduced due to the presence of

water, which reduce the high temperature of flame at same time.

Sreenivasulu. P at el. [43] studied the effect of alcohol based additives on engine performance.

Additives such as 1-octylamino-3octyloxy-2propanol, hexanol, N-octyl nitramine and n-butanol

were mixed with diesel & ethyl alcohol and used as a fuel blends in CI engine.

2.2 2–Methoxyethyl ether (Diglyme) as a fuel additives

From experimental study it was observed that higher cetane number (CN) of fuel is mainly

accountable for higher power output and lower smoke and NOx emissions. It was found that the

alcohol mixture in the diesel decreased the CN of the fuel blends, causing poor self-ignition

problems. To cope with this, CN–improvers such as ethylhexyl nitrate (C8H17NO3), cyclohexyl

nitrate (C6H5NO3) and 2–methoxyethyl ether (C6H14O3) were mixed in methanol–biodiesel

blends. At the initiation of combustion, the intermolecular bonds of these additives break before

fuel ignition takes place and produce C, H, N and O radicals which collide with each other and

associate to form CO, CO2, NOx and H2O, and release their binding energy, which in turn leads

to reduction in ignition delay. Cetane number improvers accelerate the combustion rate of the

fuel and reduce the ignition delay period. When Cetane number improvers were added into

alcohol–diesel blends, the nature and concentration of radicals is changed, and this in turn,

changes the ignition reaction and combustion products. At rated conditions, the three improvers

reduced smoke and NOx emissions from 11.76% to 38.24% and 3.87% to 12.90% respectively as

25
contrast to methanol–biodiesel blend. However, emissions characteristics of CO and HC were

increased. Among these improvers, diglyme showed the best effects on reduction of smoke and

NOx emissions of methanol–biodiesel blends [44]. In other experimental studies with NE, NM,

DGM and metal additives, it has been reported that mixing these additives with ethanol–diesel

blends improved performance and reduced emissions. The DGM blended fuel showed best

performance, while the NM blended fuel showed best results in smoke reduction. In general,

smoke was reduced for all additive–blended fuels while NOx and CO were found to vary

according to the nature of additive and operating conditions [45-47].

A study was conducted with diglyme and five other oxygenated additives blended with diesel

fuel on a CI engine. It was found that on addition of these additives the total duration of

combustion decreased, but at the same time, combustion improved due to availability of oxygen,

particularly during the diffusion combustion phase. It was observed that with DGM blended fuel,

the initial phase of combustion advanced and the maximum rate of heat release decreased. It was

reported that the effect of Cetane number is more pronounced on ignition delay compared to

mass fraction of oxygen in fuel. This was reflected in the form of ignition delay being reduced

with DGM–diesel blend (DGM having higher Cetane number that diesel), while showing an

increase with other oxygenated additives having Cetane number lower than diesel. The trend of

increased ignition delay with other oxygenated additives was observed to continue with

increasing quantities of these additives in diesel (thus increased oxygen mass fraction in blends).

Smoke emission was reduced with all oxygenated additives–diesel blends. Increased oxygen in

fuel leads to burning of more fuel in the initial phase and thus reduces the amount of fuel burned

in the diffusion phase. Lesser availability of fuel for burning in diffusion phase and oxidation of

26
smoke precursors in diffusion phase, were the main reasons for reduction of smoke with

oxygenated additives. It was concluded that smoke reduction is mainly dependent on mass

fraction of oxygen in fuel rather than on the type of additive. In general, 10% oxygen mass

fraction in fuel reduces smoke by 30–40%. A slight decrement in NOx was observed with

oxygenated additive blended fuels. The emission of CO and HC were also decreased with

increased oxygen content in blends [48].

An experimental study was conducted with diglyme–diesel blends under 5 different engine loads

with different engine speeds of 1800 rpm and 2400 rpm. Diglyme–diesel blends containing 5%,

10.1%, 15.2%, 20.4%, 25.7% and 53% of diglyme (v/v) contain2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 10% and 20%

of oxygen (by mass) respectively. The blending of DGM in diesel resulted in increased BSFC

with a maximum increase of 45.1% observed for 53% DGM–diesel blend. BTE was improved

slightly for lower blends, but reduced for higher blends. BTE was reduced by 3.6% with 53%

DGM blend as compared to diesel. It was observed that smoke emission reduced with increased

oxygen content in fuel. NOx also reduced slightly with DGM blending in diesel. The increased

oxygen content in blended fuel replaced some carbon content and enhanced combustion in the

diffusion phase along with a reduction of aromatics compounds in the blended fuel, and this led

to reduced smoke emission [49]. Another investigation showed that reduction of HC is more for

additives having less percentage of oxygen. The reduction in PM is generally dependent on the

oxygen content in fuel, whereas reduction in CO and HC emissions depends on the molecular

composition of the oxygenating additives too. Up to 15% blending of diethelene–glycol–

dimethyl–ether (Diglyme) with diesel resulted in 60% reduction in smoke [50].

