ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

Course: Citizenship Education and Community (8606)

Submitted to: Razia Begum Semester: Autumn, 2021
Submitted by: Muhammad Saad Ashraf,0000121053
Assignment No.1
(Units: 1-4)
Q.1 Define culture and analyse cultural diversity. Explain the influence of
culture on social development?

Culture:
 Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values,
attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations,
concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group
of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.
 Culture is the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large group of people.
 Culture is communication, communication is culture.

Cultural Diversity:
Cultural diversity is about appreciating that society is made up of many different groups
with different interests, skills, talents and
needs. It also means that you recognise that people in society can have differing religious
beliefs and sexual orientations to you.
What is equality?
Equality is about people being treated fairly, equally and specifically to their needs. It’s
about inclusion regardless of race, gender, disability, religion or belief, sexual orientation
and age. It encourages an environment that allows people from different backgrounds to
reach their full potential.
Why does diversity matter?
A better understanding between different cultures, beliefs and life experiences can help
make our world more stable, peaceful place and can help us develop as a society.
What can you do to encourage yourself and other people to live better together?
 Why not visit an art exhibition about other cultures or beliefs?
 Watch a movie or read a book about another country or religion.
  Invite a friend from a different country or religion round to share your traditions and
learn about theirs.
 Explore music of another culture or country.
 Learn about traditional celebrations from other cultures for example Hanukkah or
Ramadan or Qingming festival in China.
 Visit a place of worship different than yours and participate in the celebration.
 Speak with other people about prejudices and stereotypes and share your views of
life.
 Volunteer and broaden your horizons.

Explain the influence of culture on social development:

Culture influences development from the moment we’re born, making an impact on us as
we grow. For instance, culture can affect how children build values, language, belief
systems, and an understanding of themselves as individuals and as members of society.
Children can receive these cultural influences in different ways, such as through their
parents, their environment, and the media. How society shows an understanding of diverse
cultures can impact a child’s development in many ways, such as how confident in
themselves or how comfortable interacting with others they become as adults.

The focus of this essay is on the role of culture on children’s social development.
Importantly, the form that behaviours take may appear identical across cultures. Yet, given
that cultures vary in their customs and beliefs, the same behaviour may be interpreted
differently across cultures.2 It is likely that any behaviour that is viewed, within a culture, as
adaptive will lead to its encouragement by significant others including parents and peers; in
contrast, if a behaviour is perceived to be maladaptive, it will be discouraged. Moreover, the
means by which the given behaviour is encouraged or discouraged may be culturally
determined and defined.
Most cross-cultural work on children’s social development has been dominated by an etic
framework, which assumes that the constructs measured have relevance across all
cultures.3 On the other hand, an emic framework refers to the specific ideas, behaviours,
and values that are viewed as meaningful by members of a particular culture. The etic
perspective may cause researchers to operationally define (and thus assess) constructs in
the same ways (with the same methods and measures) across cultures. Thus, the etic
approach may result in overlooking culturally-specific definitions of given constructs. For
example, researchers may assume that social competence, as a construct, is universally
relevant and that it can be measured by assessments created in, for example, North
American laboratories. This etic assumption may be entirely correct; however, one would
clearly need to empirically test this assumption. It is likely that, to some extent, the study of
social competence would require an emic belief requiring within-culture conceptualization
and measurement. Some aspects of competence may be universally held and others not.
Research Context
In addition to culture, other significant constructs need to be addressed. For example,
broadly, researchers typically discuss two cultural phenomena: 1) independent,
individualistic, or Western cultures, and 2) interdependent, collectivistic, or Eastern and
Southern (e.g., Central and South American) cultures. Western cultures are often described
as those for whom members value assertiveness, expressiveness and competitiveness;
whereas Eastern and Southern cultures are often described as those for whom members
value group harmony and cooperation. More recently, there has been agreement that most
countries are a fine mix of both of these constructs, with some being relatively more
individualistic and others relatively more collectivistic. Significantly, in the research area
reviewed herein, there is relatively little known of Southern cultures (or differences
between Northern and Southern cultures); thus, the review is focused mainly on
comparisons between Western and Eastern cultures.
Media influences on childhood development include movies, TV shows, video games, and
other online content. Research that the American Psychological Association (APA) has
shared shows that children’s exposure to violent media can result in aggressive behaviour;
exposure to advertising for non-nutritious foods can increase rates of childhood obesity; and
too much screen time can be linked to lower brain development in pre-schoolers.
A study from the Cognitive Impacts of Digital Media Workgroup found that children begin to
learn from TV programs at around 2.5 years old. Educational programs, such as “Sesame
Street,” can positively influence their knowledge and social skills, preparing them for school.
However, after they turn 6 years old, children begin to watch more entertainment
programming, which can, in turn, influence their behaviour negatively. In addition, while
video games can help children develop visual processing skills, they can also yield aggressive
behaviour. The effects on cognitive skills and behaviours are often specific to the games
played.
As a result of these findings, the study suggests that clinicians and early childhood service
providers should work with parents to limit TV exposure before children turn 2 years old. As
children begin to learn how to read, clinicians and service providers should advise parents to
regulate children’s media consumption — with a focus on providing educational media
content — and encourage reading habits.
The connection with cultural background is clear: Diverse cultures have different attitudes
toward TV and other entertainment media, as well as different abilities to afford access to
such media. A child from a collectivist culture, for example, may be encouraged to help
infant or elderly family members in lieu of watching educational TV after school. Indirectly,
culture influences these children’s ability to benefit from such experiences.
In addition, to take the example further, children whose culture discourages educational TV
and other media may be ridiculed by school peers for missing out on popular pastimes other
children engage in.
Another way that media in popular culture can influence child development is by depicting
and perpetuating cultural stereotypes. For example, a movie might show women or
minorities in a negative light, or not at all. A sitcom might feature only white characters,
never those of diverse races or ethnicities.
Clearly, the absence of role models in entertainment media, or the presence of negative
stereotypes, can affect children’s self-esteem. This can cause media to become a negative
cultural influence on a child’s development.

