Subject Name: Data Communication

Subject Code: CS-5001

Semester: 5th
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UNIT-IV
Transmission Line Characteristics
INTRODUCTION: Digital systems generally require the transmission of digital signals to and
from other elements of the system. The component wavelengths of the digital signals will
usually be shorter than the electrical length of the cable used to connect the subsystems
together and, therefore, the cables should be treated as a transmissions line. In addition, the
digital signal is usually exposed to hostile electrical noise sources which will require more noise
immunity than required in the individual subsystems environment. The requirements for
transmission line techniques and noise immunity are recognized by the designers of subsystems
and systems, but the solutions used vary considerably. Two widely used example methods of
the solution are shown. The two methods illustrated use unbalanced and balanced circuit
techniques. This application note will delineate the characteristics of digital signals in
transmission lines and characteristics of the line that effect the quality, and will compare the
unbalanced and balanced circuits performance in digital systems.

NOISE The cables used to transmit digital signals external to a subsystem and in route between
the subsystem, are exposed to external electromagnetic noise caused by switching transients
from actuating devices of neighboring control systems. Also external to a specific subsystem,
another subsystem may have a ground problem which will induce noise on the system, as
indicated in Figure 2. The signals in adjacent wires inside a cable may induce electromagnetic
noise on other wires in the cable. The induced electromagnetic noise is worse when a line
terminated at one end of the cable is near to a driver at the same end, as shown in Figure 3.
Some noise may be induced from relay circuits which have very large transient voltage swings
compared to the digital signals in the same cable. Another source of induced noise is current in
the common ground wire or wires in the cable.

DISTORTION The objective is the transmission and recovery of digital intelligence between
subsystems, and to this end, the characteristics of the data recovered must resemble the data
transmitted. In Figure 4 there is a difference in the pulse width of the data and the timing signal
transmitted, and the corresponding signal received. In addition there is a further difference in
the sig al he the data is AND ed ith the ti i g sig al. The disto tio of the sig al
occurred in the transmission line and in the line driver and receiver.
A primary cause of distortion is the effect the transmission line has on the rise time of the
transmitted data. what happens to a voltage step from the driver as it travels down the line.
The rise time of the signal increases as the signal travels down the line. This effect will tend to
affect the timing of the recovered signal.

The velocity factor (VF) also called wave propagation speed or velocity of propagation (VoP ), of
a transmission medium is the ratio of the speed at which a wavefront (of an acoustic signal, for
example, or an electromagnetic signal, a radio signal, a light pulse in a fibre channel or a change
of the electrical voltage on a copper wire) passes through the medium, to the speed of light in a
vacuum. For optical signals, the velocity factor is the reciprocal of the refractive index.

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The speed of radio signals in a vacuum, for example, is the speed of light, and so the velocity
factor of a radio wave in a vacuum is unity, or 100%. In electrical cables, the velocity factor
mainly depends on the insulating material (see table below).
The use of the terms velocity of propagation and wave propagation speed to mean a ratio of
speeds is confined to the computer networking and cable industries. In a general science and
engineering context, these terms would be understood to mean a true speed or velocity in units
of distance per time, while velocity factor is used for the ratio.

CROSS TALK
In electronics, crosstalk is any phenomenon by which a signal transmitted on one circuit or
channel of a transmission system creates an undesired effect in another circuit or channel.
Crosstalk is usually caused by undesired capacitive, inductive, or conductive coupling from one
circuit or channel to another.
Crosstalk is a significant issue in structured cabling, audio electronics, integrated circuit design,
wireless communication and other communications systems.
In structured cabling, crosstalk can refer to electromagnetic interference from one unshielded
twisted pair to another twisted pair, normally running in parallel.
Near end crosstalk (NEXT)
NEXT is a measure of the ability of cabling to reject crosstalk. Interference between two pairs in
a cable is measured at the same end of the cable as the interfering transmitter. Crosstalk is
undesirable. In crosstalk, the signals traveling through adjacent pairs of wire in twisted-pair
a li g i te fe e ith ea h othe . The pai ausi g the i te fe e e is alled the distu i g
pai , hile the pai e pe ie i g the i te fe e e is the distu ed pai . Cha el NEXT is the
NEXT value measured between one wire pair and another in the same cable; NEXT is measured
at both ends of the wire. The NEXT value for a given cable type is generally expressed in
decibels per feet or decibels per 1000 feet. NEXT value varies with the frequency of
t a s issio . The highe the NEXT alue, the g eate the a le’s a ilit to eje t osstalk at its
local connection. Generally specifications for cabling (such as CAT 5) include the minimum NEXT
values.
Power sum near end crosstalk (PSNEXT)
PSNEXT is a NEXT measurement which includes the sum of crosstalk contributions of all
adjacent pairs. It is the algebraic sum of near-end crosstalk (NEXT) of three wire pairs as they
affect the fourth pair in a four-pair cable (e.g., Category 6 cable). The specification was
developed to directly address the effect of transmissions on multiple adjacent pairs on the pair
being tested and is relevant to all connecting hardware and associated communications cables.
Cabling bandwidths in excess of 100 MHz (Category 5 cable bandwidth) make consideration of
PSNEXT more important. Gigabit Ethernet through Cat-6 uses all four wire pairs simultaneously
and bidirectionally. The additional wire pair usage and growing bandwidth increase the need to
keep NEXT in check.
PSNEXT is a way of measuring NEXT in the ends of cables due to their close proximity. The
(cited) SMP white paper states that the testing process for PSNEXT consists of measuring all
pair-to-pair crosstalk combinations and then summing all of the values for each pair.
Far end crosstalk (FEXT)

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Interference between two pairs of a cable measured at the other end of the cable with respect
to the interfering transmitter.
Equal level far end crosstalk (ELFEXT)
An FEXT measurement with attenuation compensation.
Alien crosstalk (AXT)
Interference caused by other cables routed close to the cable of interest.