27
2.3 Nitromethane as a fuel additives

Nitromethane having 50% (by weight) oxygen content is available and it is responsible to reduce

the external requirement of oxygen for completing the ignition. NM has been used with diesel

fuel as a oxygeneted additives. It is cost saving, uncorrosive, harmless and provide high power at

shaft output. Also, use of NM in IC engine results in reduced smoke. Presence of NM in diesel

fuel tends to increase chances of pre–ignition, which is desirable up to some extent in diesel

engines. Thermal efficiency is decreased because more unburned fuel is lost with exhaust

[51,52].

When NE and NM mixed with alcohol–diesel blends or pure diesel, viscosity reduces and cetane

index increases. By adding of NM in diesel, the performance of engine is improved and exhaust

smoke is reduced. NM is temperature susceptible and burns with highly rapid rate in the

combustion chamber after injection, which is pleasing for CI engine. Boiling point of NM is low

as compared to pure diesel as mentioned in properties table, which is responsible for increased

BTE against increased BSFC. This improves the injection quality and atomization rate of

blended fuel. The high amount of oxygen available in nitroparaffin compound may be another

reason for high BTE. It was found that smoke reduced up to 16.2 % with NM–diesel blend and

NOx increased up to 5.1 % with diesel–NM blend. The two main reasons affect the formation of

smoke in diesel-NM blends, one is high oxygen content i.e., 50 % and second is high latent heat

of vaporization i.e., 561 kJ/kg. It was also found that the increment in NOx quantity with blended

fuel is occurs mainly by thermal NOx, not due to nitrogen present in molecular structure of NM.

[14]. Additives, NE, NM and DGM were mixed into the ethanol–diesel mixture to study the

28
performance and exhaust emission characteristics of the CI engine. It was observed that the use

of these additives reduced the smoke in the range of 27–50% respectively.

The emissions of CO and CO2 reduced for NM and DGM blends, NOx increased for NM blend,

but decreased for DGM blend and HC increased for all additive–blended fuels as compared to

ethanol–diesel blend [45,46].

In the available study, it is found that the use of oxygeneted additives, biodiesel, different

injection timing and various EGR rate were seen as a NOx reduction technologies. In general

seen that, adding of oxygenated additives are responsible for increasing NOx emissions. The

effect of oxygenated additives on NOx emission also depends on engine design, operating

condition and its maintenance. High temperature, distribution of temperature in combustion

chamber are also responsible for NOx production. EGR system with ternary fuel blends at

optimized injection timing were seen effective approach for controlling of NOx emission

[53,54]. Modeling tools are used to achieve performance and emission according to experimental

investigations and by adding different oxygen-containing additives, metal additives, at different

load and speed conditions. Typically, tertiary fuel blends i.e., additive-alcohol-diesel was able to

reduce diesel smoke emissions and improve the performance of CI engine [46]. A parallel kind

of investigation on CI engine showed that ternary blends of 1 % NM–5 to10% n butanol–diesel

reduced smoke while increased NOx and CO. However, power of engine was decreased and

BSFC was increased. Adding small amount of nano particles in pure diesel were found useful in

regaining of lost power [47]. Short ignition delay due to use of additives may responsible to

decrease in NOx emission. Shorter ignition delay also allow lesser amounts of fuel before

29
ignition, thus resulting in lower peak temperatures. Nevertheless, accessibility of NM in blended

fuel improves the ignition quality, which in turn guides to increase in NOx. Usually, the outcome

for NM did not yield substantially conclusive results and thus need further experimental study

[55].

A homogeneous charged compression assisted ignition engine, Nitromethane shortened the

combustion period and increased the indicated mean effective pressure. Nitromethane improved

the combustion rate when blended with methanol irrespective of cycle variations [56].

Moghaddam Mojtaba Saei et al. [14] evalute NM and NE were used as nitrogenated additives to

enhance the combustion characteristic (increment in performance and reduction in emission) of

CI engine and also studies the various physical and chemical properties of the blended fuel.

Performed an experiment to evalute the performance and exhaust emission of pure diesel, NM–

diesel and NE–diesel blends on diesel engine (ECE R–96 8–modes cycle) for different engine

parameters. The addition of nitrogenated additives to the pure diesel fuel caused brake thermal

efficiency (BTE) increased. The smoke emission decreased at the maximum torque speed (1500

rpm) rather than at the rated power speed (2200 rpm).

2.4 Effect of compression ratio (CR)

Muralidharan et al. [57] conducted experiments using methyl esters of waste cooking oil with

diesel on VCR engine varying CR from 18 to 22, and found maximum BTE at CR 21.