Q.2 Explain different models of group development. In your opinion which

model describes the developmental process most appropriately?

An important aspect of effective teamwork entails understanding group dynamics in terms

of both team situation and individual temperament. This section reviews a variety of models

often applied in workplaces that can help a team perform optimally and manage crises

effectively.

Different models of group development

Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Model

1. Competing: highly assertive, but uncooperative behaviour, characterized by the urge to

“win at all charges,” dominate and engage in power struggles. This can result in animosity,

but can also spur teammates to compete constructively, which can lead to interesting
innovations if well managed.

2. Accommodating: highly cooperative, but unassertive behaviour. This may seem like a

good way to avoid conflict, but it can also lead to self-silencing of good ideas in order to

appease others, which may lead to feelings of resentment.

3. Compromising: this approach is the most moderate in both scales, and while it might

seem constructive, it can lead to dissatisfaction and mediocre progress or results.

Sometimes compromise is necessary, but often, the best solution comes from a single

inspirational source.
4. Avoiding: being unassertive and uncooperative is generally the least effective way to deal

with conflict, as this simply avoids the problem and neglects the need for a solution.

However, when a feasible solution to a problem seems impossible, sometimes ignoring it

and focusing on what is good can be the best way to just get through it.

5. Collaborating: being highly assertive and cooperative is the best way to find solutions that

benefit the whole team and build respect.

Lencioni Model

1. Lack of trust: if team members do not trust each other, they are unlikely to take risks or

ask for help. A lack of trust means a low level of comfort that makes it difficult to

communicate and perform effectively as a team

2. Fear of conflict: avoiding conflict can lead to an artificial “peace” at the expense of

progress and innovation. Conflict is a normal part of teamwork and can be very productive if

managed effectively.

3. Lack of commitment: team members do not commit to doing the work, do not follow

through on decisions or tasks, do not meet deadlines, and let their teammates down, and

ultimately affecting the success of the whole project.

4. Avoidance of accountability.

5. Inattention to results: when team members focus on their own personal goals instead of

project goals, they lose sight of the expected results that actually measure the success of

the project. Not focusing on the results during the process means that no one is planning

how to improve those results.

