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Due: December 4, 2008

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 I. Concepts of Print
What are they?

 Concepts of print are the basic knowledge of how printed language

works. It includes the awareness of directionality (i.e. reading from
left to right, top to bottom, and front to back), uppercase vs. lower
case letters, how a book is held and opened properly, the fact that
print carries a message and represents language, the knowledge
that the orientation of letters are important (i.e. p,b,q,d are letters
that depend on how they are held to distinguish what letter they
represent), and the understanding that print has common
characteristics that might not always be included (i.e. title, author,
glossary, index, etc) (Duke, 2007).
 Alphabetic Principle – words are made up of letters
and letters are made up of sounds and the different
combinations of letters make different words (Duke,
2007).
 Directionality – reading from left to right, top to
bottom, and front to back.
 Genre Knowledge – understand the differences in
regards to the purpose of the text (Duke, 2007).
 Negative Space – having a separation of words with the
use of spaces (Schulze, 2006).
 Punctuation – “the use of standard marks and signs in
writing to separate words into sentences, clauses, and
phrases in order to clarify meaning” (Punctuation).
 Reading Pictures – understanding that pictures go
along with the text.
 Return Sweep – allows the reader to track from end of
one line to the beginning of the next.
 Sequencing – order in which letters are located in a
word (i.e. beginning letter, middle letter(s), and ending
letter) (Duke, 2007).

Why are they important?

 They are the fundamental understandings that are needed for

conventional reading and writing (Duke, 2007). An individual
without concepts of print may not succeed in reading and writing.
Without concepts of print a student would have a very difficult
time going through the whole education process since it involves
much reading and writing.
When and how do they develop?

 Not all concepts of print will develop in order or at the same time.
Some aspects will be learned sooner than others (i.e. learning how
to open a book is likely to be learned before learning directionality).
Concepts of print will continue to develop throughout all years of
schooling. They can start developing early and continue into the
child’s elementary school education and in some rare occasions
certain aspects may not develop until the child’s later years (Duke,
2007). For later years in education certain parts of concept of print
get expanded on (i.e. punctuation).
 Examples of how to teach concepts of print:
 Point to words while reading, so the child can follow along.
 Ask the child to go through a text and point out lower and
capital case letters, punctuation, and words that they are
familiar to.
 Create follow sticks to help the student with directionality
while reading.
 Teach the child to place a finger in between each word as the
negative space that is needed.
 Create flash cards that include sentences involving
punctuation, lower and upper case letters, and words they
are familiar with including names (Watson-Peterson, 2000).
 Ex: Billy can run. I can run faster! Can Mary run?

Issues for Some Second Language Learners (SLL)

 How to hold and which to direction to read a book.

 Ex: In Japan books are written to be read from back to front
instead of from front to back like in the United States.
 How to hold a pencil.
 Ex: Not everyone that comes to the United States was previously
privileged to learn how to use a pencil or any type of writing
utensil.
 How to use the return sweep and directionality.
 Ex: Unlike the English language there are several languages that
do not read from left to right, including Arabic which reads from
right to left and traditional Chinese which reads from top to
bottom.
 II. Phonological Awareness
What is it?

 The knowledge that language is made up of sounds. It allows

children to separate words into syllables, see and create words that
rhyme, see and create words that start or end with the same
sound, blend sounds into words, separate words into sounds and
move sounds around to create new words (Shedd, 2008a).

Phonological Awareness involves:

1) Alliteration – produce words that start with the same sound (Shedd,
2008a).
 Ex: Chelsey can carry canned corn.
2) Blending – “combine syllables to say words” (Shedd, 2008a).
 Ex: /fol//der/ = folder
3) Onset– “consonant sound of a syllable that comes before the vowel”
(Shedd, 2008a).
4) Phonemes – “smallest unit of sound” (Shedd, 2008a).
5) Rime – “vowel sound and everything that comes after it” (Shedd,
2008a).
6) Rhyming – the ability to create words that end with the same sound.
7) Segmenting – separate letters to hear the sound it makes.
 Ex: /p/ /a/ /t/ This helps the child think it out to spell it.
8) Syllables – unit of pronunciation that consists of just a vowel or a
vowel with a consonant (Shedd, 2008a).
 Ex: Ashley – /Ash/+/ley/

Why is it important?

 It is “considered to be the most important and powerful predictor of

later reading achievement” (Shedd, 2008a).