Sivaramakrishnan [58] conducted experiment using 20%, 25% and 30% of Karanja oil blended

30
with diesel in a multi–fuel VCR engine at CRs of 15 to 18. The best results were obtained with

25% biodiesel–diesel blend with CR 18. Hariram et al. [59] observed reduction in BTE and

increase in EGT when CR was reduced from 18 to 16. Nagaraja et al. [60] used pre heated palm

oil and their blends with diesel on CI Engine at different CR. Experiments were conducted at CR

16 to 20. EGT was low for all the blends compared to diesel. CO and HC reduced with an

increase in blending ratio and CR at maximum load. The engine performance was found to be

optimum when using blend at CR 20 at full load condition. De et al. [61] evaluated the effects of

Jatropha oil combustion on performance and emissions in VCR diesel engine at three CRs of 16,

17 and 18 and different Jatropha oil blending rates (10%, 30%, 50%, 80% and 100%). They

concluded that the thermal efficiency, EGT and emission such as NOx and CO at CR of 18 for

up to 30% Jatropha oil blend was close to that of diesel. Senthil et al. [62] studied the effects of

CR and IT on the performance with Annona methyl ester (A20). It was found that CR 19.5 and

IT 30º bTDC, A20 gave better performance and lower emission which was very close to diesel

and also concluded that the improvement in BTE and SFC was observed, when CR and IT

increased.

2.5 Motivation and research gap

Many notable developments have taken place in the field of use of alternative fuels and additives

in CI engines. Still, the use of oxygenated and nitrogenated additives in CI engines has more or

less been limited to some pilot studies or lab experiments only. Much research is required to rank

these fuels with respect to performance and emissions. On the basis of literature review, the

following factors were considered for carrying out research on the proposed topic:

31
  Many studies have been done on diesel– additives blends and testing of performance and

emission characteristics of the engines. However, there is a lack of detailed study with

multiple additives.

 Literature related to effects of variable compression ratios on engine performance and

emissions fuelled with multiple additives blends is limited.

In view of these aspects, research on the simultaneous use of diesel, oxygenated and nitrogenated

additives to form ternary blends is proposed. Guided by the literature survey, it was decided to

select 2–methoxyethyl ether and nitromethane as the experimental additives. Also, in order to

make the results of research more impactful, it was decided to use a VCR CI engine. Current

study thus aims to present an experimental investigation using selective combinations of “2–

methoxyethyl ether–nitromethane–diesel” ternary blends to determine the optimum blend and

compression ratio for performance and emissions of a diesel engine having widespread

applicability.

2.6 Objectives

Current research works are concentrated on the experimental analysis of "2-methoxyethyl ether-

nitromethane-diesel" to achieve the best blending ratio and compression ratio of CI engine. The

major objectives of the proposed research work are formalized as follows:

To find out most suitable blend among all fuel blends of "2–methoxyethyl ether–

nitromethane–diesel" for improved CI engine performance and reduced exhaust

emissions.

32
 To find out most suitable compression ratio among all range of compression ratio for

suggested above blend.

2.7 Research procedure

In order to achieve the stated research objectives in a structured manner, the following

stepwise methodology/research plan was followed:

1. Detailed literature review regarding CI engines operated on alternative fuels. Study of

possible additives in diesel engines and their effects on engine performance and

emissions.

2. Finding out the research gap and identification of most promising additives for proposed

research work.

3. Generation of baseline data using diesel fuel.

4. Engine test run with different blends of 2–methoxyethyl ether –nitromethane –diesel to

find out optimum blend for better performance and minimum exhaust emissions.

5. Again engine test run for different compression ratio with best suitable blend to find out

optimum compression ratio for better performance and minimum exhaust emissions.

6. Comparative analysis of best results obtained above with pure diesel.

7. Documentation of the research work – final report writing.

33
 Chapter 3

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND METHODOLOGY

In the current work, experimental analysis have been performed on VCR, direct injection CI

engine fuelled by pure diesel and diesel–additives (2–methoxyethyl ether –nitromethane –diesel)

blend at I. C. engine laboratory, SKIT, Jaipur. Exhaust parameters were recorded through smoke

meter and exhaust gas analyzer for all cases. This chapter deals the method of blend preparation,

technique of experiment, specification of various equipment (engine setup, gas analyzer, smoke

meter, etc.) utilized for experiment. The parameter that has to measure is brake thermal

efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption, smoke, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide and

haydrocarbon.

3.1 Blend preparation

Blend preparation was the first task of the experiments. Three blends of diesel, 2–methoxyethyl

ether and nitromethane (D–MXEE2.5–NM2.5, D–MXEE5–NM2.5, D–MXEE7.5–NM2.5) were

prepared on volume basis. Initially the pure diesel fuel was taken according to the blending ratio

in glass container, after that 2–methoxyethyl ether according to blending ratio mixed in pure

diesel drop by drop and stirrer it continuously with the help of magnetic stirrer. After mixing of

2–methoxyethyl ether in pure diesel, 2.5% of nitromethane in a fixed quantity was poured in

diesel–2–methoxyethyl ether blend similarly. All the above steps were repeated for different fuel

34
blend. The stability of fuel blends was also verified before experimentation and no settling was

seen for about 72 hours. The process of blend preparation is depicted in figures 3.1.

