Non-Destructive Testing

Module II
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI)

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 LPI – physical principles
• Depends on the ability of liquid to wet and
flow over a surface and to penetrate in to
cavities.
• Ability of a liquid to flow over a surface and
enter cavities depends on surface tension
and capillarity.
• The cohesive force between molecules of
a liquid causes surface tension.
• Capillarity is the rise or depression of liquid in
narrow cavities.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• Viscosity, affects the flowing ability of liquid.
• Highly viscous fluids are unsuitable
as penetrants
• They don’t flow rapidly, and they require
more time for penetration in to fine flaws.
• Visible light or UV light

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Procedure for Penetrant testing
(Steps of Liquid Penetrant Testing)
• The exact procedure for liquid penetrant
testing can vary from case to case.
• Depends on several factors.
• The penetrant system being used.
• The size and material of the component
being inspected.
• The type of discontinuities being expected in
the component.
• The condition and environment under which
the inspection is performed.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Procedure
• 1) Cleaning
• One of the most important steps
• The defect must be open to the surface for
the penetrant to enter.
• Scale, flakes, paint, dirt, grease etc
• Tend to accumulate the penetrant.
• Leads to either masking of real indications
or creation of false indication.
• Solvents, brushes, rags, etchants, etc
• The cleaned surface should be properly
dried before applying penetrant.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• 2) Penetrant application
• Spraying, brushing, or immersing the part in
a penetrant bath.
• The fluid should spread freely and evenly
over the surface and move in to the crack.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

• 3) Penetrant Dwell - total time that the
penetrant is in contact with the part surface.
• The penetrant is left on the surface for
a sufficient time.
• Allow as much penetrant as possible to be
drawn into a defect.
• Dwell time depends on crack size and
shape characteristics and also
environmental conditions.
• 20 to 30 minutes
• No harm in using a longer penetrant dwell
time as long as the penetrant is not allowed to
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
dry.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• 4) Removal of excess Penetrant
• This is the most delicate part of the inspection
• Excess penetrant must be removed from the
surface while removing as little penetrant as
possible from defects.
• Excess cleaning may remove the penetrant
from the upper region of the defect
• Developer doesn’t reach the penetrant and
no defect is indicated.
• Insufficient cleaning will leave a background
of penetrant on the surface.
• Affects contrast.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• 5) Application of developer
• A thin layer of developer is applied to the
sample to draw penetrant trapped in
flaws back to the surface where it will be
visible.
• Another important function of the developer
is, it provides good visual contrast.
• Developers come in a variety of forms
that may be applied by dusting (dry
powders), dipping, or spraying (wet
developers).
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• 6) Indication Development: The developer
is allowed to stand on the part surface for a
period of time.
• To permit the extraction of the
trapped penetrant out of any surface
flaws.
• This development time is usually a
minimum of 10 minutes.
• Significantly longer times may be
necessary for tight cracks.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• 7) Inspection and Evaluation
• The last step is scanning of the surface
for indications.
• the scanning may be carried out under visible
light conditions or with UV or laser incident
light.
• The defect recognition may be made with
human eye or with automated optical scanners.
• After inspection, acceptance or rejection of
the component is made based on the
applicable specifications and standards
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Advantages of penetrant test
• High sensitivity (small discontinuities can
be detected).
• Few material limitations.
• Portable to use.
• Easy to inspect large areas and volumes.
• Low cost.
• Complex parts can be inspected.
• Proper visualization is provided.
• Further examination of indication may be done.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Limitations of penetrant test
• Defects must be open to the surface.
• Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can
be inspected.
• Pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can
mask defects.
• The inspector must have direct access to the surface
being inspected.
• Surface finish and roughness can affect
inspection sensitivity.
• Multiple operations in a controlled mode is required.
• Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
• Proper chemical handling and its disposal is required.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Characteristics of good penetrant
• Spread easily over the surface to provide
complete and even coverage.
• It should be drawn into surface breaking defects
by capillary action.
• Remain in the defect but remove easily from
the surface of the part.
• Remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface
of the part through the drying and developing
steps.
• Be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce
easy to see indications.
• Not be harmful to the material being tested or
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
the inspector.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Types of penetrants
• Penetrant materials come in two basic types:
• Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants: they
contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce
when exposed to ultraviolet radiation.
• Type 2 - Visible Penetrants: they contain a
red dye that provides high contrast against
the white developer background.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Comparison of
Flourescent and Visible penetrants
Flourescent Penetrants Visible penetrants
• Consists of dyes that • Consists of red dye,
flouresce when exposed which gives fine contrast
to UV radiations. against white developer
background.
• More sensitive. • Less sensitive.
• Requires darkened area and • Doesn’t require dark area
UV radiations or UV radiations
• More vulnerable • Less vulnerable
to contamination to contamination