Transmission Mediums in Data Communication

Data is represented by computers and other telecommunication devices using signals. Signals
are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic energy from one device to another.
Electromagnetic signals travel through vacuum, air or other transmission mediums to travel
between one point to another(from source to receiver).
Electromagnetic energy (includes electrical and magnetic fields) includes power, voice, visible
light, radio waves, ultraviolet light, gamma rays etc.
Transmission medium is the means through which we send our data from one place to another.
The first layer (physical layer) of Communication Networks OSI Seven layer model is dedicated
to the transmission media, we will study the OSI Model later.

Fig. 4.1

Factors to be considered while choosing Transmission Medium

Transmission Rate
Cost and Ease of Installation
Resistance to Environmental Conditions
Distances

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Bounded/Guided Transmission Media

It is the transmission media in which signals are confined to a specific path using wire or cable.
The types of Bounded/ Guided are discussed below.
Twisted Pair Cable
This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others. It is lightweight, cheap, can
be installed easily, and they support many different types of network. Some important points :
Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.
Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.
Typical delay is 50 µs/km.
Repeater spacing is 2km.
Twisted Pair is of two types :
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted Pair
Cable which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own colour plastic
insulator. Identification is the reason behind coloured plastic insulation.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4
pair cable use RJ-45 connector.
Advantages :

 Installation is easy
 Flexible
 Cheap
 It has high speed capacity,
 100 meter limit
 Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.
It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted together in a
helical form to reduce electrical interference from similar pair.

Disadvantages :
Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable
Provides less protection from interference.
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also
eliminates crosstalk .
It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair. It is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable.
It is more expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.

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Fig. 4.2
Advantages :
 Easy to install
 Performance is adequate
 Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission
 Increases the signalling rate
 Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
 Eliminates crosstalk

Disadvantages :
 Difficult to manufacture
 Heavy

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each
other. Copper is used in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one. It
is surrounded by PVC installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil,
barid or both.
Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which
completes the circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The
outermost part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.
Here the most common coaxial standards.

 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.

 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
 93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.

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Fig. 4.3
There are two types of Coaxial cables :
BaseBand
This is a oh Ω oa ial a le hi h is used fo digital t a s issio . It is ostl used fo
LAN’s. Base a d t a s its a si gle sig al at a ti e ith ery high speed. The major drawback is
that it needs amplification after every 1000 feet.
BroadBand
This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits several
simultaneous signal using different frequencies. It covers large area when compared with
Baseband Coaxial Cable.
Advantages :
 Bandwidth is high
 Used in long distance telephone lines.
 Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
 Much higher noise immunity
 Data transmission without distortion.
 The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when
compared to twisted pair cable

Disadvantages :

 Single cable failure can fail the entire network.

 Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
 If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

Optical Fiber
An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or
plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Optical fibers are used most
often as a means to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in
fiber-optic communications, where they permit transmission over longer distances and at
higher bandwidths (data rates) than wire cables. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because
signals travel along them with less loss; in addition, fibers are immune to electromagnetic

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interference, a problem from which metal wires suffer excessively.Fibers are also used for
illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus
allowing viewing in confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are
also used for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors and fiber
lasers.

These are similar to coaxial cable. It uses electric signals to transmit data. At the centre is the
glass core through which light propagates.
In multimode fibres, the core is 50microns, and In single mode fibres, the thickness is 8 to 10
microns.
The core in fiber optic cable is surrounded by glass cladding with lower index of refraction as
compared to core to keep all the light in core. This is covered with a thin plastic jacket to
protect the cladding. The fibers are grouped together in bundles protected by an outer shield.
Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second)

Fig. 4.4
Advantages :
Provides high quality transmission of signals at very high speed.
These are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise and distortion is very less.
Used for both analog and digital signals.

Disadvantages :
 It is expensive
 Difficult to install.
 Maintenance is expensive and difficult.
 Do not allow complete routing of light signals.

Physics and Velocity of Propagation of Light

Whereas the velocity of some particle is a quantity which is based on a fairly simple and
unambiguous concept, the velocity of light (as of other wave phenomena) is a much more

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sophisticated matter. There are different kinds of velocities, which are different conceptually
and can (particularly for light propagation in media) have substantially different values:
1. The phase velocity is the velocity with which phase fronts propagate.
2. The group velocity determines the speed with which intensity maxima propagate (e.g. the
peaks of pulses).
3. The velocity of information transport can differ from both phase and group velocity.

The velocity factor (VF), also called wave propagation speed or velocity of propagation of a
transmission medium is the ratio of the speed at which a wave for example, or an
electromagnetic signal, a radio signal, a light pulse in an optical fibre or a change of the
electrical voltage on a copper wire) passes through the medium, to the speed of light in a
vacuum. For optical signals, the velocity factor is the reciprocal of the refractive index.
The speed of radio signals in a vacuum, for example, is the speed of light, and so the velocity
factor of a radio wave in a vacuum is unity, or 100%. In electrical cables, the velocity factor
mainly depends on the insulating material .