Figure 4: Different stage of blend preparation

3.2 Measurement of performance parameter

Engine set up

A four stroke, single cylinder, water cooled, variable compression ratio, direct injection,

compression ignition engine has used for experiment as shown in fig. 3.2 & 3.3. The fuel was

supplied to the fuel pump by feeding gravity through filters and fuel tanks. New lubricating oil

was added to the engine before the experimentation. Splash types of lubrication system used to

lubricate the various parts of the engine. 12 V and 45 Amp battery was used to start the engine.

The various technological specification of the engine has given in the table 2.1.

35
 Figure 5: Pictorial view of experimental setup

Figure 6: Pictorial view of control pannel

The CR of the diesel engine may be change by changing the location (spot) of cylinder head with

the help of handle mounted on the top of the engine head. A calibrated protector is placed on the

injection nozzle, So that nozzle pressure can be change with that protector.

36
There were various sensors attached with engine to measure the temperature of various positions

in the engine. The engine is also attached with eddy current dynamometer, computer, smoke

meter, gas analyzer, control panel and various thermocouples. The specifications of all the

equipments are given in the table 2.

Eddy Current Dynamometer

The engine crank shaft is directly coupled with an eddy current dynamometer and load is carried

using torque meter with potentiometer knob. The load supply on the engine from no load to full

load (0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%).

Data logger

Data logger comes with software (Windows 7) and hardware (CD–ROM drive, IBM PC with

any processor, 1GB free space in hard disks etc.) so that we can analyze the engine performance.

Data logger comes with USB interface so that we can interact with the computer also. There are

eleven channel of data logger these are as follows:

i. Fuel flow

ii. Load

iii. Air flow

iv. Water flow

v. Inlet water temperature

vi. Outlet water temperature

vii. Room temperature

37
 viii. Exhaust temperature

ix. Calorimeter exhaust temperature

x. Speed

xi. High temperature pressure sensor.

Fuel and air consumption measuring instruments

The rate of fuel is measured using two capacitive sensors with a glass burred and solenoid valve.

The solenoid valve is controlled from the digital output of the data logger. When solenoid stops

the fuel inside the burette will start reducing as the fuel goes just below the top sensor timer is

started. When the fuel decreases below the bottom sensor the timer stops. The fuel rate is

calculated using the time required for the volume of fuel consumed between the top and bottom

sensor.

By using orifice with differential pressure transmitter the air flow rate was measured. The orifice

meter was attached with 2 ft × 2 ft metal enclosed cylinder. As the engine starts it starts sucking

the air from chamber. The vacuum created in the chamber will start sucking the air through the

orifice. The differential pressure built due to the suction of air inside the chamber is measured

and air flow rate is calculated based on the Cd and diameter of the orifice.

3.3 Measurement of exhaust emissions

Gas Analyzer

In the present study exhaust gas emissions have been measured using AVL smoke meter (smoke)

and AVL gas analyzer (CO, HC, NOx) as shown in fig.3.4. The concentration of NOx was

measure on electrochemical principle. The analyzer is based on the principle that the quantity of

38
infrared energy absorbed by a compound in a sample cell is proportional to the concentration of

the compound in the cell. The analyzer is equipped with advanced microprocessor technology.

Smoke meter

AVL smoke meter has been shown in the fig.3.4. The smoke meter is used to measure the smoke

density and smoke opacity based on the light absorption coefficient principle. The specification

of smoke meter is given in the table 2.

Figure 7: Exhaust smoke meter and gas analyzer

Table 2: Equipment specification and set up

Equipment Specification

Engine TVI Kriloskar, constant rpm (1500), single cylinder, four stroke, 3750W,

0.556 litre, 8cm bore, 10.1cm stroke length, 16.5–20.5 CR, self /crank start.

Dynamometer Power mug, air cooled, eddy current type, power rating 3750W, constant rpm

39
 (1500), S– type load sensor.

Exhaust Gas analyzer AVL–DIGAS Modal– 444N

For NOx gas– Electrochemical, Range 0–5000 PPM, Resolution 1PPM.

For CO gas – NDRI, Range 0–15%, Resolution 0.001%

Smoke analyzer AVL Austria Modal– 437C

HSU (%), Range 1–100, Resolution 0.1.

Fuel rate The fuel rate is measured by two capacitive sensors with a glass burred and

measurement solenoid valve. Range– 0–10kg/hr, resolution–0.06 kg/hr

Air intake An orifice and differential pressure transmitter used for the measurement of

measurement air flow (m3/s). Range of air rate – 50m3/hr, resolution – 0.1m3/hr.

