ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I, Samriti Wadhawan, take this opportunity to express my profound

gratitude and deep regards to the guide of this project, Dr. Ajay Ranga
for his exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant encouragement
throughout the course of this research project. The blessing, help and
guidance given by his time to time shall carry me a long way in the
journey of life on which I am about to embark.

I also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to the

faculty and students of University Institute of Legal Studies, Punjab
University for their cordial support, valuable information and guidance,
which helped me in completing this task.

Page | 1
 i. INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE

Forensic science is the combination of two different Latin words: forensis and science. The
former, forensic, relates to a discussion or examination performed in public. Because trials in
the ancient world were typically held in public, it carries a strong judicial connotation. The
second, of course, is science, which is derived from the Greek for knowledge and is today
closely tied to the scientific method, a systematic way of acquiring knowledge. Taken
together, then, forensic science can be seen as the use of the scientific methods and processes
in crime solving.1

Forensic science has become an imperative part of many legal cases with objective facts
through scientific knowledge serving both defence and prosecution contentions. Forensic
scientists perform physical and chemical analyses on the evidence obtained by crime scene
investigators. These scientific experts use following techniques:

(a) Microscopic examining techniques,

(b) Complex instruments,

(c) Mathematical principles,

(d) Scientific principles, and

(e) Reference literature to analyze evidence as to identify both class and individual
characteristics.2

The field of forensic science draws from a number of scientific branches, including physics,
chemistry, and biology, with its focus being on the recognition, identification, and evaluation
of physical evidence. It has become an essential part of the judicial system, as it utilizes a
broad spectrum of sciences to achieve information relevant to criminal and legal evidence.

Forensic science may prove the existence of a crime, the perpetrator of a crime, or a
connection to a crime through the:

 Examination of physical evidence

 Administration of tests
 Interpretation of data
 Clear and concise reporting
1
https://www.internationalstudent.com/study-criminal-and-forensic-science/what-is-forensic-science/
( Accessed on 6.10.2017)
2
https://www.crimesceneinvestigatoredu.org/what-is-forensic-science/ ( Accessed on 6.10.2017)

Page | 2
  Truthful testimony of a forensic scientist

ii. INTRODUCTION TO FINGERPRINTING

We touch things every day: a coffee cup, a car door, a computer keyboard. Each time we do,
it is likely that we leave behind our unique signature—in our fingerprints. No two people
have exactly the same fingerprints. Even identical twins, with identical DNA, have different
fingerprints. This uniqueness allows fingerprints to be used in all sorts of ways, including for
background checks, biometric security, mass disaster identification, and of course, in criminal
situations. Fingerprints are unique patterns, made by friction ridges (raised) and furrows
(recessed), which appear on the pads of the fingers and thumbs. 3

The two underlying premises of fingerprint identification are uniqueness and persistence.
Persistence, also referred to as permanence, is the principle that a person’s fingerprints
remain essentially unchanged throughout their lifetime. As new skin cells form, they remain
cemented in the existing friction ridge and furrow pattern. In fact, many people have
conducted research that confirms this persistency by recording the same fingerprints over
decades and observing that the features remain the same. Even attempts to remove or damage
one’s fingerprints will be thwarted when the new skin grows, unless the damage is extremely
deep, in which case, the new arrangement caused by the damage will now persist and is also
unique.4

III. HISTORY OF FINGERPRINTING

While the science of recording fingerprints can be traced back thousands of years, it was not
until the late 1800s that it began to be used to fight crime. Since then, however, it has been
used in thousands of legal cases.

Ancient history – According to some experts, fingerprinting can be dated back to 2000 B.C. It
is believed that Babylonians required fingerprints to be inked onto contracts to avoid forgery.
Around the year 250 B.C., Chinese officials used fingerprints to seal official documents.

Early theories – A surgeon by the name of Henry Faulds originally discovered that the ridges
and loops on a person’s fingertips are unique. In 1880, he published an article in a science

3
http://www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/prints/ (ACCESSED ON 7.10.2017)
4
Ibid

Page | 3
journal that explored the use of prints for personal identification. Faulds is also credited for
taking the first fingerprint, lifted from an alcohol bottle.

Complete history – The National Institute of Justice has a thorough guide to fingerprinting on
its website that students earning a criminal justice bachelor’s degree may find useful while
learning about fingerprinting.