The use of the terms velocity of propagation and wave propagation speed to mean a ratio of
speeds is confined to the computer networking and cable industries. In a general science and
engineering context, these terms would be understood to mean a true speed or velocity in units
of distance per time, while velocity factor is used for the ratio.

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Fig. 4.5
The optical fiber consists of three main elements:
Transmitter: An electric signal is applied to the optical transmitter. The optical transmitter
consists of driver circuit, light source and fiber flylead.
Driver circuit drives the light source.
Light source converts electrical signal to optical signal.
Fiber flylead is used to connect optical signal to optical fiber.
Transmission channel: It consists of a cable that provides mechanical and environmental
protection to the optical fibers contained inside. Each optical fiber acts as an individual channel.
Optical splice is used to permanently join two individual optical fibers.
Optical connector is for temporary non-fixed joints between two individual optical fibers.
Optical coupler or splitter provides signal to other devices.

Repeater converts the optical signal into electrical signal using optical receiver and passes it to
electronic circuit where it is reshaped and amplified as it gets attenuated and distorted with
increasing distance because of scattering, absorption and dispersion in waveguides, and this
signal is then again converted into optical signal by the optical transmitter.
Receiver: Optical signal is applied to the optical receiver. It consists of photo detector, amplifier
and signal restorer.

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Photo detector converts the optical signal to electrical signal.

Signal restorers and amplifiers are used to improve signal to noise ratio of the signal as there
are chances of noise to be introduced in the signal due to the use of photo detectors.
For short distance communication only main elements are required.
Source- LED
Fiber- Multimode step index fiber
Detector- PIN detector
For long distance communication along with the main elements there is need for couplers,
beam splitters, repeaters, optical amplifiers.
Source- LASER diode
Fiber- single mode fiber
Detector- Avalanche photo diode (APD)

Sources and qualities of light

Non-laser sources: Tungsten--Halogen Mercury Xenon Metal halid Light emitting diodes (LEDs)
Monochromator Lasers: Gas, Helium-based , Diode , IR
Emission of light, (in the form of a photon) can take place either spontaneously or it can be
stimulated by the presence of another photon of the right energy level.
For spontaneous or stimulated emission to occur, energy must be supplied to boost the
electron from its low energy state to a higher energy state.
The energy can come from many sources: Heat (Incandescent light), Electrical Discharge (D2 ,
Hg, Na lamps), Electrical Current (LED, LD), Bioluminescence (Fire fly- luciferase enzyme)
OPTICAL SOURCES: Optical Source find applications in the area of medical, automotive,
analytical equipments, communications and industry.

Types of Optical Source Tungsten, Deuterium, Mercury, Hollow Cathode Lamp Optical Source
specifically suited to FO systems are: Light Emitting Diode (SLED, ELED, SLD) Laser Diode (DFB,
DBR).

Optical Source Requirement for Performance (For Fiber Optics)

• Ph si al di e sio s to suit the optical fiber
• Na o adiatio patte ea idth
• Li ea it output light po e p opo tio al to d i i g u e t
• A ilit to e di e tl odulated a i gd i i g u e t
• Fast espo se ti e
• Ade uate output po e i to the fi er
• Na o spe t al idth o li e idth
• “ta ilit a d effi ie
• D i i g i uit issues
• Relia ilit a d ost

Electromagnetic waves
EM waves are energy transported through space in the form of periodic disturbances of electric
and magnetic fields.

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EM waves travel through space at the same speed, c = 2.99792458 x 108 m/s, commonly known
as the speed of light.
An EM wave is characterized by a frequency and a wavelength.
These two quantities are related to the speed of light by the equation speed of light =
frequency x wavelength
The frequency (or wavelength) of an EM wave depends on its source.
There is a wide range of frequency encountered in our physical world, ranging from the low
frequency of the electric waves generated by the power transmission lines to the very high
frequency of the gamma rays originating from the atomic nuclei. This wide frequency range of
electromagnetic waves constitute the Electromagnetic Spectrum.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Visible: Small portion of the EMS that humans are sensitive to: blue (0.4-0.5 µm); green (0.5-0.6
µm); red (0.6-0.73 µm)
Infrared: Three logical zones: 1. Near IR: reflected, can be recorded on film emulsions (0.7 - 1.3
µm). 2. Mid infrared: reflected, can be detected using electro-optical sensors (1.3 - 3.0 µm). 3.
Thermal infrared: emitted, can only be detected using electro-optical sensors (3.0 - 5.0 and 8 -
14 µm).
Microwave Radar sensors, wavelengths range from 1mm - 1m ( K a, K u, X, C, S, L & P)

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Fig. 4.6
Wavelengths of microwave
• Mi rowaves: 1 mm to 1 m wavelength.
• Fu the di ided i to diffe e t f e ue a ds: GHz = Hz
• P a d: . - 1 GHz (30 - 100 cm)
• L a d: - 2 GHz (15 - 30 cm)
• “ a d: - 4 GHz (7.5 - 15 cm)
• C a d: - 8 GHz (3.8 - 7.5 cm)
• X a d: - 12.5 GHz (2.4 - 3.8 cm)
• Ku a d: . - 18 GHz (1.7 - 2.4 cm)
• K a d: - 26.5 GHz (1.1 - 1.7 cm)
• Ka a d: . - 40 GHz (0.75 - 1.1 cm)

Wavelengths of Infrared
• I f a ed: . to µ a ele gth. This egio is fu the di ided i to the following bands:
• Nea I f a ed NIR : . to . µ .

