Construction Methods — 110401542 Loading and Hauling Dr. Mohammad Almashaqbeh Department of Civil Engineering Hashemite University Optimum Load Time * In field studies performed by Caterpillar Inc., it was found that the scraper loading time which yielded maximum scraper production in a given situation was usually less than the loading time required to obtain the maximum scraper load * Caterpillar called the loading time which yielded maximum production the optimum load time*To determine the optimum load time, it is first necessary to plot the volume of scraper load versus loading time *To do this, the scraper must be loaded for controlled periods of time and weighed each time after loading *The load weight is then converted into scraper volume and plotted as a load growth curve +The slope of the load growth curve at any loading time corresponds to the rate of loading at that time Load Growth Curve be ff 10 4 Os 1 7s Load tie (rinGraphical Method for Determining the Optimum Load Time leas eer sou VS 10 Os 0 05 75 ‘Gyn fe toad fren) Lose ef + First, extend the horizontal axis of the load growth curve to the left of the eat origin aa + Next, Locate a point (A) on this axis a0 whose distance from the origin represents “total cycle time less loading time.” ve 18 ae ° OF +e {yt to — Ltn in) Load ss fri*Finally, draw a tangent to the load growth curve from point A ae intersecting the curve at Point B ecy BGM * The loading time (C) corresponding to a» point B is the optimum load time 15 10 OF ° OF 1 (Cyt ttm in) Load in *To prove this, realize that the distance A-C represents total scraper cycle time and B-C represents the son corresponding volume per cycle ey fo +The slope of the line A-B thus * represents production (volume) per unit of time *When the slope of A-B is at a maximum, the scraper production per unit of time is maximized ve 18 ae ° OF +e {yt to — Ltn in) Load ss friTrucks and Wagons * Because hauling (or the transportation of excavation) is a major earthmoving activity, there are many different types of hauling equipment available to the constructor *In addition to the dozer, loader, and scraper already described, hauling equipment includes trucks, wagons, conveyor belts, and trains “Trucks and wagons are still the most common forms of construction hauling equipment *There are a wide variety of types and sizes of dump truck available “Trucks used for hauling on public highways are limited by transportation regulations in their maximum width, gross weight, and axle load 10* Wagons are earthmoving trailers pulled by tractors or truck- tractors * Although wagons are independent pieces of equipment, some are especially designed to work with a particular make and model of tractor Determining the Number of Haul Units Needed + Truck or Wagon cycle time + Fixed: spot, load, maneuver, and dump * Variable: haul and retumn Table 4-9 Spot, maneuver, and dump time for trucks and wagons (min) Conditions Bottom Dump Rear Dump. Favorable 14 os Average 1.6 11 Unfavorable 20 25 2* Load time = Haul unit capacity / Loader production at 100% efficiency *The reason for using an excavator loading rate based on 100% excavator efficiency that excavators have been found to operate at or near 100% efficiency when actually loading * The use of the 100% efficiency loading rate is intended to ensure that an adequate number of trucks is provided so that the excavator will not have to wait for a truck + Either bank or loose measure may be used, but the same unit must be used in both numerator and denominator B * Load time = Number of bucket loads x Excavator cycle time * The number of trucks theoretically required to keep a loader fully occupied and thus obtain the full production of the loader may be calculated as follows: + Number of haulers required (N) = Haul unit cycle time / Load time ry+ Although this method gives reasonable values for field use, it should be recognized that some instances of the loader waiting for haul units will occur in the field when this method is used *This is due to the fact that some variance in loader and hauler cycle time will occur in the real-world situation *More realistic results may be obtained by the use of computer simulation techniques, or the mathematical technique known as queueing theory 15 * If more than the theoretically required number of trucks is supplied, no increase in system production will occur, because system output is limited to excavator output * Ifless than the required number of trucks is supplied, system output will be reduced, because the excavator will at times have to wait for a haul unit * The expected production in this situation may be calculated as follows * Expected production = (Actual number of units / N) x Excavator production 16Example * Given the following information on a shovel/truck operation, A) Calculate the number of trucks theoretically required and the production of this combination; B) Calculate the expected production if two trucks are removed from the fleet * Shovel production at 100% = 300 BCM/h * Job efficiency = 0.8 * Truck capacity = 21 BCM * Truck cycle time (excluding loading) = 0.6 h uv A) Loading time = 21 / 300 = 0.07h Truck cycle time = 0.6 + 0.07 = 0.67h Number of trucks = 0.67/0.07 = 9.57 trucks = 10 Production = 300 BCM/h x 0.8 = 240 BCM/h 18B) Production = (8/9.57) x 240 = 200.63 BCM/h a9 Job Management *An important consideration in the selection of excavator/haul unit combinations is the effect of the size of the target that the haul unit presents to the excavator operator “If the target is too small, excessive spillage will result and excavator cycle time will be increased * Empirical studies found that haul unit capacity should be 3-5 times excavator bucket capacity 20 10*Clamshells and draglines require even larger sizes (5-10 times excavator bucket capacity) * A major source of inefficiency is the time lost in spotting haul units for loading * Techniques for maximizing haul unit production Do not overload haul units. Overloading results in excessive repair and maintenance * Maintain haul roads in good condition to reduce travel e and minimize equipment wear a “Techniques for maximizing haul unit production * Develop an efficient traffic pattern for loading, hauling, and dumping *Roads must be wide enough to permit safe travel at maximum speeds * Provide standby units (20% of fleet size) to replace units that break down 2 aConstruction Methods — 110401542 Compacting and Finishing Dr. Mohammad Almashaqbeh Department of Civil Engineering Hashemite University 2B The Compaction Process * Compaction is the process of increasing the density of a soil by mechanically forcing the soil particles closer together, thereby expelling air from the void spaces in the soil * Compaction should not be confused with consolidation iaaoss.. > Compaction 2 12* Consolidation is an increase in soil density of a cohesive soil resulting from the expulsion of water from the soil’s void spaces *Consolidation may require months or years to complete, whereas compaction is accomplished in a matter of hours Compaction Gonsolidation 25 * Compaction has been employed for centuries to improve the engineering properties of soil including * Increased bearing strength + Reduced compressibility + Improved volume-change characteristics + Reduced permeability 26 13+ Equipment and methods employed for compaction in building construction are usually somewhat different from those employed in heavy and highway construction + Some of the building construction characteristics producing these differences include * Limited differential settlement that can be tolerated by a building foundation * Necessity for working in confined areas close to structures + Smaller quantity of earthwork involved 27 +The degree of compaction that may be achieved in a particular soil depends on *The soil’s physical and chemical properties (grain size, cohesiveness, etc.) * Soil’s initial density * Soil’s moisture content * The compaction method employed * The amount of compactive effort * The thickness of the soil layer being compacted 28 14* The four basic compaction forces are + Static weight (pressure) * Manipulation (kneading) * Impact * Vibration rN = 29 * All compactors utilize static weight to achieve compaction * Most compactors combine static weight with one or more of the other compaction forces + For example, a plate vibrator combines static weight with vibration * Manipulation rearranges particles into a denser mass + Manipulation of soil under pressure to produce compaction is most effective in plastic soils 30 1s* The forces involved in impact and vibration are similar except for their frequency ‘Impact or tamping involves blows delivered at low frequencies, usually about 10 cycles per second, and is most effective in cohesive soils * Vibration involves higher frequencies, which may extend to 80 cycles per second or more * Vibration is particularly effective in compaction of cohesionless soils such as sand and gravel BL Optimum Moisture Content * Optimum moisture content: The moisture content at which maximum dry density is achieved under a specific compaction effort * Although soil moisture content is only one of the six factors influencing compaction results, itis a very important one +A standard laboratory test called a Proctor test has been developed to evaluate a soil’s moisture-density relationship under a specified compaction effort 32 16*Two Proctor tests which have been standardized by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) * The Standard Proctor Test (ASTM D698, AASHTO T-99) * The Modified Proctor Test (ASTM D1557, AASHTO T-180) *Since the modified test was developed for use where high design loads are involved (such as airport runways), the compactive effort for the modified test is more than four times as great as for the standard test 33 “Fable 5-1 Characierisies af Proctor Compaction tests Test Details Standard Modi Diameter of molt in 4 4 mm 102 102 Hoight of sample in Semossa —_seuttoa.sa mm Wrewiott7 —127euto 17 Number of ayors 3 5 Blows pe layer 2 2 ‘Weight of hammer 58 0 ‘9 25 45 Diameter of hammer in 2 2 mm 3 St Hoight of hammer crop 2 8 rm 205 487 Volume of sample r ry oa8 Compact stort febieu 12400 36.200 alm 302 2603, 34 a7*To determine the maximum density of a soil using Proctor test procedures * Compaction tests are performed over a range of soil moisture contents +The results are then plotted as dry density versus moisture content * The peak of each curve represents the maximum density obtained under the compactive effort supplied by the test Typical compaction test results % 3 32 19 1s 18 