Fingerprinting and forensics – A timeline of the use of forensics shows that fingerprinting is
one of the oldest methods of investigating a crime using science.5

IV. ADVANTAGES OF FINGERPRINTING:

1. Fingerprint analysis has been used to identify suspects and solve crimes for more than
100 years, and it remains an extremely valuable tool for law enforcement.
2. One of the most important uses for fingerprints is to help investigators link one crime
scene to another involving the same person.
3. Fingerprint identification also helps investigators to track a criminal’s record, their
previous arrests and convictions, to aid in sentencing, probation, parole and pardoning
decisions.6
4. Providing biometric security (for example, to control access to secure areas or
systems)
5. Identifying amnesia victims and unknown deceased (such as victims of major
disasters, if their fingerprints are on file)
6. Conducting background checks (including applications for government employment,
defense security clearance, concealed weapon permits, etc.).

EXAMPLES WHERE FINGERPRINT CAN BE APPLIED:

1. A killer may leave their fingerprints on the suspected murder weapon.
2. A bank robber’s fingerprints may be found on a robbery note.
3. In an assault case, the perpetrator may have left fingerprints on the victim’s skin.
4. A burglar may leave fingerprints on a broken window pane.

5
http://online.ccj.pdx.edu/news-resources/articles/how-fingerprinting-improves-criminal-investigations.html (
Accessed on 7.10.2017)
6
Supra Note 3

Page | 4
 5. A thief’s fingerprints may be found on a safe7

V. WHERE CAN A FINGERPRINT BE FOUND

Fingerprints can be found on practically any solid surface, including the human body.
Analysts classify fingerprints into two categories according to the type of surface on which
they are found and whether they are visible or not:

1. Fingerprints on soft surfaces (such as soap, wax, wet paint, fresh caulk, etc.) are likely to
be three-dimensional plastic prints;

2. Finger Prints on hard surfaces are either patent (visible) or latent (invisible) prints.

- Visible prints are formed when blood, dirt, ink, paint, etc., is transferred from a finger or
thumb to a surface. Patent prints can be found on a wide variety of surfaces: smooth or
rough, porous (such as paper, cloth or wood) or nonporous (such as metal, glass or plastic).

- Latent prints are formed when the body’s natural oils and sweat on the skin are deposited
onto another surface. Generally speaking, the smoother and less porous a surface is, the
greater the potential that any latent prints present can be found and developed.8

V. FRICTION RIDGE PATTERN

Friction ridge skin refers to the skin of the palms of the hands and fingers as well as the soles
of the feet and toes. Friction ridge skin can be differentiated from the skin of the rest of the
body by the presence of raised ridges, by epidermis that is thicker and structurally more
complex, by increased sensory abilities, by the absence of hair, and by the absence of
sebaceous glands. Friction ridges form in the uterus by the fourth month of fetal development
and remain unchanged and absolute for a person's lifetime, only decomposing after death.
These unique factors make friction ridge skin ideal for use in personal identification.9 Once
friction ridge skin was recognized as valuable and reliable for personal identification,
different people began to work on systems for taking these prints and then organizing them.
The fingerprint pattern, such as the print left when an inked finger is pressed onto paper, is
that of the friction ridges on that particular finger. Friction ridge patterns are grouped into
7
Ibid
8
Ibid
9
https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-642-27733-7_48-3 (accessed on 8-10-2017)

Page | 5
three distinct types—loops, whorls, and arches—each with unique variations, depending on
the shape and relationship of the ridges:

1. LOOPS – It prints curve back on themselves to form a loop shape. Divided into radial
loops (pointing toward the radius bone, or thumb) and ulnar loops (pointing toward
the ulna bone, or pinky), loops account for approximately 60 percent of pattern types.
The ulnar loop , which tilts toward the ulna bone, or little finger, is the most common.
Radial loops , tilting toward the radius bone or index finger, are less common and
most often found on the index finger.10

2. WHORLS - It is a circular or spiral pattern, like tiny whirlpools. There are four
groups of whorls: plain (concentric circles), central pocket loop (a loop with a whorl
at the end), double loop (two loops that create an S-like pattern) and accidental loop
(irregular shaped). Whorls make up about 35 percent of pattern types. Found in about
30% of fingerprint patterns, the whorl is a rounded or circularly shaped pattern
containing two or more deltas. 11Whorls are divided into plain, central pocket loop ,
double loop , and accidental types. Plain whorls and a central pocket loop have at
least one ridge that makes a complete circuit. To tell the difference between them, an
imaginary line is drawn between the two deltas. If the line touches any of the spiral
ridges, the pattern is called a plain whorl . If not, the pattern is a central pocket loop.
Double loop patterns must contain two separate loops, each with a distinct core in the

10
Supra note 3
11

Page | 6
 same fingerprint. Finally, accidental patterns are a broad, catchall class containing
combinations of patterns or patterns that do not fit into any other categories.