According To My Opinion, Tuckman’s Model Is the Best Development Process and Most

Appropriate

1. The forming stage of group development: The forming stage is the first stage in
Tuckman’s stages of group development and is a similar experience to your first day
 on a new job or at a new school. In this phase, most group members are overly polite
and are still extremely excited about what their future may hold. Since the group
dynamics and team roles aren’t yet established, the team leader will often take
charge to direct the individual members. During Tuckman’s forming phase, new
team members may discuss team goals, ground rules, and individual roles, but since
this stage of development prioritizes people over the actual work, it’s unlikely the
team will be high-performing at this time.
2. The storming stage of group development: The storming phase is like when you
reach that point with a new roommate where you begin to notice their small
idiosyncrasies that get on your nerves. For teams, conflict often arises due to
clashing working styles between team members. Some people may start to even
doubt the team’s goals discussed in the earlier stage and will stop performing their
necessary jobs altogether. This has a negative and stressful effect on those who keep
up the hard work since the pre-established group processes no longer function
smoothly. Some project teams think they can skip this stage, but it’s better to
acknowledge conflicts now and work them out rather than avoid them until they
explode.
3. The norming stage of group development: The next of Tuckman’s stages is the
norming phase. This is when the team moves past their previous quarrels and begins
to recognize and value their teammates’ strengths. During this stage, team members
increasingly respect those who are in leadership roles. Now that everyone has begun
to bond and familiarize themselves with the team processes
4. The performing stage of group development: The performing phase is the happiest
of all the stages of development. In this stage, your team performance is at an all-
time high. This high-performance level means all team members are self-reliant and
confident enough in their own problem-solving skills that they can function without
oversight from the leaders. Everyone is working like a well-oiled machine, free of
conflict and moving in sync toward the same end goal.

Q.3 Describe the formation of groups and principles of group dynamics.

