CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION Chapter IV

______________________________________________________________________________

Chapter IV. Unit 1

CULTURE AND GLOBALIZATION

Objectives
_____________________________________________________________________________
1. To explain culture as one of the dimensionsof globalization
2. To analyze the relationship between culture and globalization
3. To explain the dynamics between local and global cultural production
____________________________________________________________________________

Globalization lies at the heart of modern culture; cultural practices lie at the heart of
globalization (Tomlonson, J. n.d.). As how Steger defines globalization, Tomlonson also agrees
that it refers to the rapidly and ever-densening network of interconnections and
interdependences that characterize modern social life.
The idea of connectivity could be taken to imply increasing global-spatial proximity: what
Marx in the Grundisse (1973a) talked of as the ‘annihilation of space by time’ and what David
Harvey (1989) has referred to as ‘time-space compression’. What is involved here is a sense of
shrinking of distances through the dramatic reduction in the time taken, either physically (for
instance, via air travel) or representationally (via the transmission of electronically mediated
information and images), to cross them. At another level of analysis connectivity shades into the
idea of spatial proximity, of a ‘shrinking world’ from Marshall McLuhan’s famous ‘global village’
to the United Nation’s recent coining of the term ‘Our Global Neighborhood’ to describe an
emerging world-political context.

Culture and Globalization

Since globalization is a multi-dimensional phenomenon, various connectivity

among states, organizations and individuals are established in terms of economics,
politics and culture. As an encompassing part of human civilization, globalization
contributed much in the economic, political and cultural development of nation-states.
From the three dimensions mentioned, culture usually manifests the grains of
globalization.

A. The Concept of Culture

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To better understand the intertwined relation of culture and globalization,

Kulnazarova Aigul tries to conceptualize culture and cultural evolution. Citing Levinson
and Malone, Aigul emphasized that ‘human culture includes not only ‘the rules,
practices, actions, and characteristics of entire cultures or societies, but also the thoughts,
feelings, actions, and characteristics of individual human beings’ (1980: 3). Although,
culture is said to be a product of systematic human evolution, it is a multi-layered
construction. As such, Levinson and Malone claimed that most cultural features are
widespread that is, they can be found in many different cultures, in many different
regions of the world. The presence of cultural features in many cultures, makes culture
in various regions diverse and distinct from one another. With such diversity, ‘culture
cannot therefore be uniform and be present in a single original form, either. It becomes
even meaningless for some states to continue demanding homogeneity or a unique
uniform identity of any given culture, particularly in this century’ (Aigul 2014).

In order to understand the difference and diversity of culture, Rozbicki and

Ndege rationally explain the sense of culture in three co-paralleled meanings:

1. Culture is a system of meanings that involves beliefs, customs, values, and

rituals that together represent a way of life of a society or a group. Culture offers
a prescription for living as well a sense of order (the latter characteristics require
stability and homogeneity; hence any outside influence that disrupts such stability
tends to be seen as a threat).

2. Culture is subjective. Culture is man-made, it is highly subjective, and it

frequently relies on fictions and narratives, but at the same time, it constitutes the
deepest reality for its members.

3. Culture is ruled by a peculiar dialectic: the claims that its truths are self- evident,
even timeless, and yet culture constantly changes. These changes often take place
when it is confronted with outside influences. (Rozbicki and Ndege,
2012).globalization.

Outside Influences

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• globalization

• speculative articulation of ‘otherness’, which is, according to Rozbicki

and Ndege, ‘a generalized idea deriving from the concept of the “Other”’.
The core meaning of the latter term is an outsider – someone that does
not belong to the group’ (Aigul, 2014). Having the same idea, Alfred
Schutz used an interchangeable term – a ‘stranger’ – to relate someone,
who ‘is not part of the cultural pattern of group life’, to otherness.The
stranger, thus, is a person, who permanently leaves his home group for
another social environment, where he ‘tries to be permanently accepted
or at least tolerated by the group he approaches’ (Schutz ,1944: 499.