3. ARCHES  - It create a wave-like pattern and include plain arches and tented arches.
Tented arches rise to a sharper point than plain arches. Arches make up about five
percent of all pattern types. The arch pattern has no delta or core and occurs only in
about 5% of fingerprint patterns. In a plain arch , the ridge pattern rises in the middle
but does not form a loop. In a tented arch , the center rises sharply in the middle but
still does not form a loop12

12
http://www.odec.ca/projects/2004/fren4j0/public_html/fingerprint_patterns.htm (accessed on 6-10-2017)

Page | 7
 VI. THE ANATOMY OF A FINGERPRINT

Fingerprints can be regarded as a special category of mark evidence. The main difference is
that the marks are created in skin and therefore offer a means of personal identification. Skin
is the largest organ of the body. It provides our first line of defense to infection and the
mechanism for our sense of touch. Friction skin provides grip to the hands and feet. In fact,
the same friction skin ridges that allow you to hold an object (say, the lid of a cookie jar) may
tell a criminalist that you touched it. Looking at the tip of your finger, you will see a pattern
of ridges and grooves. The pattern seen on the epidermis, the outermost layer of skin, is
generated by a layer of cells that lie below it. These cells are the dermal papillae . They form
a layer between the outer skin and the inner skin, or dermis. Though they grow as we mature,
the patterns created by the dermal papillae do not change. Hence, our fingerprints do not
become more (or less!) complex over our lives. Deep in the dermis are the mechanical works
of the skin: nerves, capillaries, and sweat glands. Sweat travels up ducts from the dermis to
emerge through tiny pores in the cells of the skin ridge. When an object is touched, the
fingers work like a self-inking stamp pad.13

VII. FINGERPRINTS AND IDENTIFICATION

Although loops, whorls, and arches, together with deltas and cores, provide an effective
method for classification of fingerprints, they do not contain sufficient unique detail to permit
identification of the person who left a print at the scene of a crime. Identification depends on
the finer detail contained in ridge patterns. Analysts use the general pattern type (loop, whorl
or arch) to make initial comparisons and include or exclude a known fingerprint from further
analysis.14 To match a print, the analyst uses the minutiae, or ridge characteristics, to identify
specific points on a suspect fingerprint with the same information in a known fingerprint. For
example, an analyst comparing a crime scene print to a print on file would first gather known
prints with the same general pattern type, then using a loupe, compare the prints side-by-side
to identify specific information within the minutiae that match. If enough details correlate,
the fingerprints are determined to be from the same person. Minutiae are mapped by scanning
a recovered print into a computer and then analyzing the resulting image. A single rolled print

13
http://booksite.elsevier.com/samplechapters/9780120885916/Sample_Chapters/04~Chapter_4.pdf
(accessed on 8-10-2017)
14
Ibid

Page | 8
may have as many as 100 individual points, the number depending on the location of the
print, there being more in the region near a delta.

VIII. HOW FINGER PRINTS ARE COLLECTED

-Collecting Patent Fingerprints :

Patent prints are collected using a fairly straightforward method: photography. These prints
are photographed in high resolution with a forensic measurement scale in the image for
reference. Investigators can improve the quality of the images by using low-angle or alternate
light sources and/or certain chemicals or dyes during photography, but this is usually not
necessary.15

-Collecting Latent Fingerprints:

One of the most common methods for discovering and collecting latent fingerprints is by
dusting a smooth or nonporous surface with fingerprint powder (black granular, aluminum
flake, black magnetic, etc.). If any prints appear, they are photographed as mentioned above
and then lifted from the surface with clear adhesive tape. The lifting tape is then placed on a
latent lift card to preserve the print. However, fingerprint powders can contaminate the
evidence and ruin the opportunity to perform other techniques that could turn up a hidden
print or additional information. Therefore, investigators may examine the area with an
alternate light source or apply cyanoacrylate (super glue) before using powders.