Evaluate the effect of school on the formation of students' behaviour.
In order to understand the significance of group dynamics in organizational behaviour, let’s
see what constitutes a group. Put briefly, a group refers to two or more individuals coming
together, interacting and working with each other to reach a common goal. Businesses
consciously form groups as they drive and meet the larger goals of the organization. Groups
also influence work, behaviour and culture—exerting significant influence over an
organization.
In a group, people tend to behave and interact in different ways. The attitude and behaviour
of one person can influence the behaviour of another person. Group dynamics deals with
the change in behavioural patterns and attitudes because of adjustive changes in a group.
Factors such as social situation, individual personality and cultural traditions also influence a
group. In a nutshell, group dynamics encompasses everything from group formation, group
structure and the way it functions and grows.
LET’S LOOK AT THESE UNDERLYING FEATURES TO UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPT OF GROUP
DYNAMICS:
 A group will change, adjust and interact according to the changing circumstances and
relationships among group members
 Changes are constant within a group—there is a change of leadership, people join
and leave and new tasks keep coming
 The more organized a group is, the more cooperative and effective it is; it further
boosts morale and increases productivity
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF GROUP DYNAMICS
In an organization, we commonly see two types of groups—formal and informal. Let’s look
at how different types of group dynamics play out by understanding their characteristics.
FORMAL GROUP DYNAMICS
The purpose of a formal group is to perform tasks and meet specific targets. The primary
responsibility is to drive business goals and they are a result of an organization’s structure.
Formal groups serve a strictly functional purpose and individuals typically function under the
guidance of a leader (e.g., manager). Departments, committees and boards of directors are
a few examples of formal groups in an organization.
Formal group members are required to work with each other for a certain period of time.
Group formation isn’t always a smooth process because not everyone can build rapport
immediately. Its group dynamics highly depends on the leader, how they manage the team
and delegate responsibilities. But continuous communication and collaboration encourage
members to increase personal interactions, improving group efficiency.
INFORMAL GROUP DYNAMICS
Informal groups are a result of socio-psychological forces that encourage people to interact
and engage with each other. Individuals working together are bound to form social groups
because humans are social animals. We socialize for various reasons—minimize monotony
in the workplace, defeat psychological fatigue and boredom. We simply enjoy others’
company and develop a genuine liking.
Informal group dynamics are tricky to navigate because there aren’t any rules or regulations
governing a group. We form them organically as we find like-minded people we can connect
with. Most informal groups are small in size, making room for resentment. People outside
the groups often feel left out or uncomfortable. Moreover, personal differences are more
likely to manifest because informal groups aren’t very stable. Nonetheless, they have the
power to influence the effectiveness of an organization.
THE PRINCIPLES OF GROUP DYNAMICS
If you want to improve your group dynamics, let’s look at some of its most critical principles:
PRINCIPLE OF BELONGINGNESS
People in a group should have a strong sense of belonging if they want to communicate and
collaborate for effective teamwork. Those who exert influence and those who were
influenced need to engage with each other to understand each other better. When you
develop a sense of belonging, you feel encouraged to give your best and support others as
well. If everyone performs well, your group gets a morale boost.
PRINCIPLE OF PERCEPTION
If you want to implement a change in your group, you need to create a common perception
among people that will make them accept the change with greater ease. It’s providing a
heads-up for your team and preparing them for a change. For example, there is a revision in
your project deadline. You need to communicate with your team and inform them about
the additional efforts they’ll need to put, moving forward. If everyone is on the same page,
it becomes easier to execute decisions.
PRINCIPLE OF CONFORMITY
You won’t always come across like-minded people in your group. People from various walks
of life with diverse perspectives and viewpoints may think and work differently. If you want
your group to function as an individual unit, you need to address individualistic tendencies.
Group members need to conform to group norms and respect the essential rules that
govern the group.
PRINCIPLE OF CHANGE
Changes are constant in a group. To effectively bring about changes and implement them,
your group needs to be well-coordinated and informed. Share all the relevant information
concerning the plan, strategy and outcome of change amongst group members. State the
expectations in advance so that there isn’t any dissatisfaction later. A coordinated group is
better prepared to deal with change.
PRINCIPLE OF READJUSTMENT
The principle of change is responsible for the principle of readjustment. Changes in a
particular part of a group are likely to cause tension in the other part. It can be managed by
making readjustments in the related parts of the group. Essentially, the principle of
readjustment emphasizes readjusting group dynamics after a change in group norms,
objectives or delegation of responsibilities.
PRINCIPLE OF COMMON MOTIVES
The core purpose of groups is to drive an organization’s goals successfully. All the operations
are geared towards achieving common targets. Problem-solving, strategizing and decision-
making have to be done in a collaborative manner. You need to be on the same page as
everybody else, otherwise, conflicts are likely to arise. Goals, milestones and timelines for
any project should be set collaboratively. If not, every member should be aware of the
expectations.
GOAL ORIENTATION PRINCIPLE
A group survives only when their actions are goal-oriented. Everyone needs a direction to
follow, otherwise, there will be confusion and chaos. The principle of common motives
guides the goal orientation principle; all the tasks are geared towards meeting larger
objectives. An operational hierarchy ensures that a group stays on track and makes
progress.
PRINCIPLE OF POWER
The principle of power plays out in different ways. The more attractive a group looks to
someone, the more influence it exerts. For example, there is a new inner circle at the office
and all the easy-going people are in it. An outsider is likely to be attracted by such a group
because it exerts a certain kind of influence. The greater the power of a group, the greater
its influence over its members and others.
CONTINUOUS PROCESS PRINCIPLE
Group functioning is a continuous process. Every group is formed in such a way that each
individual is responsible for maintaining continuity, in addition to being accountable for
their own actions. Groups should adjourn only upon the completion of tasks or after
achieving their desired objectives. Until then, everyone should continue to work in harmony
and ensure continuous operation.
MAKE THE BEST OF GROUP DYNAMICS
As a manager or a team leader, you have the responsibility of bringing different people
together and encouraging collaboration among them. It isn’t easy to build effective teams
but here are three habits you should adopt and practice.
ALIGNMENT ON PLANS
Alignment leaves no room for ambiguity. Everyone is aware of the expectations and their
responsibilities, which helps them process in the right direction. Alignment on plans and
goals creates a strong team dynamic. Start by writing down your plans, getting buy-in from
decision-makers and communicating progress regularly.
TRANSPARENCY ON PROGRESS
Conflicts are inevitable in groups, especially when you don’t expect someone to hamper
your progress. Unless everyone’s on the same page, individuals may not apprehend a
possible problem. You need to prepare your team for all sorts of risks and surprises. Be
transparent about your team’s progress and share weekly updates with everyone. This way,
no one will be thrown off and you can deal with problems in a more cohesive manner. Make
sure that you communicate well and encourage everyone else to communicate too.
ACCOUNTABILITY FOR RESULTS
A team that trusts each other grows together. If you want to strengthen your team dynamic,
promote a culture of faith and interdependence. Communicate the need for accountability
and encourage the ‘sink and swim together’ attitude. There should be mutual trust and
understanding, which will also increase the willingness to work together. In a group,
everyone is responsible for their own and others’ actions.
Harappa Education’s Managing Teamwork course will help you master team management
and develop strong team dynamics. Learn everything about effective teams and how they
function through the GRIN Framework. Gauge your team’s learning and working styles with
the Social Styles Model. Strengthen team dynamics and be the dynamic leader that your
team needs!