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• “ho t Wa ele gth I f a ed “WIR : . to µ .

• Mid Wa ele gth I f a ed MWIR : to µ .
• Lo g Wa ele gth I f a ed LWIR : to µ .
• Fa I f a ed FIR : lo ge tha µ .
• The NIR a d “WIR are also known as the Reflected Infrared, referring to the main infrared
component of the solar radiation reflected from the earth's surface. The MWIR and LWIR are
the Thermal Infrared.

Wavelengths of visible light

• Red: - 700 nm
• O a ge: - 610 nm
• Yello : - 590 nm
• G ee : - 570 nm
• Blue: - 500 nm
• I digo: - 450 nm
• Violet: - 430 nm

Electromagnetic (EM) Theory

Electric Field (E) E is the effect produced by the existence of an electric charge, e.g. an electron,
ion, or proton, in the volume of space or medium that surrounds it. E=F/q F = is the electric
force experienced by the particle q= particle charge E= is the electric field where the particle is
located Magnetic Field (B) B is the effect produced by a change in velocity of an electric charge
q In a major intellectual breakthroughs in the history of physics (in the 1800s), James Clerk
Ma ell a e up ith the fou e uatio s hi h des i ed all EM phe o e a a d MAXWELLʼ“
EQUATIONS .

Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)

• The fi st e ui e e t fo e ote se si g is to ha e a e e g sou e to illu i ate the ta get.
This energy for remote sensing instruments is in the form of electromagnetic radiation (EMR).
• Re ote se si g is o e ed ith the easu e e t of EMR returned by Earth surface
features that first receive energy from (i) the sun or (ii) an artificial source e.g. a radar
transmitter.
• Diffe e t o je ts etu diffe e t t pes a d a ou ts of EMR.
• O je ti e of e ote se si g is to dete t these diffe e es with the appropriate instruments.
• Diffe e es ake it possi le to ide tif a d assess a oad a ge of su fa e featu es a d thei
conditions.

AEM energy (radiation) is one of many forms of energy. It can be generated by changes in the
energy levels of electrons, acceleration of electrical charges, decay of radioactive substances,
and the thermal motion of atoms and molecules.
All natural and synthetic substances above absolute zero (0 Kelvin, -273°C) emit a range of
electromagnetic energy.
Most remote sensing systems are passive sensors, i.e. they relying on the sun to generate all
the required EM energy.

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Polarization (waves)
Polarization (also polarisation) is a property applying to transverse waves that specifies the
geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave, the direction of the oscillation
is transverse to the direction of motion of the wave, so the oscillations can have different
directions perpendicular to the wave direction. A simple example of a polarized transverse
wave is vibrations traveling along a taut string (see image); for example, in a musical instrument
like a guitar string. Depending on how the string is plucked, the vibrations can be in a vertical
direction, horizontal direction, or at any angle perpendicular to the string. In contrast, in
longitudinal waves, such as sound waves in a liquid or gas, the displacement of the particles in
the oscillation is always in the direction of propagation, so these waves do not exhibit
polarization. Transverse waves that exhibit polarization include electromagnetic waves such as
light and radio waves, gravitational waves, and transverse sound waves (shear waves) in solids.
In some types of transverse waves, the wave displacement is limited to a single direction, so
these also do not exhibit polarization; for example, in surface waves in liquids (gravity waves),
the wave displacement of the particles is always in a vertical plane.

An electromagnetic wave such as light consists of a coupled oscillating electric field and
magnetic field which are always perpendicular; by convention, the "polarization" of
electromagnetic waves refers to the direction of the electric field. In linear polarization, the
fields oscillate in a single direction. In circular or elliptical polarization, the fields rotate at a
constant rate in a plane as the wave travels. The rotation can have two possible directions; if
the fields rotate in a right hand sense with respect to the direction of wave travel, it is called
right circular polarization, or, if the fields rotate in a left hand sense, it is called left circular
polarization.

Light or other electromagnetic radiation from many sources, such as the sun, flames, and
incandescent lamps, consists of short wave trains with an equal mixture of polarizations; this is
called unpolarized light. Polarized light can be produced by passing unpolarized light through a
polarizing filter, which allows waves of only one polarization to pass through. The most
common optical materials (such as glass) are isotropic and do not affect the polarization of light
passing through them; however, some materials—those that exhibit birefringence, dichroism,
or optical activity—can change the polarization of light. Some of these are used to make
polarizing filters. Light is also partially polarized when it reflects from a surface.

According to quantum mechanics, electromagnetic waves can also be viewed as streams of

particles called photons. When viewed in this way, the polarization of an electromagnetic wave
is determined by a quantum mechanical property of photons called their spin. A photon has
one of two possible spins: it can either spin in a right hand sense or a left hand sense about its
direction of travel. Circularly polarized electromagnetic waves are composed of photons with
only one type of spin, either right- or left-hand. Linearly polarized waves consist of equal
numbers of right and left hand spinning photons, with their phase synchronized so they
superpose to give oscillation in a plane.

