Biology BIO-112

Theory:
1.Biology and its major fields

Biology:
In ancient times, the scientific information was not classified into different
branches. All the scientific information was included under one head, which is known as
science. With the passage of time & development of scientific information classified into
different branches. Such as Biology, physics, chemistry, mathematics.
Definition:
The scientific study of Life is known as biology. The word Biology is derived from two
Greek words logos and bios. Logos means “Life” & Bios means “Reasoning, scientific study.
Life & livings:
There is no straightforward definition of life. Different biologists define the life in
their own manners. The most suitable definition of life is below.
The life is a set of following characteristics.
Reproduction
Growth & development
Breathing
Excretion
DNA
Movements
Metabolism etc.
The things which carry upper characteristics are known as living and which not are non-living.
The things which carry upper characteristics they have life.

Types of livings:
There are three main types of livings. First are animals, and second is plants &
third is micro-organisms.
Difference between plants & Animals
1.Locamotion
2.Autotrophics & heterotrophic
Animals & Plants contains some differences such as locomotion is present in animals but not in
plants, it means the animals are able to move from one location to another but plants not. For

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example, I have a cat and a red rose plant in my house. My cat can move from one house to
another but a red rose plant cannot. Plants not able to move from one location to another.
And the other big difference between them is food gaining processes. The plants are able to
produce their food by their own self in his own body. But animals cannot. Animals depends
upon others for food. And not able to produce his food by their own self in them on body as
plants. SO, plants are known as autotropic and animals heterotopic.
Micro-organisms:
The micro-organisms are the livings which are very small and we cannot see
them without microscope. That’s why there are known as microscopic organism. The word
micro-organism contains to words, first micro which means small and second is organism
means living.
Major fields:
There are three divisions of biology.
Zoology:
The scientific study of animals is known as zoology. The word zoology is sum of two
words zoo & logos.
Zoo is related to animals & logos related to scientific study, literally the scientific study of
animals is called zoology.
Botany:
The word botany derived from a Greek word butane which means plants. The
scientific study of plants is called Botany.
Microbiology:
The scientific study of micro-organisms is called microbiology.
Morphology:
The scientific study of form & structures of livings is called morphology. The
word morphology derived from two Greek words morph and logos. Morph means appearance,
form, structure.
Histology:
The scientific study of tissues of organisms with help of microscope is known as
histology.
Anatomy:
The scientific study of internal structures of livings is called anatomy.

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Cell biology:
The scientific study of cell & sub-cellular structures in known as cell biology.it
includes the study of its functions & structure. The structural and functional unit of life is called
cell.
The sub-cellular structures are known as organelles. Such as mitochondria, ribosomes, cell wall
& cytoplasm etc.
There are two types of cells, prokaryotes & eukaryotes.
Difference between prokaryotic cell & eukaryotic cell

Difference Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Nucleus Absent Present

membrane-bound Absent Present

organelles
Example Bacteria & Archaea Animals & Plants

Cell size 1-10um 10-100um

Physiology:
The scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living organism. They also
study the way in which a living organism or bodily part functions.
Genetics:
The scientific study of genes & their role in inheritance is known as genetics.
Genes, the units of inheritance are known as genes.
Traits, the characteristics which transfers from one generation to another are known as traits.
Inheritance, the transfer of traits form one generation to another are known as inheritance
Embryology:
The scientific study of the development of an embryo to new individual is known
as embryology.
Embryo,

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the early developmental stage of an animal while it is in the egg or within the uterus of
the mother. In humans the term is applied to the unborn child until the end of the seventh
week following conception; from the eighth week the unborn child is called a fetus.
Taxonomy:
The scientific study of the naming and classification of organisms into groups
and subgroups.
Molecular Biology:
Molecular biology is a branch of biology which deals with the
structure of organisms, the cells and their organelles at molecular level.
Marine Biology:
This is the study of life in seas and oceans. This includes the study of the
marine life and the physical and chemical characteristics of the sea acting as factors for
marine life.
Freshwater Biology:
This branch of biology which deals with the organisms
living in freshwater bodies i.e., rivers, lakes etc. and physical and chemical parameters of these
water bodies.
Paleontology:
The scientific study of fossil, is known as paleontology.
Fossils, the remains of extinct organisms are known as fossils.
Environmental biology:
The scientific study of the interactions between the organisms
and their environment.
Environment, the soundings of an organism is its environment.
Socio-biology:
The scientific study of social behavior of the animals that make societies.
Parasitology:
The study of parasites is known as parasitology.
Parasites, are the organisms that take food and shelter from other organisms and in return,
harm them. For example, hookworms, lice, mosquitoes
Biotechnology:

