APPEAL TO AUTHORITY

An argument from authority (argumentum ab auctoritate), also called an

appeal to authority, or argumentum ad verecundiam, is a form of
argument in which the opinion of an authority on a topic is used as
evidence to support an argument. Some consider that it is used in a
cogent form if all sides of a discussion agree on the reliability of
the authority in the given context, and others consider it to always
be a fallacy to cite the views of an authority on the discussed topic
as a means of supporting an argument. Example Instead of presenting
actual evidence, the argument just relies on the credibility of the
"authority."

Example:

• A commercial claims that a specific brand of cereal is the best

way to start the day because athlete Michael Jordan says that it
is what he eats every day for breakfast.

DENYING THE ANTECEDENT

Description: If 1 is true then 2 is true, If 1 is not true then 2 is
not true.

Example:

• If you tell my secret to anyone, he or she will know. Therefore,

if you did not tell my secret to anyone, he or she will not know.

INCONSISTENCY
Description: occurs when arguments contradict one another.

Examples:

• I never said most of the things I said.

• I hate oranges because it is not my favourite fruit.(2013)
• I love oranges because it is rich in vitamins A, C and
more.(2014)
 APPEAL TO CONSEQUENCES
Occurs when a unpleasant consequences of believing something are
pointed out to show that the belief is false. It is an argument that
concludes a hypothesis to be either true or false based on whether the
premise leads to desirable or undesirable consequences. It is also
based on an appeal to an emotion and is a type of informal fallacy,
since the desirability of a premise’s consequences does not make the
premise true.

Example:

• You can’t prove that there aren't multiple universes, therefore

there must be multiverse besides ours. You can't believe that
colonialism is bad, because if it were, then we would not be
civilized.

WRONG DIRECTION
Occurs when the direction between cause and effect is reversed -It is
used to cover the fact that the reasoning is based on one of the three
fallacies. This occurs when two things happen together and the real
cause is seen as the effect, then the effect is seen as the cause, or
is swapped.

Example:

• Tooth decay causes eating too much sweet.

• The Philippines' rising amount of debt causes the growth of
economy to slow down.

FALSE ANALOGY
A type of informal fallacy or a persuasive technique in which the fact
that two things are alike in one respect leads to the invalid
conclusion that they must be alike in some other respect or occur when
it is assumed that two concepts that are similar in some ways are also
similar in other ways.

Example:

• Janice & Rose both drive pickup trucks. Since Janice is a

teacher, Rose must also be a teacher. Playing the violin is just
like playing cello. They are both stringed instruments.
 COMPLEX QUESTION
A complex question is a fallacy in which the answer to a given
question presupposes a prior answer to a prior question. The argument
takes the form of a question - often a rhetorical question. Answering
the question, however, is impossible, unless something is taken for
granted that still ought to be regarded as doubtful or open to further
discussion. A complex question is a question that has a presupposition
that is complex.

Examples:

• How often do you feed your children?

• How long can one survive without food and water?
• How often do you curse at your maid?
• Do you still smoke at least 5 packs a day?
• Do you still beat your wife when she raises her voice at you when
you quarrel?
• What religion are you and your family?
• When did you stop beating your sister?
• When did you stop lying to your friends?

APPEAL TO FORCE FALLACY (ALSO KNOWN AS ARGUMENT TO THE CUDGEL/

APPEAL TO THE STICK)
When force, coercion, or even a threat of force is used in place of a
reason in an attempt to justify a conclusion.
Example:

• Melvin: Boss, why do I have to work weekends when nobody else in

the company does? Boss: Am I sensing insubordination? I can find
another employee very quickly, thanks to Craigslist, you know.
Explanation:

• Melvin has asked a legitimate question to which he did not get a

legitimate answer, rather his question was deflected by a threat
of force (as being forced out of his job).
 ACCIDENT FALLACY (ALSO KNOWN AS DESTROYING THE EXCEPTION,
CONVERSE ACCIDENT, REVERSE ACCIDENT, FALLACY OF THE GENERAL
RULE, SWEEPING GENERALIZATION)
When someone applies a general rule to a case in which the rule is
inapplicable. It may be committed due to carelessness or because one
has the assumption that generalizations will apply to all similar
situations, even though there are clear exceptions.
Example:

• "Human beings have the ability to hear sounds. Therefore, all

people are capable of hearing sounds.”
Explanation:

• Such a claim is fallacious because the general rule doesn’t apply

here; the speaker ignores the fact that there are people who have
a hearing disability.