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Polarization is an important parameter in areas of science dealing with transverse waves, such
as optics, seismology, radio, and microwaves. Especially impacted are technologies such as
lasers, wireless and optical fiber telecommunications, and radar.
Refers to orientation of the electric field E If both E and B remain in their respective planes, the
adiatio is alled pla e o li ea l pola ised :
• e ti all pola ized E is pa allel to the pla e of i ide e
• ho izo tall pola ized E is pe pe di ula to the pla e of i ide ce) Plane of incidence = the
plane defined by the vertical and the direction of propagation.
If instead of being confined to fixed direction, E rotates in the xy plane with constant amplitude,
it is said to be circularly polarised (either right- or left-hand circular (clockwise/anti-clockwise
respectively) Circularly polarised light consists of two perpendicular EM plane waves of equal
amplitude and 90° difference in phase. The light illustrated is right-hand circularly polarized

A "vertically polarized" electromagnetic wave of wavelength λ has its electric field vector E (red) oscillating in
the vertical direction. The magnetic field B (or H) is always at right angles to it (blue), and both are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation (z).
Fig. 4.7
Wavefronts and Rays

Imagine you throw a rock into a pond. Seen from the side, at the level of the water, the ripples
look like this:

Fig. 4.8

The distance between one ripple and the next is called the a ele gth, λ. The high poi ts a e
called crests, and the low points are the troughs.
If instead you look down on the pond, as if from a hovering helicopter, the ripples are round,
and spreading outwards (diverging). The technical term for ripples is wavefronts. The arrows
are pointing in the direction the waves are moving, and they are called rays. Notice that the
rays are always perpendicular to the wavefronts. In other words, the wavefront always moves
in a direction at right angles to itself.

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As the waves move farther and farther from the center, where the rock hit the water, the
wavefronts are larger and larger circles. But if you look at a small piece of the wavefront, it
nearly looks flat.

Fig 4.9
For an electromagnetic wave, the wavefront is represented as a surface of identical phase, and
can be modified with conventional optics. For instance, a lens can change the shape of optical
wavefronts from planar to spherical as the lens introduces a spatial phase variation across the
beam shape.

Wave Model of Electromagnetic Radiation

Maxwell theory tells us that EMR is an EM wave that travels through space at the speed of light,
c, which is 3 x 108 meters per second (hereafter referred to as ms -1) or 186,282.03 miles s-1 (1
foot per nanosecond). The EM wave consists of two fluctuating fields—one electric and the
other magnetic. The two vectors are at right angles (orthogonal) to one another, and both are
perpendicular to the direction of travel.
EMR is generated when an electrical charge is accelerated.
The a ele gth of EMR λ depe ds upo the le gth of time that the charged particle is
a ele ated a d its f e ue ν depe ds o the u e of a ele atio s pe se o d.
Wavelength is the mean distance between maxima (or minima) of a roughly periodic pattern
and is normally measured in micrometers (mm) or nanometers (nm).
Frequency is the number of wavelengths that pass a point per unit time. A wave that sends one
crest by every second (completing one cycle) is said to have a frequency of one cycle per
second or one hertz, abbreviated 1 Hz.

Inverse-square law
In physics, an inverse-square law is any physical law stating that a specified physical quantity or
intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source of that physical
quantity. The fundamental cause for this can be understood as geometric dilution
corresponding to point-source radiation into three-dimensional space (see diagram).
Mathematically formulated:
The divergence of a vector field which is the resultant of radial inverse-square law fields with
respect to one or more sources is everywhere proportional to the strength of the local sources,
and hence zero outside sources. Newton's law of universal gravitation follows an inverse-
square law, as do the effects of electric, magnetic, light, sound, and radiation phenomena.
Radar energy expands during both the signal transmission and also on the reflected return, so
the inverse square for both paths means that the radar will receive energy according to the
inverse fourth power of the range.

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In order to prevent dilution of energy while propagating a signal, certain methods can be used
such as a waveguide, which acts like a canal does for water, or how a gun barrel restricts hot
gas expansion to one dimension in order to prevent loss of energy transfer to a bullet.

Wave Attenuation and Absorption

In physics / engineering, the gradual reduction in the intensity of a signal (beam of waves)
which is propagating through a material is known as the attenuation. It is a common
phenomenon experienced by any kind of wave or signal propagating through a medium. For
example, acoustic waves are attenuated by water, X- rays are attenuated by lead, and seismic
waves are attenuated as they propagate through the Earth. Normally, attenuation is an
exponential function of the path length through the medium. In other words, the extent of the
attenuation of a wave through a given medium depends on the path length. In addition, the
attenuation of a wave or beam depends on the frequency of the wave and the medium through
which the wave propagates. The units of measuring attenuation are dB/m, dB/cm or dB/km
(decibels per unit path length).

The extent of the attenuation of electromagnetic waves depends on the medium through which
the waves propagate. For instance, the extent of attenuation of a given EM wave through water
and a plasma is very different. The attenuation of EM waves occurs due to both absorption and
scattering of photons. The absorption of EM waves in a matter is a result of several types of
interactions (photoelectric effect, Compton effect, pair production) take place between EM
waves and matter.

Attenuation is a very important factor in telecommunication as the attenuation limits the

effective range of signals. In fiber optics, the attenuation of signals through the medium is
commonly known as the transmission loss. Fiber optic technology is widely being used for long-
range communication as the attenuation in optical fibers is notably low compared to other
communication technologies.