Being dynamic, culture can change in any one of four possible ways according
to Levinson and Malone:

It can:

• learn new skills or reorganize

• alter the environment

• withdraw from the environment and seek a more favorable one

• alter its basic goals’

B. Why Culture Matters

Just like globalization, the term culture has various meanings. Theorists and
thinkers offer varying definitions and interpretations. From these interpretations, one can
adduce the features and characteristics of culture in the context of human development.

Some of these are as follow:

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PROPONENT CULTURE…

Clifford Geertz • ‘Culture is public because meaning is’.

• The public character of culture implies that it
also operates as ‘a system of inherited
conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by
means of which men communicate,
perpetuate, and develop their knowledge
about and attitudes toward life’ (Aigul,
2014).

Michael Banton • As per the law of nature, cultural relations

are always reciprocal.

Francis Fukuyama • Culture is an important aspect in social and

political organization, because it affects the
economic behavior of its members, and,
thus, becomes a decisive factor in
determining the sustainability and stability
of democracy.

Lawrence E. Harrison and Samuel P. • Look at the role of culture in human affairs
Huntington from cross-disciplinary perspectives:
economy, politics, rights and development.

Lindsay • Culture is a significant determinant of a

nation's ability to prosper because culture
shapes individuals' thoughts about risk,
reward, and opportunity.

C. Universal Civilization

The strong cultural presence in the economic and political affairs of the public led
scholars to conceptualize the idea of ‘single global civilization’.

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Below are some scholars and their views on universal civilization.

UNIVERSAL CIVILIZATION

PROPONENT

Vidiadhar Naipaul (1990). • This kind of civilization ‘has been a long

time in the making. It wasn't always
universal; it wasn't always as attractive
as it is today.

• It is derived from the ‘idea of the pursuit

of happiness’, which will be attractive to
all other cultures outside or in the
periphery.

• The idea of the pursuit of happiness is

the only way for bridging native
civilizations and the valued universal
civilization.

• Universal civilization is an elastic idea; it

fits all men.

Samuel Huntington • The universal civilization ‘implies in

general the cultural coming together of
humanity and the increasing acceptance
of common values, beliefs, orientations,
practices, and institutions by peoples
throughout the world’.

* However, he remains skeptical about the

world moving toward a universal culture.

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Despite the idea of universal civilization, many still believe that a unified global
culture is still part of the future. Aigul emphasized that the future global culture will
perhaps require more unifying and powerful features that will fuse many different
cultures. Further, her contention finds support from Francis Fukuyama’s idea about
culture. According to Fukuyama (2006), ‘cultures are not static phenomena like the laws
of nature; they are human creations that undergo a continuous process of evolution’.

Since culture is dynamic, it will continue to evolve at in at least, two parallel ways
(Aigul, 2014):

1. Integrative. when several cultural forms, or symbols will migrate inside-

outside, thus transforming local cultures and pushing them together to a
global space

2. ‘Domesticated’. when many existing cultures will always remain local

preserving the features that belong to their traditional and historical cultural
identities.

Aigul concluded that it will be practically impossible to create a universal (or

global) culture of one domain even with the facing evidence of a rapidly globalizing
world. As Bhabha emphasized, ‘... the meaning and symbols of culture have no
primordial unity or fixity; that even the same signs can be appropriated, translated,
rehistoricized, and read anew’ (Bhabha, 1995: 208).

REFERENCES:

Lule, Jack. (2016). The SAGE Handbook of Globalization: “Globalization and the Media:
Creating the Global Village”.
Aigul, Kulnazarova. (2016). The SAGE Handbook of Globalization: "Bridging Cultures:
Negotiating Difference”.