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The scientific study of production of substances for the welfare of mankind

by using living organisms is known as biotechnology. For example
Immunology:
The scientific study of the immune system of livings organisms is known as
immunology.
Immune system, a system is present in living organism by nature which defends the body
against invading microbes.
Microbes,
Entomology:
The scientific study of insects is called entomology is known as entomology.
Insect,
Insects are arthropods with well-defined head, thorax and abdomen, three pairs of legs,
antennae, and one or two pairs of wings. Mites and spiders are very common arthropods
sometimes confused with insects, but they have only two body regions, eight legs, and no
antennae. examples flies, crickets, mosquitoes, beetles, butterflies, and bees.
Pharmacology:
The scientific study of drugs and their effects on the systems of human
body is called pharmacology.
Drugs,
A drug is a chemical substance that is taken to incite a biological effect in the body of an
organism.
Medicine,
The word "medicine" is derived from Latin medicus, meaning "a physician".
Medicine is a drug which we use for diagnosing, treatment and prevention from diseases.
Biogeography:
The scientific study of the occurrence and distribution of different species
of living organisms in different geographical regions of the world.
Bio-economics:
The scientific study of organisms in light of economical point of view.
For example, production of fish for commercial benefits.
Biochemistry:

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The scientific study of the chemistry of different compounds and processes

occurring in living organisms. For example, the study of basic metabolism of photosynthesis and
respiration involves the knowledge of chemistry.
Biophysics:
The scientific study of the principles of physics, which are applicable to
biological phenomena.
For example, there is a similarity between the working principles of lever in physics and limbs of
animals in biology.
2. Cell organization and division
Cell Organization:
The components that make up the cell and how they are arranged
inside the cell is known as cell organization. Cell organization is how the sub-cellular structures
& cell are organized inside an organism. There different levels of cell organization.
The Levels of Cell Organization:
There are different levels of cell organization which
are below in detail.
1. Subatomic and Atomic level:
Ancient Greek philosopher Democritus suggested that matter is
composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms. The name atom was derived from the Latin
the word 'Atomos' meaning indivisible. But with the passage of time the atom is break into
three particles, electrons (-) protons (+) and neutrons (no charge). Now the scientists
discovered the more than 100 subatomic particles. Sub-atomic particles form the atom and
atom form the elements.
Elements, it is a substance made up of same type of atoms, having same atomic number and
cannot be decomposed into simple substances by ordinary chemical means. It means that each
element is made up of unique type of atoms that have very specific properties. For example,
carbon, gold, silver, tin, mercury, lead etc. According to the scientists of the 92 kinds of
elements that occur in nature.
Bio elements, the 16 elements from 92 are known as bio elements. Because these 16 elements
take part to form the body of organisms.
Major bio elements Minor bio elements

O, C, H, N, Ca, & P (6) K, S, Cl, Na, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, I (10)

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Forms 99% of body Forms 1% of body