Attenuation of ultrasound waves in a given medium is the reduction in amplitude of the waves
traveling through the medium and, depends on the medium, the path length and the frequency
of the waves. The extent of the attenuation determines the quality of images. Therefore,
attenuation of ultrasound waves is a very important factor in ultrasound imaging.

The term Absorption is used in different fields of study with different meanings. In
electromagnetism, the absorption of energy of EM waves by a material is commonly referred to
as the absorption. In this process, the absorbed energy appears as the heat of the medium or
another form of energy such as the vibrational and rotational energy of the atoms or molecules
of the medium. The absorption of EM waves depends on several factors such as the frequency
of EM waves, the medium, path length, and concentration of the absorbing medium. Light
waves can propagate through a perfectly transparent material without any reduction in the
amplitude. In practice, transparent glasses permit the light waves to pass through them with a

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relatively low reduction in the amplitude. However, light waves passing through highly opaque
mediums lose their total amount of energy and eventually disappear.
In acoustic physics, the absorption of sound waves by a material medium is commonly referred
to as absorption. Absorption of sound waves is a popular area of study, especially in sound
proofing. Normally, soft, flexible, porous materials are good sound absorbers whereas hard,
heavy materials reflect sound waves. The absorbed sound energy is mainly converted into heat
of the absorbing medium.

Fig. 4.10
Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves when they are transmitted, or propagated
from one point on the Earth to another, or into various parts of the atmosphere. As a form of
electromagnetic radiation, like light waves, radio waves are affected by the phenomena of
reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption, polarization and scattering. Radio and Optical
waves have the same nature with a difference in wavelengths. Both are electromagnetic waves
obeying reflection, refraction, and diffraction. If these characteristics were not there, the
existing radio and optical systems would not have worked. For instance, for radio waves
reflection is used in sky wave transmission. For optical waves, reflection is used for propagation
of light waves in optical fibers. For other characteristics, there are many examples. Of course, in
some cases these characteristics would trouble the radio and optical transmissions, either.
Terrestrial Propagation of Long Electromagnetic Waves deals with the propagation of
long electromagnetic waves confined principally to the shell between the earth and the
ionosphere, known as the terrestrial waveguide. Wave propagation is characterized almost
exclusively by mode theory.

A Communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio

telecommunications signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a
source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth. Communications satellites are
used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications. There are over 2,000
communicatio s satellites i Ea th’s o it, used oth p i ate a d go e e t o ga izatio s.

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Wireless communication uses electromagnetic waves to carry signals. These waves require line-
of-sight, and are thus obstructed by the curvature of the Earth. The purpose of communications
satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between
widely separated points. Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and microwave
frequencies. To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which
frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use. This allocation of bands
minimizes the risk of signal interference.
Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types of orbit, while other orbital
classifications are used to further specify orbital details.

 Geostationary satellites have a geostationary orbit (GEO), which is 35,786 kilometres

(22,236 i f o Ea th’s su fa e. This o it has the spe ial ha a te isti that the appa e t
position of the satellite in the sky when viewed by a ground observer does not change, the
satellite appears to "stand still" in the sky. This is because the satellite's orbital period is the
same as the rotation rate of the Earth. The advantage of this orbit is that ground antennas
do not have to track the satellite across the sky, they can be fixed to point at the location in
the sky the satellite appears.
 Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites are closer to Earth. Orbital altitudes range from
2,000 to 35,786 kilometres (1,243 to 22,236 mi) above Earth.
 The region below medium orbits is referred to as low Earth orbit (LEO), and is about 160
to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above Earth.
As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit the Earth faster, they do not remain visible in the sky to a
fixed point on Earth continually like a geostationary satellite, but appear to a ground observer
to cross the sky and "set" when they go behind the Earth. Therefore, to provide continuous
communications capability with these lower orbits requires a larger number of satellites, so one
will always be in the sky for transmission of communication signals. However, due to their
relatively small distance to the Earth their signals are stronger
The Telephone Network
The telephone network began in the late 1800s which was referred to as plain old telephone
system (POTS). It was orignally analog, but with the advancement in computer technology the
network started to carry data as well as voice in 1980's. It is now both digital and analog.

Major Components

The telephone network is made of three major components - the local loops, the trunks and the
switching office.
The local loop connects the subscriber to the nearest end office (or local central office) through
a twisted-pair cable. It has a bandwidth of 4000Hz. The trunk is a transmission media that
connects switching offices. It handles a lot of connections through multiplexing. these are
usually optical fibers or satellite links.
The switching office establishes a connection between two subscribers. The connection
between two subscribers is not permanent and will only be made upon request. Connections

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are limited by the total bandwidth of a transmission media therefore having permanent idle
lines would limit the services of the network.
LATA
The local telephone network is referred to as Local Access Transport Areas (LATA). LATAs are
made up of multiple local loops connected to a tandem office. Services of Comon Carriers
(telephone companies) within a LATA are called intra-LATA services. These carriers are refered
to as Local Exchange Carriers (LEC). LEC has to types. The Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers
(ILEC) is the original company that set up the LATA. To avoid cost for new cabling, Competitive
Local Exchange Carriers (CLEC) were allowed to use the LATA of the ILEC for their own services.
Services between LATAs (Inter-LATA services) are handled by Interexchange Carriers (IXC),
commonly referred to as long-distance companies. LECs are also allowed to become IXCs. To
allow multiple IXCs to use a LATA, a Point of Presence (POP) switching office is created for each
IXC.A caller, who needs to connect to a receiver in another LATA, first connects to an end switch
then, either directly or through a tandem office, to a POP of the caller's choice. The call then
goes from the POP in the caller's LATA to the POP of the same IXC in the reciever's LATA then
down to the switching offices and finally to the telephone of the receiver.