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______________________________________________________________________________

Chapter IV. Unit 2

GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURES

Objectives
_____________________________________________________________________________
1. To explain the dynamics between local and global cultural production
2. To describe various forms of media
3. To analyze the connection of media with the development of globalization
____________________________________________________________________________

Globalization as claimed by many has been part of human civilization. This phenomenon
would not have occurred without the aid of a particular medium. It is in this idea that Jack Lule
argued that ‘globalization could not occur without media, that globalization and media act in
concert and cohort, and that the two have partnered throughout the whole of human history’.
Futher, Lule argued that globalization and media have created the conditions through which
many people can now imagine themselves as part of one world. It is this global imaginary that
brings to fruition what Marshal McLuhan called the ‘global village’ (McLuhan, 1962).

A. Media and Globalization

Globalization is a debatable concept among scholars, their varying views prevents

the formulation of a unified meaning for the term. Although, everyone agrees that it is
encompassing phenomenon that has been present with the earliest human civilization.

Unlike globalization, media do not seem hard to identify or define (Lule, 2016).
The word is plural for medium – a means of conveying something, such as a channel of
communication. Though the word is relatively modern, humans have used media of
communication from their first days on earth, and, we will argue, those media have been
essential to globalization.

B. Periods/Stages of Evolution of Media

• According to: • Stages

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oral
• Harold Innis
print
electronic

James Lull oral

print
electronic
digital

Terhi Rantanen ora

script
print
electronic (wired and wireless)
digital

Evolution of Media and Globalization (Jack Lule)

Speech has been with us for at least 200,000 years, script for less than 7,000 years,
print for less than 600 years, and digital technology for less than 50 years.

1. Oral Communication (Speech has been with humanf or at least 200,000 years)

oral medium – human speech – is the oldest and most enduring of all media. When
speech developed into language, Homo sapiens had developed a medium that would set
them apart from every other species and allow them to cover and conquer the world.

How did the medium of language aid globalization?

• Language helped humans move

• Language helped humans to settle down

• Language stored and transmitted important agricultural information across

time as one generation passed on its knowledge to the next, leading to the
creation of villages and towns.

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• Language led to markets, the trade of goods and services, and eventually into
cross-continental trade routes.

• Humans' first civilization was created at Sumer in the Middle East. Sumer is
thought to be the birthplace of the wheel, plow, irrigation, and writing – all
created by language.

2. Script (Script has been with men for less than 7,000 years)

The very first writing – allowed humans to communicate and share knowledge
and ideas over much larger spaces and across much longer times. Early writing systems
began to appear after 3000 BCE, with symbols carved into clay tablets to keep account of
trade. Script allowed for the written and permanent codification of economic, cultural,
religious, and political practice. These codes could then be spread out over large distances
and handed down through time.

3. Printing Press (print has been with humans for less than 600 years)

The printing press started the ‘information revolution’ and transformed markets,
businesses, nations, schools, churches, governments, armies, and more. Since

Influences of the printing press by Elizabeth Eisenstein (1979)

• The printing press changed the very nature of knowledge.

• Print encouraged the challenge of political and religious authority because of its
ability to circulate competing views.

4. Electronic Media

Electronic media require electromagnetic energy – electricity – to use. The

telegraph, telephone, radio, film, and television are the usual media collected under
electronic media.

Samuel F. B. Morse began work on a machine in the 1830s that eventually could
send coded messages – dots and dashes – over electrical lines. By 1866, a transatlantic
cable was laid between the United States and Europe, and the telegraph became a truly
global medium (Carey, 1992: 157).

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Communication breakthroughs

a. Telephone . Invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876. Though not always

considered a mass medium, the telephone surely contributed to connecting the
world.

b. Cell phone. Invented in 1973. Relatively cheap to produce and buy, and easy
to learn and transport, cell phones have quickly become the world's dominant
communication device and penetrated even the world's most remote regions
and villages.

c. Radio. Introduced in the late 1890s. The technology was first conceived as a
‘wireless telegraph’. For much of the twentieth century, radio was the only
mass medium available in many remote villages.

d. Film. Silent motion pictures were shown as early as the 1870s. But as a mass
medium, film developed in the 1890s.

e. Television. Television programming existed back in the 1920s. However, the

years after World War II saw the explosion in the production and penetration
of television into homes around the world. For some scholars, the introduction
of television was a defining moment in globalization. Marshall McLuhan
proclaimed the world a ‘global village’, largely because of television.