Q.4 In light of education, elaborate the role of school in the development of

socialization process in children.
In the broadest terms, socialization is defined as the process with which people acquire
attitudes, values, and norms of a particular culture, as well as learn behaviours that are
considered appropriate at the individual and social level.

School as an institution has a very important influence on the adoption of social and cultural
patterns of the child’s behaviour. It is the place of adoption, selection, formation, and
imitation of attitudes, values, and norms that the child/young person will bring to his or her
society and culture in the future. If new generations do not adopt his way of life, society as
such ceases to exist.

Each school represents a very specific social environment regardless of the common
national curricula and the legal basis on which the functioning of the school as an institution
rests. A school in which a positive culture prevails, together with encouraging atmosphere
that promotes positive values, tolerance, understanding, partnership, cooperation, equality,
appreciation... encourages the adoption of such qualities in students as well.

Many studies emphasize the importance of the hidden curriculum in the process of
developing the students’ value system. The hidden curriculum is difficult to define explicitly
because it depends on both personal impression and experiences, as well as the variability
conditioned by constant social changes. The hidden curriculum assumes learning of
attitudes, norms, beliefs, values, and assumptions, which is all often expressed in the form
of unwritten rules, rituals, and regulations. It is reflected in the culture of school, the
characteristics and behaviour of teachers towards students and each other, the values they
promote as well as priorities and hierarchies they develop... Sociological as well as
pedagogical-phenomenological research has pointed to significant correlations of
pedagogical interaction with implicit education theories of individual teachers, their
attitudes and values, rather than with the official curriculum (Jackson, 1968; McGutcheon
1988). The role of the hidden curriculum needs to be systematically and thoughtfully
approached, questioned, and directed in the desirable direction. Although the hidden
curriculum is often perceived as destructive, negative, and subversive, it can be both
constructive and desirable. Many pedagogues note the space for its positive function
(Tanner, Tanner, 1980; Wren, 1999; Chhaya, 2003; Jerald, 2006). They see the school as a
harmonized and stimulating environment for learning and adopting values and attitudes.

The aim of this paper is to analyse the given field of study by reviewing the literature and to
juxtapose the mechanisms within schools that help adopt attitudes and build a system of
values for children and young people. Also, to think and aim to raise awareness of the
relationships between a part of the educational process that pedagogical experts and
teachers manage to systematize, prescribe, and control, and which belongs to the
intentional education as well as the part belonging to the area of the hidden, implicit
curriculum. In this context, the question of the socialization role of school in the formation
of contemporary society’s value forms is emphasized, and this issue will be regarded in the
context of the hidden curriculum.

Socialization is a general term used to describe the processes happening between

society and human beings. But more specifically it is a core concept of sociology of
education. Socialization is a term used by sociology, social psychology and educational
theories. This term refers to the process of inheriting, learning and internalizing the
norms, customs and ideologies of a culture and society. A society develops a culture
through a number of shared norms, customs, values, traditions, social roles, symbols
and languages. Socialization helps an individual to learn and inherit these values. More
than that, it helps him/her to gain the skills and habits that necessary for participating
within their own society. In other words, socialization makes a person an accepted
individual in a society by cultivating certain values. We can say that socialization is the
process by which society and culture continue to exist.

Socialization may or may not affect the reflexive agent and may or may not bring a
desirable outcome. We can not guarantee that this process will influence all the
individuals of the society in the same manner and will produce the same impact. Many
socio-political theories postulate that socialization provides only a partial explanation for
human beliefs and behaviours. The individuals (or the agents) are not ‘blank slates’; they
also have a set of psychological and sociological factors determining them. There are
many studies which prove that human beings are influenced by a complex set of factors.
Biology, genes, learning abilities, language and many other factors play a strong role in
the growth of the individual. They play an equal part in building the behaviour of a
human being. Scientific research provides strong evidence that people are shaped by
both social influences and their biological makeup. Genetic studies have shown that a
person’s environment interacts with their genotype to influence behavioural outcomes.
The linguistic theory of generative grammar demonstrates how something such as the
capacity for learning changes throughout one’s lifetime.

Socialization is the primary means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills
necessary to perform as a functioning member of their society. This is said to be the most
influential learning processes one can experience.