Fig. 4.11
DSL Technologies
A Digital Subscriber Line makes use of the current copper infrastructure to supply broadband
services. A DSL requires two modems, one at the phone companies end and one at the
subscribers end. The use of the term modem is not entirely correct because technically a DSL
modem does not do modualtion/demodulation as in a modem that uses the normal telephone
network. DSL's also have the added benefit of transmitting telephone services on the same set
of wire as data services. DSL's common in many flavor, and are sometimes referred to as xDSL,
the x standing for the specific type.

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It has been believed that the upper limit for transmitting data on analog phone lines was 56
kb/s. This limit is set using the maximum possible bandwidth and no compression. The reason
for this limit is that POTS or Plain Old Telephone Service uses the lower 4 Khz only. The limit
imposed by the POTS lines does not take advantage of all the bandwidth available on copper,
which is on the order of 1 Mhz. The xDSL technologies take advantage of this difference and
uses the upper frequencies for data services. Previously this was not possible because of the
interference that the data services would cause in the POTS band. Advances in digital signal
processing have eliminated the near-end crosstalk that results from the use of the upper
bandwidth for data. The new DSP technologies allow data and POTS to be transmitted on the
same set of copper wires without interfering with each other. DSL technologies were initially
tested for use with video on demand (VOD) and interactive television (ITV) services. Lack of a
"killer application" for these services and competition from the cable TV industry in these areas
forced the telephone companies to look for a different application for their technologies. With
the popularity of the World Wide Web and telecommuting on the rise the DSL technologies
moved to providing network and phone services to the home. Other areas where DSL
technologies are targeted for are Intranet access, LAN to LAN connections, Frame Relay, ATM
Network access, and leased line provisioning.

Fig. 4.12

ADSL-Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

The most promising of the DSL technologies is ADSL or Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line. ADSL
looks to make the most impact in residential access and the SOHO (Small Office Home Office)
market. Just like the name implies ADSL is asymmetric, meaning that the downstream
bandwidth is higher than the upstream bandwidth. Downstream refers to traffic in the direction
towards the subscriber, and upstream refers to data sent from the subscriber back to the
network. This is done because of the kinds traffic that ADSL is designed to carry. Asymmetry is
used to increase the downstream bandwidth. This works because all of the downstream signals
can be of the same amplitude thus eliminating crosstalk between downstream channels.
Upstream signals would have to put up with more interference because the amplitude of the

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upstream signals would be of smaller amplitude because the are originating from different
distances. The asymmetric nature of ADSL lends itself well to applications like the web and
client server applications.
To achieve the asymmetry ADSL divides its bandwidth into four classes of transport.
1. higher bandwidth simplex channel
2. lower bandwidth duplex channel
3. duplex control channel
4. POTS channel
Transmission on the high bandwidth simplex channel and the lower bandwidth duplex channel
do not interfere in any way with the POTS channel. So ADSL can carry both data a POTS on the
same medium, which makes it ideal for residential and small office use.
ADSL bandwidth is currently standardized by ANSI (American National Standards Institute).
Tables 1 and 2 detail the four transport classes which are based on multiples of T-1 (1.5 Mb/s)
downstream bandwidth. There are also three more classes that are based on the European E-1
(2.0 Mb/s) standard which is shown in the second chart. These classes are all based on the
maximum bandwidth available on each channel. The actual rates depend on factors such as
wire gauge,local loop length, and line condition. In this case, the local loop length is the
distance from the central office to the subscriber.

Fig. 4.13
HDSL- High-data-rate Digital Subscriber Line
The most common DSL deployed today is HDSL. HDSL is mostly used to provision other services
by telephone companies. HDSL symmetrically delivers 1.544 Mb/s over two sets of copper
twisted pair. Which is the same rate as a T-1 type connection. This allows telco's (short for

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telephone companies) to use HDSL to deliver T-1 services. HDSL's operating range is about
12,000 feet, and it is possible to extend that by using repeaters along the line to the customer.
HDSL is mostly used to deploy PBX network connections , interexchange POP's (Point Of
Presence), and directly connecting servers to the Internet.

Fig. 4.14
SDSL -Single-line Digital Subscriber Line also know as Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line
Similar to HDSL, SDSL delivers the same 1.544 Mb/s, but it does it on a single set of twisted pair
of copper. This limits SDSL's reach to 10,000 feet. SDSL could take hold in niche markets like
residential video conferencing or connecting LAN's over short distances.

Fig. 4.15
VDSL- Very-high-rate Digital Subscriber Line
VDSL technology operates on a single set of copper twisted pair, and delivers data in the range
of 13 Mb/s to 52 Mb/s. This high bandwidth does not come without a price, the range of VDSL
is limited to between 1,000 and 4,500 feet. The VDSL standard is still in the works but there are
already applications for the technology. One use for it is in getting high data rate services from

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the telephone companies central office to the subscriber via a FTTN (Fiber To The
Neighborhood) network. FTTN encompasses the Fiber To The Curb technologies and uses VDSL
as the customers connection to the telephone companies fiber based network.
VDSL would be used to connect premises distribution networks to the Optical Network Unit or
ONU. The optical network unit is in turn connected via fiber optical line to the telco's central
office.