5. Digital Media (existed for less than 50 years)

Digital media are most often electronic media that rely on digital codes – the long
arcane combinations of 0s and 1s that represent information. Many of our earlier media,
such as phones and televisions, can now be considered digital. The computer, though, is
the usual representation of digital media. The computer comes as the latest and, some
would argue, most significant medium to influence globalization.

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C. Global Imaginay, Global Vias (consequences of communication media

for globalization)

It is through media that people came to know of the world. With media the globe
was linked not only with cables, broadband, and wireless networks, but also with stories,
images, myths, and metaphors (Lule, 2014). The stories, images, myths that were shared
through media made people imagine, think and act as one. It is through this process that
an imagined community (as introduced by Benedict Anderson) is formed. Thus, media
are helping to bring a fundamentally new imaginary, what scholar Manfred Steger (2008)
has called a rising global imaginary – the globe itself as imagined community.

People imagine themselves as part of the world.

The common imaginings brought by media created a ‘global village’ which

according to Marshall McLuhan (1964) would bring about a world of utopia. As a village,
people would imagine themselves as neighbors, living in ‘a Pentecostal condition of
universal understanding and unity’ (Lule, 2014).

D. Media and Cultural Globalization

Media are carriers of culture. As Jack Lule claims, the media produce and display
cultural products. They also generate numerous and ongoing interactions among
cultures. However, global interactions in terms of economics and politics are facilitated
by people. Therefore people are media (Lule, 2016). Since products carry the culture of
their state origin, and people market these products worldwide; people then are the direct
actors in commingling cultures.

In the process of interactions among media, culture and globalization, Jan

Nederveen Pieterse (2004: 41–58) argues that there are actually three, and only three,
outcomes with which to consider the influence of globalization on culture.

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Influences of Globalization on Culture (Outcomes)

• Cultural Outcomes • Features

Cultural differentialism • Cultures are different, strong, and resilient.

• Distinctive cultures will endure, despite globalization
and the global reach of American or Western cultural
forms.

Cultural convergence • Globalization will bring about a growing sameness of

cultures.
• This outcome suggests ‘cultural imperialism’, in which
the cultures of more developed nations ‘invade’ and
take over the cultures of less developed nations.
• The result, under this outcome, will be a worldwide,
homogenized, Westernized culture (Tomlinson, 1991).

Cultural hybridity • Globalization will bring about an increasing blending or

mixture of cultures.
• This will lead to the creation of new and surprising
cultural forms, from music to food to fashion.

Glocalization

The various connectivity that were established through globalization, the local
meets the global and the global was introduced in the local. To capture this encounter in
a single term, scholars conceptualized the concept of Glocalization. This term manifests
the increased interactions of cultures worldwide. Since culture is dynamic, local culture
itself is not static and fixed. Though outside influence may penetrate the national
boundaries of a culture through mass media, local culture may negotiate to such ‘other’
by adopting or adapting some part of it without compromising its distinct feature and
identify. Thus, the global takes local form. (Jack Lule, 2016). In and through media, from
music to video games to film to advertising and more, local people adapt global culture
to everyday life. From this, glocalization becomes evident in almost all nations.

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REFERENCES:

Lule, Jack. (2016) The SAGE Handbook of Globalization: “Globalization and the Media:
Creating the Global Village”.
Aigul, Kulnazarova. (2016) The SAGE Handbook of Globalization: "Bridging Cultures:
Negotiating Difference”.