SLIPPERY SLOPE
A slippery slope argument is committed when one argues, without
providing adequate evidence, that a relatively insignificant event or
course of action will lead to a chain of consequences, eventually
resulting in some significant outcome. The conclusion of the argument,
or the culmination of the chain of events, is seen as unacceptable and
therefore the first decision that would eventually lead to that
outcome should be rejected.
Logical Form:

• If A, then B, then C, ... then ultimately Z!

Example:

• “If we legalize marijuana, next people will want to legalize all

the other drugs which means the number of drug-users and crime
will explode, and this will lead to the end of the world as we
know it!”
• “If I fail this test, then I will flunk the class. If I flunk the
class, I will flunk out of school entirely. If I flunk out
entirely then my entire future is ruined and I will never be able
to get a good job and provide for my family!”
 RED HERRING(IRRELEVANT CONCLUSION)
Attempting to redirect the argument to another issue to which the
person doing the redirecting can better respond. While it is similar
to the avoiding the issue fallacy, the red herring is a deliberate
diversion of attention with the intention of trying to abandon the
original argument.
LOGICAL FORM:

• Argument A is presented by person 1. Person 2 introduces argument

B. Argument A is abandoned.
Examples:

• Mike: It is morally wrong to cheat on your spouse, why on earth

would you have done that? Ken: But what is morality exactly?
Mike: It’s a code of conduct shared by cultures. Ken: But who
creates this code?
Explanation: Ken has successfully derailed this conversation off
of his sexual digressions to the deep, existential, discussion on
morality.

• Billy: How could the universe be 6000 years old when we know the
speed of light, the distance of astronomical objects (13+ billion
light years away), and the fact that the light has reached us?
Marty: 6000 years is not a firm number. The universe can be as
old as about 10,000 years.
Billy: How do you figure that?

Explanation: Marty has succeeded in avoiding the devastating

question by introducing a new topic for debate... shifting the
young-earth creation timeline where it does not necessarily
coincide with the Bible.

FALSE DILEMMA
It occurs when an arguer presents his/her argument as one of only two
options despite the presence of multiple possibilities. False Dilemma
is when you have leapt to a conclusion while ignoring key
alternatives. It occurs when a limited number of choices, outcomes or
views are presented as the only possibilities when in fact more
possibilities exist.
Examples:

• Would you rather invest in your future or enjoy your money now?
• Negotiating with children: We can go home or you can behave in
the grocery store.
• You could stay the night with me or sleep outside.

STRAW MAN FALLACY

Straw man occurs when the position of the opposition is twisted so
that it is easier to refute. It is a version of argument that is
misinterpreted or simplified to make it easier to knock over. It is a
refusal of “playing by the rules
Examples:

• Politician A: Providing medicare for all citizens would be costly

and a danger to the free market. Politician B: You don't care if
people die from not having healthcare.
• Parent: Your curfew is at 10 pm tonight.
Teenager: But the party doesn't even start until 9:00. Parent:
It's a school night, so you need to be home by 10:00.
Teenager: You just want me to be unpopular! You don't care about
my happiness!
• Wife: I'd rather have an ipad than a tablet.
Husband: Why do you hate tablets?

ATTACK THE PERSON

This occurs when you attack the person or a trait of the person who is
making the argument rather than addressing their argument or
viewpoint.
Example:

• Presidential candidate Ferdinand Romualdez Marcos Jr., commonly

known as Bong Bong Marcos Jr., has announced his candidacy for
President, promising to bring unity to all Filipinos in the
Philippines. Oct 5, 2021 but why should we vote for him if he
hasn't even finished his college degree? That would make him a
college dropout. A president should have a good education in
order to lead the country to a better future. A degree is not the
same as a diploma, which he lacks. That diploma simply shows that
he completed a portion of his chosen course but was unable to
complete it. Never Again Don't Forget The reason why we are still
not able to recover 36 years after EDSA People Power Revolution
is because it will really take more years to recover from the
excessive sinking of the Philippines during Marcos ’21 years of
 Presidency, 9 years of which the country was under Martial Law.
According to a study, Filipinos will continue to pay for
questionable debts incurred during the Marcos regime until 2025.
After 2022 alone, we have not even finished paying the debt, we
have not yet fully recovered the ill- gotten wealth of his
family, like will you put the thief, the lazy and the lying child
in the highest position?