Culture according to sociology can be found at two levels:

A. It is manifest in the actions, customs, and behaviours of whole social groups
B. The most fundamental expression of culture is found at the individual level
Both these levels are important for the continuity of the culture. The individual expression
of culture occurs with the help of multiple agents. In other words, this is done only after an
individual has been socialized by its parents, family, extended family and extended social
networks. Socialization contains processes of learning and teaching.

THEORIES AND FUNCTIONS OF SOCIALIZATION:

Many philosophers have expressed their views on the process of socialization. Theories of
socialization are to be found in Plato, Montaigne and Rousseau. There is a dictionary entry
from 1828 that defines ‘socialize’ as ‘to render social, to make fit for living in society’.
However, it was Georg Simmel who popularized this concept and as a result it was
incorporated into various branches of psychology and anthropology. According to the major
theories, there are 6 types of socialization. They are
1. Primary socialization
2. Secondary socialization
3. Developmental socialization
4. Anticipatory socialization
5. Resocialization
6. Organizational socialization

Primary socialization: A child learns the attitudes, values and actions appropriate to
individuals as members of a particular culture. In the beginning it happens through the
interactions in the family and extended family and community. For example, the behaviour
and opinions of the parents have an impact on the child. When a child sees a particular
behaviour and opinions of his/her parents and the members of the society, the child thinks
this behaviour is acceptable. This leads to the child learning that particular
habit/behaviour/opinion. This process is called primary socialization.

Secondary socialization: Secondary socialization is the process of learning what an

appropriate behaviour is as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. It is
usually associated with teenagers and adults

Anticipatory socialization: This refers to the processes of socialization in which a person

prepares himself or herself for future positions, occupations, and social relationships.

Developmental socialization: This is the process of learning behaviour in a social institution

or developing your social skills.

Resocialization: In his/her lifetime a person learns and unlearns behaviours and values
constantly. Resocialization is the process of discarding former behavior patterns and
accepting new ones as part of a transition in one’s life. Resocialization can be an intense
experience because it involves breaking away from past beliefs and experiences. Also
he/she learns radically different norms and values. This is a significant part of any
individual’s life.

Organizational socialization: Human beings learn the knowledge and skills necessary to
assume his or her organizational role. This is known as Organizational socialization. They
learn about the organization and its history, values, jargon, culture, and procedures. They
also learn about

I. Their work groups

II. The specific people they work with on a daily basis
III. Their own role in the organization
IV. The skills needed to do their job
V. Formal procedures and informal norms.

Functions of Socialization: Socialization can be seen as a control system in society.

Individuals learn to internalize and obey social and cultural values and practices. Human
infants are born without any culture. The job to transform them rests on their parents,
teachers, and others. Through constant processes they are transformed into cultural and
socially adept animals.

The main functions of socialization are

I. Socialization teaches us the language of the culture we are born into as well as the
roles we are to play in life.
II. Socialization teaches us the occupational roles we are meant to do in our lives.
III. We also learn and usually adopt our culture’s norms through the socialization
process.

The notions of appropriate/expected behaviour that are held by most members of the
society is known as norms. A cultural norm is an established standard of what a group
expects in terms of thought and conduct. These expectations and desirable behaviours often
vary from one culture to the next. They are also in different forms like the values, folkways
and morals. In every society there is reinforcement of morals. Anything that is contrary to
the moral like murder and robbery are met with punishment. This helps the members of the
society to learn and respect laws. Socialization refers to the general process of acquiring
culture. But anthropologists use the term enculturation for the process of being socialized
to a particular culture.

Personality formation is dependent on socialization. Much of human personality is the result

of our genes. But the socialization process helps to Mold it in particular ways by encouraging
specific beliefs and attitudes. This helps the smooth functioning of culture. For instance, the
Semia tribesmen of the central Malay Peninsula of Malaysia typically are gentle people who
do not like violent, aggressive individuals. On the other hand, the Yanomamo Indians of
Venezuela and Brazil usually train their boys to be tough and aggressive. Likewise, Shiite
Muslim men of Iran are expected at times to publicly express their religious faith through
self-inflicted pain.

Uniformity within a society is achieved through successful socialization. If all children receive
the same socialization, they will share the same beliefs and expectations. This is one reason
why national governments try to standardize education and make it compulsory for all
children. They choose what things will be taught and how they are taught. This can be seen
as a powerful political tool for controlling people. This is an extremely strong tool to mold
people into law abiding citizens too. Through socialization governments stop people from
breaking the laws or wanting radical social changes. However, in societies there are
individuals who do not conform to culturally defined standards. Sociologists argue that such
exceptions happen because they have not internalized the norms of society.