z 10 zou 105 Standard Proctor 16}- 100 sos Water content (% ry we)*Zero air voids curve represents the density at which all air voids have been eliminated; that is, all void spaces are completely filled with water “It represents the maximum possible soil density for any specified water content * Actual density will always be somewhat less than the zero air voids density because it is virtually impossible to remove all air from the soil’s void spaces 37 *For the Standard Proctor Test the optimum moisture content for this soil is about 20% of the soil’s dry weight +The optimum moisture content for the modified testis only about 15% * This relationship is typical for most soils +A soil’s optimum moisture content decreases as the compactive effort is increased 38 19+ Suppose that specifications require a density of 1.6 g/cm? for this soil and that the compactive effort being used is equal to that of the Standard Proctor Test + Itcan be seen that the required density may be achieved at any moisture content between 13% and 24% + However, a density 1.68 g/cm? can only be achieved at a moisture content of 20% 39 40 +The effect of soil type on ;.| compaction test results (Modified .. Proctor Test) *Most soils display a similar .. characteristic shape = *Flat_ curve obtained when x compacting uniform fine sands, (curve 5) ” +The compaction curve for heavy clays (curve 7) is intermediate between that of uniform fine sands and those of the more typical soils 20Compaction Specifications + Compaction specifications are intended to ensure that the compacted material provides + The required engineering properties (minimum dry density to be achieved) +A satisfactory level of uniformity (A maximum variation of density between adjacent areas) + To ensure that the required engineering properties are provided, it is customary to prescribe the characteristics of the material to be used and a minimum dry density to be achieved + If the natural site material is to be compacted, only a minimum density requirementis needed a. * The Proctor test is widely used for expressing the minimum density requirement +The specification will state that a certain percentage of Standard Proctor or Modified Proctor density | must be obtained “ * For i, 100% of Standard Proctor density corresponds to a dry density of (1.68 g/cm?) * A specification requirement for 95% of Standard Proctor density «L_,, 4 = 1 corresponds to a minimum dry ere arent density of (1.60 g/cm?) | 42 2“Typical density requirements range from 90% of Standard Proctor to 100% of Modified Proctor + For example, 95% of Standard Proctor is often specified for embankments, dams, and backfills * A requirement of 90% of Modified Proctor might be used for the support of floor stabs * For the support of structures and for pavement base courses where high wheel loads are expected, requirements of 95 to 100% of Modified Proctor are commonly used 43 *Itis important that uniform compaction be obtained * Uniformity is commonly controlled by specifying a maximum variation of density between adjacent areas * A lack of uniformity in compaction may result in * Differential settlement of structures + Abump or depression in pavements Unter Stier Tang Stora Doren seterenk fa Coc oy Yat oc vi aes) 22*Itis important that uniform compaction be obtained * Uniformity is commonly controlled by specifying a maximum variation of density between adjacent areas * A lack of uniformity in compaction may result in * Differential settlement of structures + Abump or depression in pavements Measuring Field Density *To verify the adequacy of compaction, the density (soil or asphalt) actually obtained in the field must be measured and compared with the specified density +The methods available for performing in-place density tests include * Traditional methods (liquid tests and sand tests) * Nuclear density gauges * Nonnuclear density gauges * Equipment-mounted compaction measurement systems 46 23* All of the traditional test methods involve * Removing a material sample * Measuring the volume of the hole produced * Determining the dry weight of the material removed *Compacted density is then found as the dry weight of material removed divided by the volume of the hole * Liquid tests measure the volume of material removed by measuring the volume of liquid required to fill the hole *Sand tests involve filling both the hole and an inverted funnel placed over the hole with a uniform fine sand 47 + Nuclear density devices measure the amount of radioactivity from a calibrated source that is reflected back from the compacted material to determine both material density and moisture content +Nonnuclear density gauges that measure asphalt density, temperature, and moisture content are also available + Equipment mounted compaction measurement and control systems provide rapid measurement of compaction results. Some systems control the energy being delivered by the compactor to avoid over or under compaction of the material 48 24Compaction Equipment “Principal types of compaction equipment + Tamping Foot Rollers * Grid or Mesh Rollers * Vibratory Compactors + smooth Steel Drum Rollers * Pneumatic Rollers * Segmented Pad Rollers + Tampers or Rammers 49 Tamping Foot Rollers + Tamping foot rollers utilize a compaction drum equipped with a number of