Typical order of acquisition of phonological awareness skills:

- Phonemes
- Syllables
- Onset and Rime
- Alliteration
 Syllables come before rhyming before individual phonemes.
 Recognition occurs before the generation of words
 Beginnings come before endings which come before middles
 Blending of words occurs before segmenting words
 The ability to move sounds around to create words that are new and
different.
Strategies for developing phonological awareness:

 Syllable count – say the word (i.e. tomorrow), then use fingers to count
the syllables (to/mor/row).
 I spy – beginning/ending sounds (I see something that starts with /p/).
 Pairs/Bingo – matching pictures to beginning/ending sounds.
 Missing vowels – helps the pupils to become aware that there could be
more than one choice of vowels for each word (i.e. b_t - bat, bet, bit, but).
 Rhyming games– collect rhyming pictures/words ('Can I have a
picture/word that rhymes with sat?').
 Tongue twisters – beginning sounds and consonant blends (i.e. six silly
swans swam out to sea).
 Odd word out – both oral and written (i.e. ring, sing, song, thing).
 Sense or nonsense – ask the pupils to identify the words that make sense
by blending the phonemes (i.e. can, man, zan, ran, pan).
 III. Sound–Letter Relationships
What are they?

 Sounds and letters relate to each other in English

o The sounds letters make when placed in a specific order form
different words. The sounds have to be spoken from left to right
and there are certain rules to sounds that letters that are next
to one another make.
 Gives people the ability to figure out the pronunciation of new words.
 Alphabetic principle - words are made up of letters and letters are
made up of sounds
 Knowledge that different letters can have multiple sounds.

Why are they important?

 It develops from absolutely no knowledge of letter names and their

sounds to the knowledge of how sounds and letters relate to English.
From sound letter relationships, a child can recognize previously seen
words along with the ability to decode the correct pronunciation of
new words.

Phases of word learning:

 Pre–alphabetic phase – memory of appearance.

o Ex: (recognizing the hut for Pizza Hut)
o May guess words based on context or pictures.
o Typically occurs in preschool and kindergarten (Ehri &
McCormick, 2006).
 Partial alphabetic phase – using sight words and prediction
o Typically occurs in kindergarten (Ehri & McCormick, 2006).
 Full alphabetic phase – blending sounds into words, decoding,
grapheme–morpheme relationships, combining of strategies (Ehri &
McCormick, 2006).
o Typically occurs in 2nd to 3rd grade.
 Consolidated alphabetic phase – learning chunks of letters, continue
to learn sight words (Ehri & McCormick, 2006).
 Automatic alphabetic phase – proficient reading, being able to identify
new words rather quickly, variety of strategies (Ehri & McCormick,
2006).
o Typically occurs in middle school grades.
Cueing Systems:

 “Pragmatic System – language variations according to social and cultural

uses.
 Phonological System – sounds that correspond to written symbols.
 Semantic System – meaning system that focuses on vocabulary.
 Syntactic System – structures that govern how words are combines in
sentences” (Shedd, 2008c)

Stages of Spelling Development

1. Semi-Phonetic Stage – In this stage letters are used to represent sounds

in words.
 The words often begin with a consonant and uses letter names.
 One, two or three letters can represent a whole word.
2. Phonetic Stage – In this stage letters are chosen on sound rather than
visual patterns and represent most sounds in a word.
 Short vowels are often the cause of incorrect spelling and nasal
sounds (m,n) are often left out.
 The ending –ed is either spelled correctly or mistaken as –d or –t.
 The vowel if often left out when the syllable has a consonant that
carries the sound of the vowel.
3. Transitional Stage – This stage consists of the insight that the individual
must disconnect written language from spoken language
 The vowels appear in every syllable, nasal sounds are before the
consonants, and use vowel diagraphs.
 VCE is over used and individual moves from phonological spelling
to visual and morphemic spelling (Hornsby, 2008)

Issues for Some SLLs:

 SLLs may not know that some letters in the alphabet may have
multiple sounds and these sounds may differ from the sounds that
formed in their first language (if they used the similar alphabet).
 They also need to know how letters are combined and the sounds
these combitinations make before they can read or write correctly.
 Some individuals might face the fact that they are incapable at the
time to make certain sounds form since they did not have experience
making those sounds (i.e. Portuguese speakers will try to say one,
two, three, but end up saying one, two, tree).