Oxygen 65
Carbon 18
Hydrogen 10
Nitrogen 3
Calcium 2
Phosphorous 1

2. Molecular level:
The elements usually do not occur in isolated forms. They combine through
ionic or covalent bonding. This form of combined elements is known as molecule. The molecule
which consists on bio elements are known as biomolecule. Micro-molecules are with low
molecular weight such as glucose, water etc. And Macro-molecules are with high molecular
weights such as starch, proteins, lipids etc.
3. Cell level:
Biomolecules assemble in a particular way and form organelles. Each type of
organelle is specialized to perform a specific function. The organelles are the sub-cellular
structures. Mitochondria, ribosomes, cell wall & cytoplasm etc. are the organelles. The
assemble in a particular way and form cell. Cell is structural and functional unit of life.
4. Tissue level:
A group of similar cells which perform a similar function is known as tissue.
We can also define a tissue as a group of similar cells specialized for the performance of a
common function. Each cell in a tissue carries on its own life processes but it also carries on
some special processes related to the function of the tissue. There are different types of plant
tissues. Such as epidermal tissue, ground tissue etc. Animal tissues are also of different types
such as nervous tissue, muscular tissues etc.

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5. Organ and Organ system level:

A group of similar tissues which specialized to
perform a particular function is known as organ. For example, stomach is an organ specialized
for the digestion of proteins and for storing food. A group of different organs which performs a
particular function is called organ system such as digestive system in human which consists of
food duct, stomach small and large intestine. they all are organs the specialized for a particular
function which is digestion of food. It’s a good example of organ system. An organ system is a
group of organs that work together to perform specific bodily functions. The respiratory system,
for example, uses the lungs, airways and respiratory muscles to inhale oxygen and release
carbon dioxide in animals.
6. Individual level:
An organism is a recognizable, self-contained individual. Organisms can
be unicellular organisms such as bacteria or amoebae, or multi-cellular organisms comprised of
organs and organ systems. Organisms consists of organs systems organ systems.
7. Population level:
The group of same species at same time at same place is called
population. For example, population of Pakistan is 220.9 million in 2020. A population is defined
as a group of organisms of the same species located at the same place, in the same time. For
example, human population in Pakistan in 2010 comprises of 173.5 million individuals
(according to the Ministry of Population Welfare, Government of Pakistan)
8. Community Level:
A community is an assemblage of different populations,
interacting with one another within the same environment. A forest may be considered as a
community. The different populations which are living in same place and interacting with each
another is called community.
Ecosystem:
An ecosystem is made up of all the communities in a certain area, as well as all the non-living,
physical components of the environment. Rocks, water and dirt are a part of an ecosystem.
Ecologists may study populations, communities, or whole ecosystems. A system that includes all
living organisms (biotic factors) in an area as well as its physical environment (abiotic factors).
The biotic factor and abiotic factors of a certain area is called ecosystem.
Biosphere level:

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The biosphere is all of the ecosystems on Earth added together. Every

animal, plant, bacteria, rock, and molecule are a part of the Earth's biosphere. Non-biologists,
such as meteorologists and geologists, may join biologists to answer questions at this level of
biology organization.
Biome:
The word biome is sum of two words first is bio and second is ome which means life
and mass, literally the mass of life is biome. Biomes are large areas on Earth with similar
conditions, such as similar climates and similar living organisms. There are two main categories
of biomes. Terrestrial biomes are usually defined by the type of vegetation that is present. The
major climatic factors contributing to the vegetation types in these biomes are temperature
and precipitation. Aquatic biomes are defined by the type of water they contain.
The coldest biome is called the tundra.

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Cellular organizations:
Cell organization means how the cells are organize to form life is
known as cellular organization. Cells organize in three ways to make the bodies of organisms.
Cells make unicellular, colonials and multicellular organizations and the organisms formed
through these organizations are unicellular organisms, colonial organisms and multicellular
organisms
Unicellular organization or organisms:
In unicellular organization only one cell makes the
life of an organism. All the life activities are carried out by the only cell. For example, Amoeba,
Paramecium, and Euglena. The unicellular organisms consist only one cell. The responsibility of
the life activities is its own self.
Colonial cellular organization:
In colonial cellular organization many unicellular organisms
live together but do not have any division of labor among them. Each unicellular organism in a
colony lives its own life and does not depend on other cells for its vital requirements. Volvox is a
green alga found in water that shows colonial organization. Hundreds of Volvox cells makes a
colony.
Multicellular organization:
In multicellular organization, the organisms contain millions of
cells, organized into tissues, organ, organ systems. For example, plants and animals.