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______________________________________________________________________________

Chapter IV. Unit 3

THE GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION

Objectives
_____________________________________________________________________________
1. To explain how globalization affects religious practices and beliefs
2. To analyze the relationship between religion and global conflict and,
conversely, global peace.
____________________________________________________________________________

A. Religion and Secularization

History narrates that religion is as old as the earliest recorded civilization. As a

source of guide for communities, religion plays a major role in socio-cultural evolution.
However, with the increased contact of nations in the rapid age of globalization, religion
tends to adapt with the influences of globalization and religion on the other hand seems
to occupy a crucial place in the global sphere. Though religion may globalize and
globalization continues to influence religion, religious institutions are still identified in
relation to the secular (state).

As a result of globalization, scholars posit varying views on the relationship of

religion and the secular. If early communities saw the union of religion and government,
modern nations are witnessing the gradual separation of the two. From this separation,
the concept of secularization was eventually esablished. Though dichotomized, religion
never cease to influence the very way of life of people.

Religion

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Just like globalization, religion is hard to define. However, several scholars offered
their own definitions of the term.

1. Proponent 2. Religion is..

Μ. Müller universal and is the belief in a divine being

E. B. Tylor the belief in souls and spiritual beings

J . Frazer the religious stage involves the pacifying of superhuman

beings from the relationships that all human beings depend on

Rudolf Otto in the presence of a concept of special significance and value,

in the idea of the "sanctuary", which is numinous, and it is this
extraordinary (extraordinarily different) presence that
generates feelings of fascination, mystery and fear

Emile Durkheim: a system around the sanctuary, that is, a system of beliefs,
practices and social behaviors that unites individuals in a moral
community

C. Geertz: a system of symbols that relate to the world, human relations

and ourselves. Religious symbols denote a cosmological
perception, but also shape a way of life.

Beyer the product of a long-term process of inter-civilizational or

cross-cultural interactions

Georgios Gaitanos a system of beliefs and practices that relate to supernatural

beings and are intended to organize and define the
environment in which the religious community operates

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Secularization

As connectivity of nation-states in multi-dimensional level is heightened, the

contemporary world is gradually becoming a secular one. This is not only “because of a
mere decline of individual religiosity or a growing church-state separation, but because
frameworks of understanding have shifted radically. Secularization is understood as a
shift in the overall frameworks of human condition; it makes it possible for people to
have a choice between belief and non-belief in a manner hitherto unknown”
(Roudometof, 2014).

To understand better this dichotomy, Victor Roudometof offered two broad

streams of ideas concerning secularization:

1. Post-secularity (originally put forward by Habermas and Ratzinger (2006) is seen

as a contemporary phase in modern societies, whereby religion makes a return to
the public sphere from where it was cast out during the era of modernity. This
revitalized public religiosity takes many forms. One of which, involves the public
‘flagging’ of confessional association without a concomitant practice (Roudometof,
2014). In relation, Grace Davie (1994) coined the phrase ‘believing without
belonging’ to account for the simultaneous public ‘flagging’ of religious belief that
is not matched by religious practice.

2. Secularism is viewed as a multifaceted movement that has caused the onset of

secularization in Western societies; that is, secularization is the outcome of social
action.

B. Globalization of religion vs. Globalization and religion

Obadia (2010) argues that theorizing religion and globalization has been subject to
two different lines of interpretation: globalization of religion versus globalization and
religion (Roudometof, 2014).

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Globalization of religion pertains to the spread of religions and specific genres or

forms or blueprints of religious expression across the globe while globalization of religion
concerns the relations and the impact of globalization upon religion (Roudometof, 2014).

The former focuses on the deterritorialization (Casanova, 2001; Martin, 2001; Roy,
2004) - that is, the appearance and, in some instances, the efflorescence of religious
traditions in places where these previously had been largely unknown or were at least in
a minority position of religion as it reaches nations beyond its territorial boundaries
(Roudometof, 2014). This happens as followers of a religious sect move from one country
to another and introduce the doctrines of their religion. This enables a particular religion
(especially its symbols) to conquer the global scene. On the other hand, the second line
emphasizes the influences of globalization to religion. Since religion is part of culture and
culture by nature is dynamic, religion tends to adopt to current trends brought by
globalization. As a consequence, religions reshape their institutional practices and
mentalities (Agadjanian and Roudometof, 2005). Although a religion can reject
globalizing trends and impulses, it is nevertheless shaped by them and is forced to
respond to new-found situations (Roudometof, 2014).