Fig. 4.16
Cable TV network for data transfer
Cable network is a system receiving and distributing RF signals mainly inside apartment
buildings. The borderline between a community antenna system and a cable TV network can be
defined in many different ways, e.g. in Poland a cable network is defined as RF installation
located in more than one building and having more than 250 outlets.
Cable TV was primarily planned to be signal installation allowing distribution of large (above 60)
number of programs to large or very large group of subscribers. In the beginning there were
used the same channels as for terrestrial television only.

Data transmission to the subscriber.

There are usually used only 60 channels for television transmission. On the assumption that, for
the reason of possible distortions, there are left free the channels of terrestrial transmitters
(usually 8) and 4 channels for modulators (of e.g. VCRs), it is still 22 channels available for data
transmission. In practice, the number is further decreased because some channels have to be
skipped due to distortions caused by other transmitters etc., so the real number is around 10.
These channels can be used for digital data broadcasting to subscribers (forward direction). Due
to high quality of cable transmission (high S/N ratio, even including some specific distortions in

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cable networks), especially in the direction to subscribers, it is possible to use complex multi-
level modulations. Such modulations ensure fast transmission within low bandwidth, i.e. high
efficiency.
Typical examples are the 16QAM and 64QAM modulations. In practice, they are only used for
broadcast channels, because they require relatively high signal to noise ratio. The advantage of
this kind of modulation is high channel capacity, equal 4 b/Hz/s for 16QAM, and 6 b/Hz/s for
64QAM.
Reverse transmission - the return channel.
Obviously the users must have possibility of reverse transmission to the head station. Because
of use of distribution amplifiers, the only possibility is frequency division, i.e. the forward
transmission is performed in the range of television channels and the reverse transmission - in
5-65 MHz range. On account of the specificity of this kind of transmission, it is required to use
interference-resistant modulations.
For this purpose there are usually used BPSK and QPSK modulations. Their basic advantages are
high resistance to distortions and simplicity of the modulators and demodulators. These are the
simplest phase modulations, with binary phase-shift keying and quadrature phase-shift keying
adequately. The channel capacity is equal 1 b/Hz/s for BPSK and 2 b/Hz/s for QPSK.
Band selection for the return channel.
We have mentioned before that for the reverse transmission in cable networks there have been
chosen frequencies lying below forward band, i.e. the 5-65 MHz range. It's worth trying to
understand why.
There were two possible variants, either using the band lying below the lowest TV channel, or
above the highest one. The frequencies above 862 MHz are less vulnerable to external
interferences, as the range is a subject to regulations and the transmitters have limited output
power.
However, distribution of so high frequency signals in cable TV networks encounters various
problems, related to increase of cable attenuation and decrease of shielding effectiveness. In
addition, the higher frequency, the bigger trouble with making filters with steep edges of
frequency characteristics.
By contrast, the band below 65 MHz is the most commonly used frequency band, thus the
environment is full of interferences. It is interfered by CB transceivers, household devices, car
ignition systems, lighting controllers, computers etc. However, the basic advantage of this band
for cable applications is low attenuation of the cables and possibility of making efficient filters.
Besides that, it is easier to build active devices working in lower frequency bands.
In the very beginning, the upper frequency of the return channel was 30 MHz, to avoid any
possibility of interference with the lowest TV channel beginning at 47 MHz. Later, since the
lower channels were not used any more, the band has been widened.
Throughput of the return channel.
Now we will try to estimate the throughput of the return channel. Transmission speed depends
on the available bandwidth and spectral efficiency of the modulation used.

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Rb=B*n
Where:
Rb - transmission speed in bps (bits per second)
B - bandwidth in Hz
n - spectral efficiency in bps/Hz, showing the number of bits that can be coded by one change
of the carrier; n describes capacity of the modulation used (it is limited by the ratio of total
signal power over the bandwidth and total noise power over the bandwidth).
Transmission speed is proportional to available bandwidth and channel capacity.
The more complex modulation, the higher n, reaching even 10 for 1024QAM modulation.

Fig. 4.17

Cable companies are now competing with telephone companies for the residential customer
who wants high-speed data transfer. DSL technology provides high-data-rate connections for
residential subscribers over the local loop. However, DSL uses the existing unshielded twisted-
pair cable, which is very susceptible to interference. This imposes an upper limit on the data
rate. Another solution is the use of the cable TV network. In this section, we briefly discuss this
technology.

Bandwidth
Even in an HFC system, the last part of the network, from the fiber node to the subscriber
premises, is still a coaxial cable. This coaxial cable has a bandwidth that ranges from 5 to 750
MHz (approximately). To provide Internet access, the cable company has divided this
bandwidth into three bands: video, downstream data, and upstream data, as shown

Fig. 4.18
Downstream Video Band

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The downstream video band occupies frequencies from 54 to 550 MHz. Since each TV channel
occupies 6 MHz, this can accommodate more than 80 channels.
Downstream Data Band
The downstream data (from the Internet to the subscriber premises) occupies the upper band,
from 550 to 750 MHz. This band is also divided into 6-MHz channels. Modulation Downstream
data band uses the 64-QAM (or possibly 256-QAM) modulation technique.

Video Link:-
1. https://www.ovation.co.uk/Gemini/Gemini-4.html
2. http://www.videoconferencebridge.com

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CS-5001

Data Communication

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