Cell division
Cell cycle is the series of events from the time a cell is produced until it completes mitosis and
produces new cells. Cell cycle consists of two major phases interphase and mitotic phase.
Interphase mitoticphase
G1 mitosis
S phase
G2
q G1 phase: After its production, a cell starts its cell cycle in G1 phase. During this phase, cell
increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of its organelles (such as mitochondria,
ribosomes), and grows in size. This phase is also marked by the synthesis of various enzymes
that are required in next phase i.e. S phase for the duplication of chromosomes
q S phase: In this phase, cell duplicates its chromosomes. As a result, each chromosome
consists of two sister chromatids.
q G2 phase: In the G2 phase, cell prepares proteins that are essential for mitosis, mainly for the

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production of spindle fibres. After the G2 phase of interphase, cell enters the division phase
i.e. M phase. It is characterized by mitosis, in which cell divides into the two daughter cells.
q G0 phase: In multicellular eukaryotes, cells enter G0 phase from G1 and stop dividing. Some
cells remain in G0 for indefinite period e.g. neurons. Some cells enter G0 phase
semipermanently e.g. some cells of liver and kidney. Many cells do not enter G0 and continue
to divide throughout an organism’s life, e.g. epithelial cells.

Mitosis In 1880s, a German biologist Walther Flemming observed that in a dividing cell,
nucleus passes through a series of changes which he called mitosis. Mitosis is the type of cell
division in which a cell divides into two daughter cells, each with the same number of
chromosomes as were present in parent cell.
The process of mitosis is complex and highly regulated. There are two major phases. the
division of nucleus known as karyokinesis; and the division of cytoplasm known as
cytokinesis.
A. Karyokinesis: The division of nucleus is further divided into four phases.
Þ prophase,
Þ metaphase,
Þ anaphase
Þ telophase.

i. Prophase Normally, the genetic material in nucleus is in a loose thread-like form called
chromatin. At the onset of prophase, chromatin condenses into highly ordered structures
called chromosomes. Since the genetic material has already been duplicated earlier in S
phase, each chromosome is made of two sister chromatids, bound together at the same
centromere. Each chromosome also has kinetochore at centromere. Kinetochore is a complex
protein structure that is the point where spindle fibers attach

ii. Metaphase When spindle fibres have grown to sufficient length, some spindle fibres, known
as kinetochore fibres, attach with the kinetochores of chromosomes. Two kinetochore fibres from
opposite poles attach with each chromosome. Chromosomes arrange themselves along the
equator of cell forming a metaphase plate. A number of other fibres (non-kinetochore) from the
opposite centrosomes attach with each other.
iii. Anaphase When a kinetochore spindle fibre connects with the kinetochore of chromosome,
it starts to pull toward the originating centrosomes. The pulling force divides the chromosome’s
sister chromatids and they separate. These sister chromatids are now sister chromosomes, and
they are pulled apart toward the respective centrosomes. The other spindle fibres (non-
kinetochore) also elongate. At the end of anaphase, cell has succeeded in separating identical
copies of chromosomes into two groups at the opposite poles.
iv. Telophase Telophase is a reversal of prophase. A new nuclear envelope forms around each
set of separated chromosomes. Both sets of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclear
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envelopes, unfold back into chromatin. Nuclear division is completed, but cell division has yet
one more step to complete.
B. cytokinesis: Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm. In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a
process known as cleavage. A cleavage furrow develops where the metaphase plate used to be.
The furrow deepens and eventually pinches the parent cell into two daughter cells.
Significance Of Mitosis
Development and growth:
The number of cells within an organism increase by mitosis. This is the basis of the development
of a multicellular body from a single cell i.e. zygote and also the basis of the growth of
multicellular body.
Cell replacement: In some parts of body, e.g. skin and digestive tract, cells are constantly
sloughed off and replaced by new ones. New cells are formed by mitosis and so are exact
copies of the cells being replaced. Similarly, red blood cells have short life span (about 4
months) and new red blood cells are formed by mitosis.
Regeneration: Some organisms can regenerate parts of their bodies. The production of new
cells is achieved by mitosis. For example; sea star regenerates its lost arm through mitosi
Asexual reproduction: Some organisms produce genetically similar offspring through
asexual reproduction. Mitosis is a mean of asexual reproduction. For example; hydra
reproduces asexually by budding. The cells at the surface of hydra undergo mitosis and form a
mass called bud. Mitosis continues in the cells of bud and it grows into a new individual.

Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in 1876, by a German biologist Oscar
Hertwig. The preparatory steps of meiosis are identical to the interphase of mitosis. Interphase is
divided into the same three phases i.e. G1, S phase, and G2. Interphase is followed by meiosis I
and meiosis II. Meiosis I In meiosis I, the homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell separate
and so two haploid daughter cells are produced. It is the step in meiosis that generates genetic
variations. Meiosis I occurs in two main steps i.e. karyokinesis and cytokinesis. The karyokinesis
of Meiosis I is subdivided into prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I. Prophase I

Prophase I is the longest phase in meiosis. During this stage, chromatin condenses into
chromosomes. The homologous chromosomes line up with each other and form pairs by a
process called synapsis. Each pair of homologous chromosomes is called bivalent. Each bivalent
has four chromatids, so it may also be called a tetrad. The two non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes join each other at certain points along their length. These points of
attachment are called chiasmata. In the next stage, the non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes exchange their segments and the phenomenon is known as crossing over
Metaphase I The pairs of homologous chromosomes align along equatorial plane forming the
metaphase plate.
Anaphase I Kinetochore spindle fibres shorten. It results in pulling apart the chromosomes of

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each pair. Since one chromosome is pulled toward one pole, two haploid sets are formed. Each
chromosome still contains a pair of sister chromatids.
Telophase I Chromosomes arrive at the poles. Each pole now has half the number of
chromosomes but each chromosome still consists of two chromatids. Spindle network
disappears, and nuclear envelope is formed around each haploid set. Chromosomes uncoil back
into chromatin. Cytokinesis (the pinching of the cell membrane in animal cells or the formation
of the cell wall in plant cells) occurs and the creation of two haploid daughter cells is completed
Meiosis II It is the second part of meiosis and is similar to mitosis. It is subdivided into prophase
II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.
Prophase II takes much less time compared to prophase I. In this prophase, nucleoli and nuclear
envelope disappear and chromatin condenses. Centrioles move to the polar regions and make
spindle fibres.
Mtaphase II, chromosomes attach with kinetochore spindle fibers and align at the equator of
cell.
Aaphase II, where centromeres are cleaved and sister chromatids are pulled apart. The sister
chromatids are now called sister chromosomes, and they are pulled toward opposing poles.
Telophase II is marked with uncoiling of chromosomes into chromatin. Nuclear envelopes
reform; cleavage or cell wall formation eventually produces a total of 4 daughter cells, each with
a haploid set of chromosomes.

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The genotype (or genome) is a person’s unique combination of genes or genetic

makeup. Thus, the genotype is a complete set of instructions on how that person’s body
synthesizes proteins and thus how that body is supposed to be built and function.

The phenotype is the actual structure and function of a person’s body. The phenotype
is how the genotype manifests in a person—not all the instructions in the genotype may
be carried out (or expressed). Whether and how a gene is expressed is determined not
only by the genotype but also by the environment (including illnesses and diet) and
other factors, some of which are unknown.

A karyotype is a picture of the full set of chromosomes in a person’s cells.

chromosome, the microscopic threadlike part of the cell that

carries hereditary information in the form of genes. A defining feature of any
chromosome is its compactness. For instance, the 46 chromosomes found in human cells.
The chromosomes are called telocentric, acrocentric, sub metacentric and metacentric depending
upon the location of centromere between the middle and tip of the chromosomes.