Temperature K Type thermocouple, range 0–7000C, Resolution –10C.

measurement

Water flow rate The water flow rate is measured by turbine flow type transducer. Range of

measurement water flow rate– 0– 99.9cc/s, resolution–0.1 cc/s.

Data logger Scan range 250 ks/sec, signal conditioning N16210 high speed card,

USB/serial interface.

3.4 Test procedure and condition

All the experiments were performed at 1500 rpm (fixed speed). The engine load had been varied

0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. The load has been apply on engine through eddy current

40
dynamometer. First the experiments were performed with pure diesel and after that different

blends.

 The experiment was started by checking the electrical and ignition switches.

 All the water connections should be open for cooling of the engine. Set the flow rate for

engine jacket 4 to 5 LPM, calorimeter water flow rate 4 LPM.

 Switch on the gas analyzer and check the leak for proper working condition.

 Switch on the smoke meter.

 Switch on the data logger and PC for providing inputs and collecting output data (using

LABVIEW software).

 Start the engine by pressing ignition switch (fully charged battery was connected to the

ignition switch).

 Now moderately varies the load on the engine by adjusting nobe on the control panel.

 After 20–25 minutes performance and emission data had been observed and recorded for

different load condition on the engine.

 Compression ratio can be varied from 16.5:1 to 20.5:1.

 Drain the fuel after experiment for changing fuel mode.

3.5 Precaution taken during the experiment

 Ensure the proper fitting of nut and bolt before starting the experiment on the engine.

 Ensure the sufficient quantity of tested fuel available in tank.

 Make sure the water flow rate in engine jacket and calorimeter should be 4 to 5 LPM.

41
 Compression ratio change only in the running condition (at no load) of the engine and

bring back to normal compression ratio (CR 17.5) after completing the experiments.

 Make sure the proper cleaning of the fuel pipe line.

42
 Chapter 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this chapter a detailed experimental study of the CI engine has been done. Different

performance and exhaust emission analysis of CI engines for different fuel blends (D-MXEE-

NM) and pure diesel have been performed. Experiments were conducted on all sets of fuels, pure

diesel and blends (D-MXEE2.5-NM2.5, D-MXEE5-NM2.5, D-MXEE7.5-NM2.5) without any

stagnation. All the obtained results are discussed in details with the help of the figure given

below.

4.1 Performance and emissions analysis

The CI engine performance and exhaust emission characteristics has been investigated at

standard (normal) engine parameters (CR–17.5, IP–200 bar and IT–23 before TDC) with pure

diesel and different fuel blends are as depicted in figs. 4.1–4.6.

4.1.1 Brake thermal efficiency

The brake thermal efficiency of the engine represents the part of heat that is directly converted to

shaft power output. The relationship between between brake thermal efficiency (%) and brake

power (kW) is shown in figure 4.1. It has also been observed that brake power is directly

propostional to brake thermal efficiency.

43
 Figure 8: BTE v/s BP curve for diesel and different blends

As per the above curve the BTE (%) is highest for D-MXEE5-NM2.5 (40.2%) at the peak load

and the efficiency decreases as increase the quantity of additives. The above result confirms the

heating value of diesel being the highest. The blended fuels release lesser heat because of lower

heating value, which in turn reduces BTE of engine [5].

4.1.2 Brake specific fuel consumption

Figure 9: BSFC v/s BP curve for diesel and different blends

44
As per the above fig.4.2 the BSFC is lowest for D-MXEE5-NM2.5 (0.186 kg/kW–h) at the peak

load and the BSFC increases as increase the quantity of additives. The above result confirms the

quantity of fuel consume per BHP is lowest for diesel as it has got the highest heating value.

4.1.3 Smoke

As per the fig.4.3 the quantity of smoke is least for blend D–MXEE5–NM2.5 as the additives

have low boiling point, lower ignition temperature and higher oxygen content as compare to

diesel.

Figure 10: Smoke v/s BP curve for diesel and different blends

The higher ignition delay that gives more time for air-fuel mixing and good volatility

characteristic of MXEE and NM (due to low boiling temperature 162 °C and 100°C) as compare

to pure diesel (high boiling temperature 180–360 °C), responsible to improving combustion

quality. The high oxygen content of MXEE and NM (36 and 52.4) is also responsible to

provides sufficient oxygen in fuel rich region that helps in smoke reduction [63,64]. A minimum

45
value of 72 HSU% smoke emission value was observed with blend D-MXEE5-NM2.5 in peak

load conditions between all D-MXEE-NM mixtures and pure diesel.

4.1.4 Carbon monoxide

As per the quantity of CO is least for blend D–MXEE5–NM2.5, as the additives have low

boiling point, lower ignition temperature and high content of oxygen are available as compare to

diesel.

Figure 11: CO v/s BP curve for diesel and different blends

A minimum value of 0.02 % CO emission value was observed with blend D-MXEE5-NM2.5 in

peak load conditions between all D-MXEE-NM mixtures and pure diesel.