C. Transnational Religion and Multiple Glocalizations

The advancement of transportation and communication brought people closer. As

modes of transportation develop, people around the globe tend to move from one place
to another. More so, the reduction in travel expenses further facilitated the movement
of people. Since peoples are media of culture, they carry with them the cultural grains of
their nations. If in the early days migrants usually adopt the culture of the receiving
nation-states, nowadays, ‘new immigrants no longer assimilated into the cultures of the
host countries but rather openly maintained complex links to their homelands, thereby
constructing, reproducing and preserving their transnational ties’ (Roudometof, 2014).

Thus, concomitant with the movements of peoples is the migration of faiths across
the globe. This resulted to transnational religion. Transnational religion is also viewed as
a means of describing solutions to new-found situations that people face as a result of
migration (Roudometof, 2014).

This comes as two quite distinct blends of religious universalism and local
particularism (Roudometof, 2014).

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First, religious transnationalism is often depicted as a religion ‘going global’.

Jenkins (2007). Migrants participate in religious multi-ethnic networks that connect them
to their co-religionists locally and globally (Roudometof, 2014). Their main allegiance is
not to their original homeland but to their global religious community; religion offers a
means for ‘transnational transcendence’ (Csordas, 2009) of identities and boundaries.

Second, it is possible for local ethnic or national particularism to gain or

maintain the most important place for local immigrant communities. In such instances,
transnational national communities are constructed and religious hierarchies perform
dual religious and secular functions that ensure the groups' survival (for examples, see
Danforth, 1995; Roudometof, 2000).

As religion globalizes and as globalization influences religion, several concepts

were introduced to interpret the commingling of religions. These processes register the
ability of religion to mould into the fabric of different communities in ways that connect
it intimately with communal and local relations (Roudometof,2014).

These are the following:

Indigenization was a term first used by African theologians to describe the

necessity of “Africanizing” Christianity. Indigenization assimilates the Christian faith
with the local language, beliefs, customs, traditions and the history of group identities
and makes the faith indigenous to the nature of those groups (Cone, 2014).

Hybridization is ‘the act, process, and outcome of multiple elements from diverse
backgrounds combining and interacting to create something new. Religions, identities,
peoples, social practices, cuisines, music, the arts, and styles of dress and speech can all
be hybridized through the meeting and intermingling of various cultural practices and
social products. Through hybridization, elements identifying a culture, practice, or
people become fused, combined, or melded with other social elements and
peoples’(Dietrich, 2007, 2012).

Glocalization. Religion sheds its universal uniformity in favour of blending with

locality. Global-local or glocal religion thus represents a 'genre of expression,
communication and legitimation' of collective and individual identities (Robertson, 1991:
282; Robertson and Garret, 1991: xv). Glocal religion involves the consideration of an

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entire range of responses as outcomes instead of a single master narrative of

secularization and modernization (Beyer, 2007).

Four concrete forms of glocalization (Roudometof , 2013, 2014):

3. Forms of glocalizaiton 4. Features

5. Indigenization • connected specific faiths with ethnic groups, whereby
religion and culture were often fused into a single
unit;
• connected to the survival of particular ethnic groups
6. Nationalization • connected the consolidation of specific nations with
particular confessions
7. Transnationalization • complemented religious nationalization by forcing
groups to identify with specific religious traditions of
real or imagined national homelands or to adopt a
more universalist vision of religion
8. Vernacularization • involved the rise of vernacular languages endowed
with the symbolic ability of offering privileged access
to the sacred;
• often promoted by empires

REFERENCES:

Gaitanos, Georgios. (2019). Definition of Religion. 10.13140/RG.2.2.12358.22085.

Roudometof, Victor Roudometof . (2016). The SAGE Handbook of Globalization: Religion and
Globalization”.

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