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Mendel’s Laws Of Inheritance

Gregor Mendel was a monk (priest) in Austria. He developed the fundamental principles of
genetics. Mendel proposed that there are “special factors” in organisms, which control the
expression of traits and their transmission to next generations. These factors were eventually
termed genes. Mendel selected pea plant (Pisum sativum) to carry out a large number of
experiments. In his writings, he gave reasons for this selection. He argued that an organism for
genetic experiments should have the following features:
• There should be a number of different traits that can be studied (Fig. 15.6).
• The organism should have contrasting traits e.g. for the trait of height there should be only two
very different phenotypes i.e. tallness and dwarfness.
• The organism (if it is a plant) should be self-fertilizing but cross fertilization should also be
possible.
• The organism should have a short but fast life cycle.
Mendel’s Law of Segregation
According to law of segregation, the two coexisting alleles for each trait in an individual
segregate (separate) from each other at meiosis, so that each gamete receives only one of the two
alleles. Alleles unite again at random fertilization of gametes when zygote is formed.
Monohybrid cross the cross in which we study only one character is called monohybrid cross
and the cross in whcih we study two is kwon as dehybird cross.
Expwerient:

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Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel's law of independent assortment states that the alleles of two (or more) different genes get
sorted into gametes independently of one another. In other words, the allele a gamete receives for
one gene does not influence the allele received for another gene.

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3.Enzymes as catalysts
Introduction:
Metabolism is the set of biochemical reactions that occur in living organisms in
order to maintain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their
structures, and respond to their environments. They are two types of metabolism. The term
metabolism is derived from a Greek word meaning “change.
Anabolism:
The biochemical reactions in which larger
molecules are synthesized(produced) are known as anabolism.
Catabolism:
The biochemical reactions in which larger molecules are broken down are known
as catabolism.
Usually, energy is released in catabolism and it is utilized in anabolism.
The enzymes are proteins and composed of hundreds of amino acids joined together and coiled
upon themselves to form a globular structure. In 1878, German physiologist Winhelm Kuhne
first used the term enzyme. Enzymes are globular
proteins Like all proteins, enzymes are made of long linear chains of amino acids that fold to
produce
a three-dimensional molecule.
Definition
Enzymes are proteins they act as biocatalysts and speed up and regulate metabolic
pathways.
Enzymes are biocatalysts which speed up the biochemical reactions. Enzymes are proteins that
catalyze (speed up) biochemical reactions and are not changed during the reaction.

Intracellular Enzyme:
The enzymes that work inside the cell are known as intracellular enzyme.
Extracellular enzymes:

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The enzyme that works outside of cell are known as extracellular

enzyme. For example, pepsin is an enzyme which works in stomach.
Substrates:
The molecule at which enzyme act are known as substrate.
Products:
Enzyme converts substrate into different molecules are known as products.
Active site:
The part of enzyme molecule which is the point of attachment of substrate is called
active site.
Activation energy:
The minimum amount energy which is require to start
Biochemical reaction is called activation energy. Enzymes lower the activation energy and
speed up the reaction. Enzymes lower the activation energy in several ways.
 They may alter the shape of substrate and reduce the requirement of energy for this
change.
 Some enzymes do so by disrupting the charge
 distribution on substrates.
 Enzymes may also lower activation energy by bringing substrates in the
 correct orientation to react

Characteristics Of Enzymes:
 Enzymes are proteins and composed by amino acids.
 Enzymes are specific for type of reaction and nature of substrate.
 Enzymes are biocatalyst and not consumed during the reactions that they catalyze.
 Only a small portion of enzyme molecule is directly involved in catalysis which is active
site.
 Several enzymes can work together in a specific order.
 Substrates, the molecule at which enzyme act are known as substrate.
 Products, Enzyme converts substrate into different molecules are known as products.
 Active site, the part of enzyme molecule which is the point of attachment of substrate is
called active site.
 Cofactors,
The non-protein part of enzyme which helps enzyme in it’s work is known as
cofactor. Some enzymes need non-protein molecules. Cofactors can be either inorganic or