1. Alternate Light Source (ALS): It is becoming more commonplace for investigators

to examine any likely surfaces (doors, doorknobs, windows, railings, etc.) with an
alternate light source. These are laser or LED devices that emit a particular
wavelength, or spectrum, of light. Some devices have different filters to provide a
variety of spectra that can be photographed or further processed with powders or dye
stains. For example, investigators may use a blue light with an orange filter to find
latent prints on desks, chairs, computer equipment or other objects at the scene of a
break-in.
2. Cyanoacrylate: Investigators often perform cyanoacrylate (superglue) processing, or
fuming, of a surface before applying powders or dye stains. This process, typically

15
Supra note 3

Page | 9
 performed on non-porous surfaces, involves exposing the object to cyanoacrylate
vapors. The vapors (fumes) will adhere to any prints present on the object allowing
them to be viewed with oblique ambient light or a white light source.
3. Chemical Developers: Porous surfaces such as paper are typically processed with
chemicals, including ninhydrin and physical developer, to reveal latent fingerprints.
These chemicals react with specific components of latent print residue, such as amino
acids and inorganic salts. Ninhydrin causes prints to turn a purple color, which makes
them easily photographed. DFO (1,2-diazafluoren-9-one) is another chemical used to
locate latent fingerprints on porous surfaces; it causes fingerprints to fluoresce, or
glow, when they are illuminated by blue-green light.
4. Other Collection Methods : In addition to the methods identified above, there are
special techniques for capturing prints from skin, clothing and other difficult surfaces.
Amido Black, a non-specific protein stain that reacts with any protein present, is
typically used for developing or enhancing bloody impressions on human skin. To
reveal prints on clothing, high-tech methods such as vacuum metal deposition using
gold and zinc are showing promise for the investigator. Like fingerprint powders,
chemical processing can reduce the investigator’s ability to perform other techniques
that could reveal valuable information. Therefore, any nondestructive investigations
are performed before the evidence is treated with chemicals. For example, a ransom
or hold-up note will be examined by a questioned documents expert before being
treated with ninhydrin, since some formulations of ninhydrin will cause certain inks to
run, thus destroying the writing.16

ix. HOW AND WHERE IS IT PERFORMED ?

Forensic identification of latent prints is a specialized field of study that encompasses many
sciences. Commitment to a career in this forensic science requires an understanding and
application of the scientific method. Knowledge of the biological formation of friction ridge
skin, the nature of this specialized skin, and an awareness of the various technologies and
methodologies employed in developing latent impressions is also required. The technique of
fingerprinting is known as Dactyloscopy.17 Until the advent of digital scanning technologies,
fingerprinting was done using ink and a card. Fingerprint analysis is usually performed by

16
Ibid
17
http://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/LatentPrintExaminationHumanFactors.pdf (accessed on 7-10-
2017)

Page | 10
law enforcement agencies or crime laboratories; however, casework may be sent to private
companies if there is a need, such as to reduce backlogs, verify results, or handle high-profile
cases.

Fingerprint examination involves looking at the quality and quantity of information in order
to find agreement or disagreement between the unknown print (from the crime scene) and
known prints on file. To conduct the examination, fingerprint examiners use a small
magnifier called a loupe to view minute details (minutiae) of a print. A pointer called a ridge
counter is used to count the friction ridges.18

X. THE FINGERPRINT ANALYSIS PROCESS

Fingerprint examiners use the ACE-V (analysis, comparison, evaluation and verification)
method to reach a determination on each print.

ANALYSIS COMPARISON EVALUATION VERIFICATION

Analysis involves assessing a print to determine if it can be used for a comparison. If the

print is not suitable for comparison because of inadequate quality or quantity of features, the
examination ends and the print is reported as not suitable. If the print is suitable, the analysis

18
https://www.britannica.com/science/DNA-fingerprinting (accessed on 8-10-2017)

Page | 11
indicates the features to be used in the comparison and their tolerances (the amount of
variation that will be accepted). The analysis may also uncover physical features such as
recurves, deltas, creases and scars that help indicate where to begin the comparison. Once a
print is collected, analysis can begin. During analysis, examiners determine whether there is
enough information present in the print to be used for identification. This includes
determining class and individual characteristics for the unknown print. Class characteristics
are the characteristics that narrow the print down to a group but not an individual.Individual
characteristics are those characteristics that are unique to an individual. They are tiny
irregularities that appear within the friction ridges and are referred to as Galton’s details. The
most common types of Galton’s details are bifurcation, ridge endings, and dots or islands.