The human child has a remarkable capacity to imitate others to develop according to the
tenets of environment. As a social animal, he/she tries to win the appreciation of the group
in which he/she lives. As a result, he/she naturally tries to imitate the culture of the group. It
is socialization that gives him/her a balanced personality. The social aspect of the
personality is no less important than the individual aspect. Socialization teaches him/her to
retain control over him/her in the interest of others.

KEY CONCEPTS OF SOCIALIZATION

The patterns of behaviours of a society have to pass on to its members. In a primitive

society, the transmission of the culture was major part of education. It was focused on how
the children are given what we call primary education in the family without ever entering a
school. At the age of five or six children starts to go to school. By the time the family has
already a great deal of educational care and nurture. Much of the culture has by this age
been transmitted. The schools have come occupy a major role as they care for their pupils.
Schools provide good moral upbringing and compliment the role of the family. But the
values that the school tries to inculcate may be contrary to those that the family teaches.
For example, in schools stealing may be taught very wrong by the teacher. But no one may
prevent a child from taking apples or mangoes from an orchard.

Q.5 Describe different types of social institutions by focusing on their specific

functions in the society.
Social Institution
A social institution is a network or organized pattern of social relationships and actions
which are relatively permanent and comes into existence to fulfil social needs (or to satisfy
basic human needs) and therefore, they can be seen as an indispensable part of the large
society or community. In other words, social institutions are complex sets of statuses, roles,
organizations, norms, and beliefs that meet people’s basic needs within society.
Institution refers to the organized way of doing things. It represents common procedures.
Horton and Hunt define it as “social institution is a system of norms to achieve some goal or
activity that People feel is important, or more formally an organized cluster of folkways and
mores cantered around a major human activity. Durkheim has gone to the extent of
defining sociology as the science of social institutions. Giddings regards institutions as the
organs that conserve what is best in the past of the human race.”
Institutions are structured processes through which people carry out their activities. To fulfil
his self-interest man forms different types of associations. These organizations and
associations have their own working methods practiced method in society to satisfy thorn
procedures to achieve their present goals. To fulfil different interests and different
objectives man gets help from rules working system, methods, tools, procedures, etc. are
used.
Therefore, it is a useful method in society to meet needs. E.g., if we see the campus as a
collection of campus chiefs, professors, lecturers, and other staff, the campus is an
organization or association and it has some objectives. To fulfil those objectives campus has
to adopt a specific method of education, prepares time table, rules, and regulations, adopt
an examination system. These all things make the campus an institution.
Definition:
 Max Weber has defined the social institution as “the social relations in a whole
network of social actions.”
 According to RT. Schaefer “Social institutions are organized patterns of beliefs and
behaviour cantered on basic social needs.”
 According to Harton and Hunt, “An institution is an organized system of social
relationships which embodies certain common values and procedures and meets
certain needs of the society”.
 According to Bogardus, “A social institution is a structure that is organized to meet
the need of people chiefly through well-established procedures.”
By this, he meant that institutions exist only so far as people act in certain ways. The
institution is manifest only as a pattern of behaviour. For e.g., marriage, kinship, family,
religion, economy, polity, etc. are social institutions because they are networks of social
relationships and social and social actions.
Types:
Primary Social Institutions: The most basic institutions which are found even in primitive
societies like religion, family, marriage, property, some kind of political system, as primary in
character, primary institutions are evolved or developed naturally, unconsciously, and even
spontaneously.
Secondary Social Institutions: As societies, grow in size and complexities institutions
become progressive and more differentiated. These institutions are established to satisfy
the secondary needs of people. E.g. education, examination, law, legislation, constitution,
parliamentary procedures, business, etc. Secondary institutions are established consciously,
purposefully, and in a planned way.
Major five types of social institutions
1. Religion
Religion has crossed boundaries and cultures and still exists as a major social institution in
the 21st century. Religious beliefs help individuals cope with abstract concepts such as life
and death. Yes, it is possible to observe and physically see life through death but religion
gives it purpose and explains the unexplainable. Religious institutions such as churches,
temples and mosques have codes of conduct that extend to the life outside of these sacred
areas. There are certain norms and rules one must follow in order to be accepted by the
people of the community. If these norms are broken, individuals will face consequences
such as ostracization and shunning from the community. Religion deeply influences the way
one thinks and acts so it performs a far greater role than being a place of worship. In