46
4.1.5 Hydrocarbon

Figure 12: HC v/s BP curve for diesel and different blends

As per the above the quantity of HC is least for blend D–MXEE5–NM2.5, as the additives have

low boiling point, lower ignition temperature and higher oxygen content leading to a better

homogeneous mixture than diesel helping to obtain lower value of HC. A minimum value of 8

ppm HC emission value was observed with blend D-MXEE5-NM2.5 in peak load conditions

between all D-MXEE-NM mixtures and pure diesel.

47
4.1.6 Nitrogen oxides

Figure 13: NOx v/s BP curve for diesel and different blends

As per the above fig.4.6 the quantity of NOx is the least for the blend D–MXEE5–NM2.5, as

compared to pure diesel. Reason being additive have high cetane number and high oxygen

content makes a early combustion. A minimum value of 180 ppm NOx emission value was

observed with blend D-MXEE5-NM2.5 in peak load conditions between all D-MXEE-NM

mixtures and pure diesel.

From the above study, it is concluded that the best results are obtain from the blend D–MXEE5–

NM2.5 at peak load and CR–17.5. Now, further studies have been carried out with different

compression ratio of best blend.

48
4.2 Optimum CR Selection for best blend (D–MXEE5–NM2.5)

After the selection of best blend, the experiments was carried out for various compression ratios

(i.e., 16.5, 17.5, 18.5, 19.5 and 20.5). Using best blend (D–MXEE5–NM2.5), various engine

performance and exhaust emissions results of engine was obtained at different compression

ratios as shown in the figs. 4.7–4.12.

4.2.1 Brake thermal efficiency

Figure 14: BTE v/s BP curve for D–MXEE5–NM5 at different CR

From the above it is observe that at CR 19.5, highest BTE value (40.74%) is achieved at peak

load. Higher the CR will lead to higher turbulence and higher initial temperature before the

combustion start.

49
4.2.2 Brake specific fuel consumption

Figure 15: BSFC v/s BP curve for D–MXEE5–NM5 at different CR

From the above it is observe that at CR 19.5, lowest BSFC value (0.184) is achieved at peak

load. Higher the CR will lead to higher turbulence at the same time higher initial temperature

before the combustion start and as such lower fuel consumption.

4.2.3 Smoke

Figure 16: Smoke v/s BP curve for D–MXEE5–NM5 at different CR

50
From the above it is observe that at CR 20.5, lowest smoke is achieved at peak load. This is due

better combustion of fuel during power stroke. The minimum value of 70 HSU% smoke

emission was observed at CR 20.5 with selected blend among all compression ratio at peak load

condition.

4.2.4 Carbon monoxide

Figure 17: CO v/s BP curve for D–MXEE5–NM5 at different CR

From the above it is observe that at CR 19.5, lowest CO is achieved at peak load. This is due to

better homogeneous mixture during combustion. The minimum value of 0.015% CO emission

was observed at CR 19.5 with selected blend among all compression ratio at peak load condition.

51
4.2.5 Hydrocarbon

Figure 18: HC v/s BP curve for D–MXEE5–NM5 at different CR

From the above it is observe that at CR 19.5, lowest HC is achieved at peak load. This is due to

better homogeneous mixture during combustion. The minimum value of 7 ppm HC emission was

observed at CR 19.5 with selected blend among all compression ratio at peak load condition.

52
4.2.6 Nitrogen oxides

Figure 19: NOx v/s BP curve for D–MXEE5–NM5 at different CR

From the above fig.4.12, it is observed that highest NOx is obtained at CR 20.5 and lowest at CR

16.5. This is occurs because of temperature increases for the duration of combustion as CR

increases. The minimum value 174 ppm of NOx emission was observed at lowest CR 16.5

among all CR with selected blend at peak load condition.

From the above it can be concluded the comparatively better results are obtained (among all CR)

with D–MXEE5–NM5 at CR 19.5.

53
 Chapter 5

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

5.1 Conclusions

In the current work, a VCR compression ignition engine was operated at different compression

ratio with ternary fuel blends (diesel–2–methoxyethyl ether–nitromethane) and its performance

and emission characteristic were recorded.

At first stage, engine was operated at standard CR 17.5 using pure diesel and variable ternary

blends (D-MXEE2.5-NM2.5, D-MXEE5-NM2.5, D-MXEE7.5-NM2.5), and result were also

recorded. Then these results compared with the pure diesel to get the best blend. In second stage

best selected blend was tested at different CR for its optimization. Based on the various

experimental results, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. At standard conditions of engine i.e., IT 23° CA btdc, IP 200 bar and CR 17.5, D–

MXEE5–NM2.5 blend was found the most excellent fuel blend due to high cetane

number, high oxygen content available in the blend. BTE was increased by 3.02 % and

BSFC was decreased by 6.06 %. D–MXEE5–NM2.5 also controlled emissions (CO, HC,

NOx and Smoke reduced by 60%, 61.90%, 7.69% and 17.24% respectively) as compared

to neat diesel at peak load.