protruding feet * Available in a variety of foot sizes and shapes, including the sheepsfoot roller * During initial compaction, roller feet penetrate the loose material and sink to the lower portion of the lifts SELF-PROPELLED TAMING Foot role 50 25*As compaction proceeds, the roller rises to the surface or “walks out” of the soil * All tamping foot rollers utilize static weight and manipulation to achieve compaction * They are most effective on cohesive soils 51 Grid or Mesh Rollers * Utilize a compactor drum made up of a heavy steel mesh *They can operate at high speed without scattering the material being compacted * Compaction is due to static weight and impact —plus_limited manipulation GRID ROLLER 52 26* Most effective in compacting clean gravels and sands *They can also be used to break up lumps of cohesive soil *They are capable of both crushing — otprousk and compacting soft rock 53 Vibratory Compactors + Available in a wide range of sizes and types + In size they range from small hand-operated compactors through towed rollers to large self-propelled rollers + By type they include plate compactors, smooth drum rollers, and tamping foot rollers 27* Small walk-behind vibratory plate compactors and vibratory rollers are used primarily for compacting around structures and in other confined areas * Vibratory plate compactors are also available as attachments for hydraulic excavators +The towed and self-propelled units are utilized in general earthwork * Large self-propelled smooth drum vibratory rollers are often used for compacting bituminous bases and pavements 55 * Vibratory compactors are most effective in compacting noncohesive soils *They may also be effective in compacting cohesive soils when operated at low frequency and high amplitude * Many vibratory compactors can be adjusted to vary both the frequency and amplitude of vibration 56 28Steel Wheel or Smooth Steel Drum Rollers *Used for compacting granular bases, asphaltic bases, and —_ asphalt pavements *Types available include towed rollers and self-propelled rollers *Self-propelled rollers include three- Wheel (two-axle) and two- and three- axle tandem rollers SMOOTH, STEEL WHEEL ROLLER +The compactive force involved is primarily static weight 57 Rubber-Tired or Pneumatic Rollers + Available as light- to medium-weight multitired rollers and heavy pneumatic rollers + Heavy pneumatic rollers weighing up to 200 tons are used for dam construction, 5 compaction of thick lifts, and proof rolling (test rolling before pavement layers are constructed) SMALL, MULTITIE PRICUNATIC ROLLER + Effective on almost all types of soils but are least effective on clean sands and gravels 58Segmented Pad Rollers + Similar to tamping foot rollers except segments of a circle instead of feet on the roller drum * They produce less surface disturbance than do tamping foot rollers , ° . seu-moreco sconeneo + Effective on a wide range of soil types Seat wnee nous 59 Rammers or Tampers + Small impact-type compactors *Primarily used for compaction in ggg confined areas *Some rammers are classified as vibratory rammers because of their operating frequency 60 30Compaction in Confined Areas *The equipment available for compaction in confined areas such as trenches and around foundations includes + Small vibratory plate compactors + Tampers or rammers * Walk-behind static and vibratory rollers * Attachments for backhoes and hydraulic excavators 61 * Walk-behind vibratory roller with remote control 62 31* Compactors which mount on the boom of backhoes and excavators include compaction wheels and vibratory plate compactors * Such compactors are highly maneuverable * Useful for compacting the material in deep excavations such as trenches * Due to their long reach, these compactors often eliminate the safety hazard involved in having a compactor operator down in the trench 63 * Compaction wheels * Small compactors similar in design to tamping foot rollers Mounted on the boom of backhoes or hydraulic excavators 32* Vibratory plate attachments * Small vibratory plate compactors + Powered by the hydraulic system of the equipment to which they are attached 65 Selection of Compaction Equipment — gyre | ee = ela le +The proper selection of =~ e sie . compaction equipment is an important factor in obtaining =“ *™ ele ° e the required soil density with aa. slole > a minimum expenditure of _"”” time and effort Ses oles ° ° wise ole ls ° cnn olele ° © omens 3 Sm 66 33Compaction Operations + After selecting compaction equipment, a compaction plan must be developed * The major variables to be considered include * Soil moisture content + Lift thickness (layer thickness) + Number of passes used * Ground contact pressure * Compactor weight * Compactor speed + Frequency and amplitude (for vibratory compactors) 67 +The compactive effort delivered by a piece of compaction equipment will seldom be exactly the same as that of either the standard or modified compaction test *As a result, the field optimum moisture content for a particular soil/compactor combination will seldom be the same as the laboratory optimum * For plastic soils it has been observed that the field optimum moisture content is close to the laboratory Standard Proctor optimum for pneumatic rollers 68 34* Field optimum is noticeably lower than laboratory optimum