countries such as India, religion deeply influences politics and one’s standard of living. This
can be seen in America with the Christians as well.
Durkheim talks about the sacred and the profane, when looking at religion as a social
institution, it is important to view how the aspects of the sacred influence our lives on an
individual and collective level. Religion is also a means of social control as it dictates what
can and cannot be done in society. A lot of religious scriptures have been cited to defend
homophobic acts, they also discuss what is considered ‘moral’ and ‘righteous’. Lastly, as a
social institution, it provides social support and helps communities grow.
2. Family
The family is where primary socialisation takes place, it is considered an important part of
development and structures the way one lives. Values, morals and beliefs taught during the
ages of 4-18 have a direct and observable impact on how a child views and reacts to the
world. It is beyond just raising a child. The definition of what constitutes a family has
changed over history but the characteristics remain the same, it is 1) A mating relationship,
2) A form of marriage, 3) A system of nomenclature, 4) A means for the economic provision
and 5) Involves common habitation. The family and society are interconnected as families
combined to constitute a society. Parents are not only tasked with the responsibility of
raising their child, but also socialising them to adhere to the norms and rules of the society
they live in. They must also teach children about the different cultures that exist and the
proper etiquette to follow in different situations. Parents share information with children
that were passed down from their parents.
3. Education
Schools are an important part of a child’s growth and development, that is why people
emphasise the need to send children to physical schools rather than home-schooling them.
During the sixteen years at school, children imbibe values and knowledge that exist outside
the official curriculum. This is often referred to as the hidden curriculum. Rules and norms
that were taught by parents and religious institutions are reinforced, along with this they
learn new rules that can only be taught at an institution such as the school. For example, the
idea that one must not cheat to gain merit can only be truly taught in a school setting.
Educators teach children to be kind, to learn to work together, to work hard for good results
and so on. When children engage in acts such as bullying and harassment, they are punished
for their bad behaviour. Schools help children transition from their safety net into the real
world where they are held responsible for their actions.
4. Politics
As Robert Dahl stated, politics is an unavoidable facet of human existence, because
regardless of time and culture, humans are involved in some political system or the other.
They may not resemble each other but a system exists. It is needed because in order to
function properly and have stability a set of rules and regulations that govern the masses is
required. Politics can be understood as the method through which we mobilize resources
appropriately and appoint individuals with power to make decisions. In order for society to
function and continue functioning over generations, it is crucial that the people are willing
to accept collective norms and regulations. Each generation must be willing to abide by the
basic rules of that society or come to a general consensus of decision-making. Political
socialisation, therefore, is an important role that these institutions play. They must ensure
that the members of society acquire political attitudes and actively participate in political
decision-making.
5. Media
The final major social institution is the media. The media is often discussed in relation to
politics because of how frequently the two domains overlap. Especially today, in the 21st
century, the media has a major influence on the political decisions that are made. Since the
introduction of the newspaper, media outlets have a major role in shaping how people
think. Today, both news media and entertainment media socialise individuals and send
across messages that are subconsciously imbibed. For example, when an individual does
something that disrupts the peace in society, news outlets will frame the incident as
negative using negative words, harsh tones and visually unappealing images. This sends
across the message that this particular act is not condoned by the general public. Similarly,
recurring themes can be identified in the entertainment industry that reflect how people
perceive things in the real world.
Media can influence how people perceive other institutions such as gender, marriage,
and religion as well. For example, the constant projection of Islam as a harmful religion feed
into the minds of islamophobias and convinces the general population that the core
ideologies of this religion is bad. While the media exists to transfer and spread information,
it reinforces norms, values and beliefs that bound the walls of society.
Social institutions, therefore, exist to provide society with guidelines on how to behave and
react both on a collective and individual level. They are a combination of positions, roles,
norms, and values within specific types of social structures. Such institutions keep tabs on
the members of society and ensure that those who disrupt social order are punished. Social
institutions help in the process of socialization and encourage societies to maintain healthy
social relationships. They cultivate human behaviour and most importantly do not remain
stagnant. Social institutions transform and develop with the people of the community. This
influence works both ways- individuals can influence social institutions to alter their way of
functioning and vice versa.