2. After analyzing the above results, it was observed that at higher CR 19.5 better results

were achievd using D-MXEE5-NM2.5 blend, due to higher temperature and pressure of

the mixture at the time of combustion. Higher CR also helps in better mixing and

reducing the delay period and enhance the performance of the engine. It also resulted in

54
 considerable less emission (HC 12.5%, CO 25.00 % and Smoke 1.38%) and enhancement

in performance (1.34 % increment in BTE and 1.07% decrement in BSFC) were achieved

as compared to standard CR (17.5) at peak load condition. But at the same time due to

higher combustion temperature NOx content (12.22%) in emission increases.

3. On comparing the results obtain D–MXEE5–NM2.5 fuel blend at CR 19.5 and pure

diesel at CR 17.5, it is observed that performance of engine increases (BTE increment

4.41% and BSFC decrement 7.07%) and emission reduces (HC 66.66%, CO 70.00% and

Smoke 16.09%) at peak load condition. However negligible NOx increases (3.58%).

5.2 Future scope

To reduce NOx emissions without affecting engine performance, the following options can be

tried:

a. EGR techniques can be used.

b. Other oxygeneted additives can be used.

c. Variable injection pressure and injection timing can be used.

55
 Chapter 6

UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS

Uncertainty calculation for the Brake power, Fuel consumption, Fuel power, Specific fuel

consumption and brake thermal efficiency from the measured experimental data.

6.1 Sample calculation

(i) CALCULATION OF BRAKE POWER

Brake Power (BP) =

(ii) CALCULATION OF FUEL CONSUMPTION

Fuel Consumption (FC) = × ×3600

(iii) CALCULATION OF FUEL POWER

Fuel Power (FP) =

(iv) CALCULATION OF SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

56
 Specific fuel consumption (SFC) =

(v) CALCULATION OF BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) =

6.2 Uncertainty analysis

The measuring instruments were chosen with a view to keep the experimental uncertainties as

minimum as possible. The probable errors in the stop watch (Δt)= 0.01sec, speed indicator

(ΔN)=1rpm, graduated burette (ΔV)=0.1cc, measuring scale (ΔR)= 0.001m and strain gauge type

load cell (ΔW) = 0.1kg.

(i) Calculation of uncertainty in brake power

Δ Δ Δ Δ
=

Δ
=

=0.0113kW

= ±1.13%

(ii) Calculation of uncertainty in fuel consumption

57
 Δ Δ Δ
=

Δ
=

= 0.00254kg/h

= 0.25%

(iii) Calculation of uncertainty in fuel power

Δ Δ Δ Δ
= =

= 0.00254kg/h

= 0.25%

(iv) Calculation of uncertainty in Brake thermal efficiency

Δ Δ Δ
=

= {(0.0113)2+ (0.0025)2}1/2

= 0.0113

58
 =1.13%

(v) Calculation of uncertainty in BSFC

= {(0.0113)2+ (0.0025)2}1/2

= 0.0113

=1.13%

Table 6.1: Uncertainty of different output results

Measured quantity % Uncertainty

HC ±3

CO ±3

NOx ±1

Smoke ±.04

BSFC ±1.13

BTE ±1.13

Total uncertainty in testing [4,14,15]

=√ {(HC)2 + (CO)2 + (NOx)2 + (smoke)2 +(BSFC)2 +(BTE)2}

=√ {(3)2 +(3)2 + (1)2 +(0.04)2 +(1.13)2 +(1.13)2 } = 5% (approx)

The uncertainty calculated above was low and comparable with other research (published journal

paper) in this field.

59
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 Appendix A: Formulae used for calculations

A.1 Formula used for calculation of calorific value for different blends used

Where
CV = Caloric value of blend in kJ/kg

CVD = Calorific value of diesel in kJ/kg

CVMXEE = Calorific value of n-butanol in kJ/kg

CVNM = Calorific value of nitromethane in kJ/kg

A.2 Formula used for calculation of brake power

Where
N = Engine speed in rpm
T = Torque in N-m

A.3 Formula used for calculation of BSFC

Where
mf = mass flow rate of fuel in kg/hr

bp = brake power in kW

69
A.4 Formula used for calculation of BTE

Where

bp = brake power in kW

CV = Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg

mf = mass flow rate of fuel in kg/hr

70
 Appendix B: Observations for diesel and its blends with MXEE and NM

B.1: BTE results for different fuels at 200 bar 17.5 CR 23deg btdc
Pure D-MXEE2.5- D-MXEE7.5-
BP(kW) D-MXEE5-NM2.5
Diesel NM2.5 NM2.5
0 1.977 1.626 1.468 1.5
1.156 18.189 16.595 18.851 14.35
1.952 27.9 26.640 26.736 23.23
2.73 33.852 33.1 34.602 30.52
4.08 39.02 39.831 40.2 38.12