for tamping foot rollers + For nonplastic soils, the field optimum for all nonvibratory equipment appears to run about 80% of the laboratory Standard Proctor optimum * The vibratory compactor appears to be most effective in all types of soil when the field moisture is noticeably lower than laboratory optimum 69 * Only one of the four compactors has a field optimum moisture content close to the laboratory optimum 70 35* Lifts should be kept thin for most effective compaction *For all rollers, except vibratory rollers and heavy pneumatic rollers, a maximum lift thickness of 15 to 20 cm is suggested * Lift thicknesses of 30 cm or more may be satisfactory using heavy pneumatic rollers +The maximum lift thickness for effective vibratory compaction depends on the static weight of the compactor * The compaction achieved by repeated passes of a compactor depends on the soil/compactor combination utilized n 5 ven? + For some combinations (such as a tamping foot roller +s compacting a clayey gravel), | significant increases in density may continue to occur beyond 6|- 10 50 passes However, the increase in density is relatively small after + about 10 passes for most |, soil/compactor combinations © Sareea eee Figure 5-12 Typist of number of pone, n 36* Ifa tamping foot roller fails to “walk out” to within 2.5 cm of the surface after about five passes, it usually indicates that either the contact pressure or the soil moisture content is too high + When using vibratory equipment, tests should be performed to determine the compactor speed that results in the highest compactor produc B Estimating Compactor Production Production (CCM/h) = (10 x Wx Sx Lx E)/ P * Where: * W = Width compacted per pass (m) +5 = Compactor speed (km/h) +L = Compacted layer thickness (cm) + E = Job efficiency +P = Number of passes required ” 37Example + Estimate the production in compacted cubic meters per hour for a self-propelled tamping foot roller under the following conditions * Average speed = 8 km/h * Compacted lift thickness = 15.2 cm + Effective roller width = 3.05 m * Job efficiency = 0.75 + Number of passes = 8 5 Production (CCM/h) = (10x Wx Sx Lx E)/P = (10 x 3.05 x 8 x 15.2 x 0.75) /8 = 347.7 CCM/h 76 38Job Management «Trial operations are usually required to determine the exact following values of * Lift thickness * Compactor weight * Vibrator frequency and amplitude *These trial operations determine the values that yield maximum productivity while achieving the specified soil density Soil moisture content 7 “Traffic planning and control is an important factor in compaction operations * Hauling equipment must be given the right-of-way without interfering with compaction operations +The use of high-speed compaction equipment may be necessary to avoid conflicts between hauling and compacting equipment 78 39Grading and Finishing * Grading is the process of bringing earthwork to the desired shape and elevation (grade) *Finish grading, or simply finishing, involves smoothing slopes, shaping ditches, and bringing the earthwork to the elevation required by the plans and specifications “Finishing usually follows closely behind excavation, compaction, and grading *Finishing, in tum, is usually followed closely by seeding or sodding to control soil erosion 79 * The piece of equipment most widely used for grading and finishing is the motor grader * Used for stripping, grading, finishing, backfilling, mixing and spreading soil, and maintenance of haul roads 80 40* Grade trimmers are frequently used on large highway and airfield projects because their operating speed is greater than that of the motor grader aL Estimating Grader Production + Grader production is usually calculated on + Linear basis for roadway projects (kilometers completed per hour) + Area basis for general construction projects (square meters per hour) +The time required to complete a roadway project may be estimated as follows ‘Time (h) = be Number of passes x Section length (km) 82 41+ Average speed will depend on operator skill, machine characteristics, and job conditions Table 5-6 Typical grader operating speed Speed Operation min ‘km/n Bank sloping 25 40 Ditching 25-40 40-64 Finishing 4.0-9.0 65-145 Grading and road maintenance 4.2-6.0 64-9.7 Mixing 90-200 145-322 Snow removal 120-200 19.3-92.9 Spreading 6.0-9.0 97-145 83 Example +24.1 km of gravel road require reshaping and leveling. It is estimated that 6 passes of a motor grader will be required as follows +2 passes at 6.4 km/h #2 passes at 8.0 km/h #2 passes at 9.7 km/h * If job efficiency is estimated at 0.8. How many grader hours will be required for this job? 34 42Time (h) Number of passes x Section length (km) 4 | Efficiency ‘Average speed for section =) 2x241 | 2x241 , 2x241 1 = — =23.16h [( 6a te + OF ) Xo8 85 Job Management *The following are required to maximize grader production efficiency * Careful job planning * Use of skilled operators * Competent supervision are required *Use the minimum possible number of grader passes to accomplish the work + Eliminate as many turns as possible 86 43*Use grading in reverse for distances less than 305 meters. May be used for longer distances when turning is difficult or impossible * Several graders may work side by side if sufficient working room is available. Useful for grading large areas 87