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organic. If organic cofactors are tightly bound to enzyme, they are called
prosthetic groups. If organic cofactors are loosely attached with enzyme, they are called co-
enzymes.
An enzyme with prosthetic group, is known as apoenzyme. An enzyme with a cofactor is
known as holoenzyme.
Uses of enzymes
1. Food industry: Enzymes that break starch into simple sugars are used in the production
of
white bread, buns etc.
2. Brewing industry: Enzymes break starch and proteins. The products are used by yeast
for
fermentation (to produce alcohol).
3. Paper industry: Enzymes break starch to lower its viscosity that aids in making paper.
4. Biological detergent: Protease enzymes are used for the removal of protein stains from
clothes.
Mechanism Of Enzyme Action
When enzyme attaches with substrate, a temporary enzyme-substrate (ES) complex is
formed. Enzyme catalyzes the reaction and substrate is transformed into product. After
it, the ES complex breaks and enzyme and product are released.

E + S ES complex E + P
Enzyme + substrate Enzyme substrate complex Enzyme and product
Models of Mechanism of Enzyme Action
 Lock and key model:
German chemist Emil Fischer, in 1894 developed this
model. According to this model, both enzyme and substrate possess specific shapes
that fit exactly into one another. This model explains that as a specific key can open
a specific lock same a specific enzyme can act at a specific substrate. According to
this model the active site of the enzyme is a rigid body.

Substrate

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Enzyme

In the figure the structure of active site of enzyme and the structure of substrate is
specific.
 induced-fit model:
In 1958, an American biologist Daniel Koshland develop this
model in response to the lock and key model. This model explains that the active site is
not a rigid body, it is able to adjust own shape into the required shape to perform its
function. It more acceptable than lock and key model.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Enzyme Action:

Enzymes are very sensitive to the
environment in which they work. Any factor that can change the
chemistry or shape of enzyme molecule, can affect its activity.
 Temperature
Each enzyme works at its maximum rate at specific temperature which is known as
optimum temperature. When the temperature is lower than optimum temperature, the
increase in temperature speeds up the rate of reaction, but the increase in temperature
than optimum temperature cause denaturation of enzyme. when temperature is raised
well above the optimum temperature, heat energy increases the vibrations of atoms of
enzyme and the globular structure of enzyme is lost.
 Substrate concentration The If enzyme molecules are available in a reaction,
increase in substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction. If enzyme
concentration is kept constant and amount of substrate is increased, a point is reached
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where any further increase in substrate does not increase the rate of reaction any more.
When the active sites of all enzymes are occupied (at high substrate concentration), any
more substrate molecules do not find free active sites. This state is called saturation.
 Enzyme Concentration The rate of reaction depends directly on the amount of
enzyme present at a specific time at unlimited substrate concentration. If the amount of
enzyme is increased by two-fold the reaction rate is doubled.
 pH
All enzymes work at their maximum rate at a narrow range of pH, called as the optimum ph. A
slight change in this pH causes retardation in enzyme activity or blocks it completely. Every
enzyme has its specific optimum pH value.
For example, pepsin is an enzyme which works in stomach and the optimum pH of pepsin is
2.00.
Inhibitor,
An inhibitor is a chemical substance which can react with the enzyme but is not
transformed into product and thus blocks the active site temporarily or permanently, for
example poisons, like cyanide, antibiotics, anti-metabolites and some drugs.
 Irreversible Inhibitors They check the reaction rate by occupying the active sites or
destroying the globular structure. They occupy the active sites by forming covalent bonds
or they may physically block the active sites.
 Reversible Inhibitors They form weak linkages with the enzyme. Their effect can be
neutralized completely or partly by an increase in the concentration of the substrate.

Animal reproductive and development systems

Reproduction:
The reproduction is a natural process by which livings organisms
produce new generations is called reproduction.
It’s very important for each species to survive.
There two types of reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction:
A type of reproduction in which both parents’ mother and
father can not take part in production of new generation.
Methods of asexual reproduction are fission, sporulation, budding, vegetative
propagation, artificial propagation, parthenogenesis and apomixis etc.
 Sexual reproduction:
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A type of reproduction in which both parents’ mother and

father take part in production of new generation.

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