Comparisons are performed by an analyst who views the known and suspect prints side-by-
side. The analyst compares minutiae characteristics and locations to determine if they match.
IAFIS is the largest fingerprint database in the world and, as of June 2012, held more than 72
million print records from criminals, military personnel, government employees and other
civilian employees. After analysis, unknown prints are compared alongside the known prints.
The unknown print is the print found at the crime scene, and the known print is the print of a
possible suspect. First, the class characteristics are compared. If the class characteristics of
the two prints are not in agreement, then the first print is automatically eliminated. If this is
the case, another known print may be compared to the unknown print. If the class
characteristics appear to match, the examiner then focuses on the individual characteristics.
They look at each individual characteristic point by point until they have found a possible
match.

Evaluation is where the examiner ultimately decides if the prints are from the same source
(identification or individualization), different sources (exclusion) or is inconclusive.
Inconclusive results may be due to poor quality samples, lack of comparable areas, or
insufficient number of corresponding or dissimilar features to be certain. After the examiner
completes the comparison, they can make a proper evaluation. If there are any unexplained
differences between the unknown and known fingerprints, then they can exclude the known
fingerprint as the source. This means that if the class characteristics are in disagreement, then
the conclusion would be exclusion. However, if the class characteristics as well as the
individual characteristics are in agreement and if there are no unexplained differences
between the prints, the conclusion would be identification. In some cases, neither of these

Page | 12
conclusions is possible. There may not be a sufficient quality or quantity of ridge detail to
effectively make a comparison, making it impossible to determine whether or not the two
prints came from the same source. In these instances, no conclusion can be made and the
report will read “inconclusive.” The three possible results that can be made from a fingerprint
examination are therefore exclusion, identification, or inconclusive.

Verification is when another examiner independently analyzes, compares and evaluates the
prints to either support or refute the conclusions of the original examiner. The examiner may
also verify the suitability of determinations made in the analysis phase. After the first
examiner reaches one of the three conclusions, another examiner must verify the results.
During this verification process, the entire exam is repeated. The second examiner does the
repeated exam independently from the first exam, and for an identification conclusion, both
examiners must agree. If they agree, the fingerprint evidence becomes a much stronger piece
of evidence if and when it goes to court.19

XI. SUMMARY
Fingerprints are the impression of friction skin ridges of the fingers and thumbs. Visible
prints and plastic prints, those left as an actual impression in soft material, both can be seen
with the unaided eye. Latent prints, those that cannot be immediately seen, must be
developed chemically or dusted with a contact powder to be detected. Once visualized, the
print must be photographed and either preserved in place or lifted. Techniques are employed
from the least destructive to the most destructive. Francis Galton outlined three basic
principles of fingerprints that provide the basis for their use in law enforcement: Fingerprints
are unique to the individual, remain unchanged during an individual’s lifetime, and have
sufficient detail in their ridge patterns to permit them to be systematically classified.
20
Fingerprint patterns can be divided into three basic types that occur in different frequency:
loops (60–65%), whorls (30–35%), and arches (5%). Verification that a fingerprint belongs to
a certain individual is detewwrmined by a point-by-point comparison. Today there are
databases such as AFIS and IDENT, which store images of fingerprints and analyses of their
ridge details, but a trained expert still must make the determination of identity.

19
https://www.crimemuseum.org/crime-library/forensic-investigation/fingerprints/ (accessed on 8-10-2017)
20
Supra note 13

Page | 13
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS:
1. Mathiharan, K. and Patnaik,Amit K., Modi’s Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology,23rd
edition, Lexis Nexis, Buttersworth,2010.
2. Gannguly, DK and Chaudhari, Dr V.K., Ganguly’s Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology,
Dwivedi Law Agency, Allahbad. 2009.

WEBSITE: (all accessed from 6-10-2017 to 8-10-2017)

1. www.internationalstudent.com/study-criminal-and-forensic-science
2. www.forensicsciencesimplied.com
3. www.crimemuseum.org
4. www.britannica.com
5. www.crime-scene-investigator.net
6. www.booksite.elsevier.com/samplechapters/9780120885916/Sample_Chapters/
04~Chapter_4.pdf
7. www.crimesceneinvestigatoredu.org
8. www.odec.ca/projects/2004/fren4j0/public_html/fingerprint_patterns.htm
9. https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-642-27733-7_48-3
10. online.ccj.pdx.edu

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