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Cleaners and Emulsifiers
• A cleaning fluid must act as a solvent for the material
to be removed.
• For water based penetrants, a simple water wash or
rinse is suitable.
• For petroleum based penetrants, there are two methods
• The most direct approach is to use an oil or
chlorine based solvent.
• Another method is to use an emulsifier
• It reacts with the oil based penetrant to form a
water- soluble substance.
• Two types of Emulsifiers: Lipophilic and Hydrophilic.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• Penetrants are then classified by the method
used to remove the excess penetrant from
the part. The four methods are:
• Method A - Water Washable
• Method B - Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
• Method C - Solvent Removable
• Method D - Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Method A - Water Washable
• Penetrants can be removed from the part
by rinsing with water alone.
• These penetrants contain an
emulsifying agent (detergent).
• This makes it possible to wash the
penetrant from the part surface with water
alone.
• Sometimes referred to as self-
emulsifying systems.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Advantages of method A
• High sensitivity
• Less cost
• Large surface discontinuities can be visualized.
• Easy removal of penetrant.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Limitations of method A
• Dark environment is required
• Insensitive to shallow discontinuities
• Quality of penetrant is degraded
by contamination

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Method B- Post-Emulsifiable,
Lipophilic
• The penetrant is oil soluble and interacts
with the oil-based emulsifier to make
removal possible.
• Lipophilic emulsifiers diffuse in to the
penetrant, breaking down the structure so
that the penetrant may be rinsed away
with water

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Method C - Solvent Removable
• They require the use of a solvent to
remove the penetrant from the part.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Method D - Post-Emulsifiable,
Hydrophilic
• Hydrophilic Emulsifiers are composed of
materials similar to common
detergents.
• It lifts the excess penetrant from the
surface of the part with a water wash.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Classification of penetrants based on
sensitivity of indication produced by
flaws
• Based on the strength or detectability of the
indication that is produced for a number of
very small cracks.
• The five sensitivity levels are:
1. Level ½ - Ultra Low Sensitivity
2. Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
3. Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
4. Level 3 - High Sensitivity
5. Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
• The procedure for classifying penetrants
into one of the five sensitivity levels uses
specimens with small surface fatigue cracks.
• The brightness of the indication produced
is measured using a photometer.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Developers
• The role - pull the trapped penetrant material
out of defects and spread it out on the surface of
the part so it can be seen by an inspector.
• Developers used with visible penetrants create
a white background
• So there is a greater degree of contrast.
• Developers used with fluorescent penetrants
both reflect and refract the incident
ultraviolet light,
• allowing more of it to interact with the
penetrant, causing more efficient fluorescence.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Classification
• Developers are classified based on the method that
the developer is applied:
• The six standard forms of developers are:
• Form A - Dry Powder
• Form B - Water Soluble
• Form C- Water Suspendable
• Form D - Nonaqueous Type 1: Fluorescent
(Solvent Based)
• Form E - Nonaqueous Type 2: Visible Dye
(Solvent Based)
• Form F - Special Applications

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Dry Powder
• Dry powder developers are generally considered to
be the least sensitive.
• but they are inexpensive to use and easy to apply.
• Dry developers are white, fluffy powders
• can be applied to a thoroughly dry surface in a number
of ways.
a. by dipping parts in a container of developer
b. By using electrostatic powder spray guns
c. by using a puffer to dust parts with the
developer powder
d. placing parts in a dust cabinet where the developer
is blown around
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages
a. Inexpensive
b. Easy to apply
• Limitations
a. Less sensitive to indications
b. Powder is only stuck to the area
where penetrant is present