A brief reminder If you are one of those who voted for Marcos
Jr., you may not be a fool. Some of you are smart. But it is true
that you have no love for the country. Because if you love the
Philippines, and you care about your fellow Filipinos, you are
united in the call to return what was stolen, not the thief.

APPEAL TO PITY
Appeal to pity is the attempt to distract the someone from the truth
of conclusion by the use of pity. It is also called argumentum ad
misericordiam, the sob story, or the Galileo argument. It is a
fallacy in which someone tries to win by manipulating and exploiting
the opponent’s feelings by pity or guilt.
Examples:

• Commercials that show starving children in Africa before asking

for donations to feed them.
• Saying that you support a specific candidate for class president,
only because he has recently been diagnosed with cancer.
• When you did not finish an assignment on time, you tell your
teacher about how your printer was out of ink, but that you
didn't want to ask your mom to go to the store because she works
nights, doesn't get much sleep, and she was sleeping.

AFFIRMING THE CONSEQUENT

Affirming the consequent is a very similar mistake of reasoning to
denying the antecedent but instead of denying the antecedent and then
inferring the denial of the conclusion, you may affirm the consequent
and then infer the affirmation of antecedent.
Logical Form:

• If A then B, then B so it must be the case of A.

Example:

• “If I have the flu then I’ll have a fever.”

“I have a fever. Therefore, I have the flu.”

APPEAL TO IGNORANCE FALLACY

This fallacy occurs when you argue that your conclusion must be true,
because there is no evidence against it. This fallacy incorrectly
places the burden of proof on the person making the allegation. Appeal
to ignorance has two forms. According to one form, a claim must be
true because it hasn't been proven to be false, and another form says
that a claim must be false because it hasn't been proved to be true.

Logical Reasoning:
• If the statement is false, then it's true (F = T). If the
statement if true, then it's false (T = F).

Examples:
• Since you haven't been able to prove your innocence, I must
assume you're guilty.
• She hasn't said she doesn't like you, right? So she's
probably interested. Call her up.
• Since all who have tried to prove freedom of the will have
failed, we are safe in assuming we are not free.

COMPLEX CAUSE FALLACY

Also known as fallacy of the single cause, causal oversimplification,
casual reductionism, and reduction fallacy. This fallacy assumes that
there was only one cause or rationale when there were actually others
reasons. Oversimplification or reductionism is the result. The
feedback loop is a version of this fallacy, in which the consequence
is also a part of the cause. Because it's so tough to distinguish the
significant or primary sources of an effect, many of the intractable
arguments we've fought for decades are so difficult.

Logical reasoning:
• X occurred after Y. Therefore, Y caused X (although X was
also a result of A,B,C... etc.)
Examples:
• The reason more and more people are giving up belief in
ghosts is because of Bo’s books.
• Hank: I ran my car off the side of the road because that
damn squirrel ran in front of my car.
• Officer Sam: You don’t think it had anything to do with the
fact that you were trying to text your girlfriend, and
driving drunk?

BANDWAGON
Sometimes called the appeal to common belief or appeal to the masses
because it’s all about getting people to do or think something because
“everyone else is doing it” or “everything else thinks this.” It also
believes something is true or acceptable only because it is popular.
The fallacy is also known as “jumping on the bandwagon.”
Example:

• In 2014, thousands of social media users participated in the Ice

Bucket Challenge. By filming themselves being doused with
buckets of ice water.

HASTY GENERALIZATION
This occurs when someone draws a conclusion based on just a small
sample size. in other words, the conclusion is supported by
insufficient evidence.
Example:

• “My friend has been eating only hamburgers, pizza, and fries for
10 years, and he has no health issues. Therefore, fast food is
not unhealthy for you.”

POST HOC
This logical fallacy occurs when an event is said to have happened
earlier, it is the cause of a later event down the line.
Example:

• "Sarah was walking down the street when she stepped on a cracked
pavement. She was just about to go home when her father called
her. He told Sarah that her mother had an accident that broke
her back. Stepping on the cracked pavement must be the cause that
broke her mother's back."
 GIVING TESTIMONY OR ADVISE
Refers to anonymous sources, such as making a statement based on what
"professional" say or what "historians" say, without ever
acknowledging the sources, is what the appeal to Anonymous Authority
is all about.
Examples:

• Scientists say that it takes 7 yrs to digest gum

• Studies show that left-handed people are more intelligent than
right-handed people
• Scientists believe that the universe was formed 6000 years ago