B.2: BSFC results for different fuels at 200 bar 17.5 CR 23deg btdc
Pure D-MXEE2.5- D-MXEE7.5-
BP(kW) Diesel NM2.5 D-MXEE5-NM2.5 NM2.5
0 0.884 0.844 0.774 0.955
1.156 0.495 0.471 0.435 0.53
1.952 0.319 0.293 0.29 0.35
2.73 0.245 0.235 0.215 0.27
4.08 0.198 0.196 0.186 0.23

B.3: Smoke results for different fuels at 200 bar 17.5 CR 23deg btdc
Pure D-MXEE2.5- D-MXEE7.5-
BP(kW) D-MXEE5-NM2.5
Diesel NM2.5 NM2.5
0 10 8 5 7
1.156 21 18 12 15
1.952 33 28 20 24
2.73 48 43 32 38
4.08 87 82 72 80

B.4: CO results for different fuels at 200 bar 17.5 CR 23deg btdc
Pure D-MXEE2.5- D-MXEE7.5-
BP(kW) Diesel NM2.5 D-MXEE5-NM2.5 NM2.5
0 0.13 0.13 0.11 0.12
1.156 0.11 0.1 0.085 0.095
1.952 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.075
2.73 0.065 0.06 0.045 0.055
4.08 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.03

71
B.5: HC results for different fuels at 200 bar 17.5 CR 23deg btdc
Pure D-MXEE2.5- D-MXEE7.5-
BP(kW) D-MXEE5-NM2.5
Diesel NM2.5 NM2.5
0 40 35 27 32
1.156 34 28 20 24
1.952 30 23 18 21
2.73 26 19 15 18
4.08 21 15 8 12

B.6: NOx results for different fuels at 200 bar 17.5 CR 23deg btdc
Pure D-MXEE2.5- D-MXEE7.5-
BP(kW) D-MXEE5-NM2.5
Diesel NM2.5 NM2.5
0 11 10 8 15
1.156 32 25 22 36
1.952 63 53 44 67
2.73 102 95 92 112
4.08 195 190 180 210

B.7: BTE results of D-MXEE5-NM2.5 blend for different CR at 200 bar 23deg btdc

BP(kW) CR 16.5 CR 17.5 CR 18.5 CR 19.5 CR 20.5

0 1.044 1.468 1.972 2.081 1.985
1.156 15.294 18.851 17.484 16.007 18.232
1.952 23.83 26.736 27.531 26.832 26.971
2.73 32.01 34.602 33.589 33.709 34.317
4.08 37.345 40.2 38.645 40.742 39.982

B.8: BSFC results of D-MXEE5-NM2.5 blend for different CR at 200 bar 23deg btdc

BP(kW) CR 16.5 CR 17.5 CR 18.5 CR 19.5 CR 20.5

0 0.89 0.774 0.855 0.81 0.801
1.156 0.521 0.435 0.447 0.428 0.449
1.952 0.335 0.29 0.284 0.281 0.290
2.73 0.27 0.215 0.233 0.22 0.228
4.08 0.235 0.186 0.202 0.184 0.197

72
B.9: Smoke results of D-MXEE5-NM2.5 blend for different CR at 200 bar 23deg btdc

BP(kW) CR 16.5 CR 17.5 CR 18.5 CR 19.5 CR 20.5

0 8 5 7 5 4
1.156 18 12 16 13 11
1.952 25 20 25 20 19
2.73 42 32 40 35 30
4.08 85 72 77 73 70

B.10: CO results of D-MXEE5-NM2.5 blend for different CR at 200 bar 23deg btdc

BP(kW) CR 16.5 CR 17.5 CR 18.5 CR 19.5 CR 20.5

0 0.13 0.11 0.115 0.1 0.12
1.156 0.1 0.085 0.09 0.08 0.09
1.952 0.08 0.06 0.065 0.055 0.07
2.73 0.06 0.045 0.05 0.042 0.05
4.08 0.05 0.02 0.025 0.015 0.03

B.11: HC results of D-MXEE5-NM2.5 blend for different CR at 200 bar 23deg btdc

BP(kW) CR 16.5 CR 17.5 CR 18.5 CR 19.5 CR 20.5

0 32 27 25 24 28
1.156 23 20 19 18 21
1.952 20 18 17 16 19
2.73 18 15 15 14 16
4.08 10 8 7 7 9

B.12: NOx results of D-MXEE5-NM2.5 blend for different CR at 200 bar 23deg btdc

BP(kW) CR 16.5 CR 17.5 CR 18.5 CR 19.5 CR 20.5

0 5 8 6 6 7
1.156 15 22 20 24 28
1.952 30 44 35 39 54
2.73 77 92 97 104 114
4.08 174 180 190 202 211

73
74