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Water soluble
• Consist of a group of chemicals that are dissolved
in water,
• and form a developer layer when the water
is evaporated away.
• The best method for applying water soluble developers
is by spraying it on the part.
• Dipping, pouring, or brushing the solution on to the
surface is sometimes used but these methods are
less desirable.
• Drying is achieved by placing the part in a warm air
dryer with the temperature 21°C .
• Properly developed parts will have an even, pale
white coating over the entire surface.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Water Suspendable
• Consist of insoluble developer
particles suspended in water.
• They require frequent stirring or agitation
to keep the particles from settling out of
suspension.
• They are applied to parts in the same
manner as water soluble developers.
• Then the parts are dried using warm air.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 Nonaqueous
• Nonaqueous developers suspend the
developer in a volatile solvent,
• and are typically applied with a spray gun.
• These are commonly distributed in
aerosol spray cans for portability.
• The solvent tends to pull penetrant from
the indications by solvent action.
• Since the solvent is highly volatile, forced
drying is not required.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET
 Special Applications
• Plastic or lacquer (a liquid made of shellac
dissolved in alcohol) developers are
special developers
• Primarily used when a permanent record
of the inspection is required.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Advantages and disadvantages
of the various developer types.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Advantages and disadvantages
of the various developer types.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Advantages and disadvantages
of the various developer types.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

Advantages and disadvantages
of the various developer types.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu Sankar,DME,RSET

 General characteristics of a good
Developer
• High absorption to secure max blotting action.
• Easily spread to expose the defect.
• Provide a contrast background.
• Easily, evenly and readily applied.
• Form a thin uniform coating over the surface.
• Easily wet to allow penetrant to spread over the area.
• Non flourescent when used with flourescent penetrant.
• Easily removed after inspection.
• Inert to materials being inspected.
• Non toxic.
• Inexpensive.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu
 Interpretation and Evaluation
of indications
• Mechanical discontinuities at the surface will
be indicated by bleeding out of the
penetrant.
• However, localized surface imperfections,
may produce similar indications which are
non- relevant to the detection of
unacceptable discontinuities.
• Any indication which is believed to be non-
relevant must be regarded as a defect and
will be further examined.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu
• Visual examination or another examination
method may be used for verification of
non- relevant indications.
• Surface conditioning may precede
the reexamination.
• Inadequate cleaning may leave an
excessive background, making
interpretation difficult.
• When using color-contrast penetrants,
indications with a light pink color may
indicate excessive cleaning.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu
• Linear indications are indications in which the
length is more than three times the width.
• Round indications are indications which are
circular or elliptical with length less than
three times the width.
• An indication of a defect may be larger
than the defect that caused it;
• however, the size of the indication and not
the size of the defect is the basis of
acceptance or rejection.
• All indications will be evaluated in terms
of the appropriate acceptance standards
Asst. Prof. Vishnu
 Health and Safety Precautions in LPI
• When proper health and safety precautions
are followed, LPI operations can be completed
without harm to inspection personnel.
• There is a number of health and safety related
issues that need to be taken into
consideration.
• Chemical Safety & Ultraviolet Light Safety

Asst. Prof. Vishnu

 Chemical Safety
• Certain precautions must be taken, while
handling chemicals.
• Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for chemicals.
• Some of the penetrant materials are flammable
and, therefore, should be used and stored in small
quantities.
• Should only be used in a well ventilated area
and ignition sources avoided.
• Eye protection should always be worn to
prevent contact of the chemicals with the eyes.
• Gloves and other protective clothing should be
worn to limit contact with the chemicals.
Asst. Prof. Vishnu
 Ultraviolet Light Safety
• wavelengths ranging from 180 to
400 nanometers.
• These wavelengths place UV light in the
invisible part of the electromagnetic spectrum
between visible light and X-rays…Blacklight
• The most familiar source of UV radiation is
the sun and is necessary in small doses for
human body.
• Too much exposure can be harmful to the
skin and eyes.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu

• The individual is generally unaware that
the damage is occurring.
• There is usually no pain associated with the
injury until several hours after the
exposure.
• Skin and eye damage occurs at
wavelengths around 320 nm and shorter,
• which is well below the 365 nm
wavelength, where penetrants are designed
to fluoresce.
• UV lamps deliver UV light with more intensity.
• UV lamps used in LPI are always filtered
Asst. Prof. Vishnu
to remove the harmful UV wavelengths.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu

 Air pollution
• Developing powders are considered non
toxic, but excessive inhalation must be
avoided.
• Exhaust fans should be installed in
confined areas.

Asst. Prof. Vishnu