Approaches to Decoding:

 Decoding – finding the meaning of words. Learning the sound of

individual letters and blending them.
 o Analogy – finding similarities among words that are not similar.
Comparing known words to new words and based on that being
able to figure out the new word.
o Prediction – predicting spelling or what comes next in a story
based on context, pictures, or beginning letters.
o Sight – way in which students automatically read words that
have already been committed to memory without chunking.

3 conditions that vowels are long: vowel teams, diphthongs and magical e.

4 consonants that can double in one syllable words following a short

vowel: f s l z

4 consonant digraphs: th – that sh – show wh – what ch – chew ph – Phil

R– controlled vowels: car, bar, her, fur

Open syllable: VCV vowel team (aka long vowels).

Closed syllable: ends in a consonant.

o Ex: ten

Vowel Team: “2 vowels go walking the first one does the talking.”

o Ex: float, peer, seam.

Diphthong: two vowels come together to form a new sound.

o Ex: look, moon, laugh.

Digraph: two consonants.

Cluster: three consonants in a row and all have to be heard.

o Ex: straw, strong, spring

VCE: vowel, consonant, e. “When the vowel says its name at an “e” to the end.”

o Ex: time, cube

Examples of how to teach Sound Letter Relationships:

 Have children read and re–read books

 Teach children the use, purpose and function of letters (aka
grapheme).
 Provide easy access to story books for children to read on their own or
together.
 Have sight words posted throughout the room to give the children new
and different words to use and become familiar with.
 IV. Morphology
What is it?

 “Morphology is the study of morphemes and the structure of words”

(Shedd, 2008c). It is also the appreciation of the fact that words with
similar roots have similar meanings and the knowledge that affixes
predictably change words.
 Morpheme – “the smallest meaningful unit of
language
 Free Morpheme – morphemes that can stand alone.
o Ex: boy
 Bound Morpheme – cannot stand alone (prefix or
suffix)” (Shedd, More Letter-Sound Knowledge,
Vocabulary, and Morhology. Presentation for TE 301,
2008c).
o Ex: –s –ness
 Morphology has a huge influence on spelling
 Morphological awareness – helps with spelling,
vocabulary, reading and comprehension. “When you
learn one word, you learn 10. When you learn one
root, you learn exponentially more.”
o Ex. Danger, dangerous, endanger, endangered,
endangering, etc.

 Affixes can be derivational (change meaning or category), or inflectional

(provide grammatical info, tense, number, etc).
o Ex. Timmy combed his hair. (past tense)

Why is it important?
 It is important because once it is learned, children can use it to learn
to spell, read, and decipher vocabulary words.

Examples of teaching Morphology:

 Have one base word on a card and then several affixes on other cards.
Have the child place affix cards (both prefix and suffix) to the main
word and determine what affixes work and which don’t. Record the
ones that work and teach the children all of those words and the
meanings compared to the base word.
 Weekly spelling words also help children to learn the structure of
words.
 V. Fluency
What is it?

 Fluency is the ability to read accurately, quickly, smoothly, naturally,

automatically, effortlessly and expressively.
 Once children are fluent readers they are better able to devote their
attention to comprehend the text they are working with.
 Readers who are not very fluent in reading are considered dis–fluent
 With fluency comes automaticity which allows a child who is fluent
with a task the capability of devoting their attention to another related
task. This helps with comprehension.
 Fluency increases when students develop instant word recognition,
practice repeated reading of letters and when they receive feedback
and guidance from others.

Why is it important?

 It is important because it allows a reader to focus on comprehending

what they are reading instead of having to stop and read word by
word.

Why is fluency important to SLLs?

 Fluency is important because it allows the reader to decode word

meanings faster. One can help an SLL learn to be fluent by listening
to model, and by reading with partners, reading repeatedly and by
reading in groups. This along with extra feedback, allowing more time
and paired reading can also help students with special needs.

*Fluency instruction begins when students can read a connected text with
90% accuracy. This can be determined by:

Total number of words read - number of errors = Words correct/minute

Examples of teaching Fluency:

 Have a time set aside for silent or group reading so this way children
will always have time to work on reading and working on their fluency
skills.
 Model how a fluent reader reads by reading aloud. Read from
different genres to get children interested. After reading ask children
how a fluent reader reads.
 Have students read passages aloud a couple times.
 Teach children to put words into clusters as opposed to reading each
word separately.
 Try using reader’s theater which is an oral performance of a script.
  Give feedback to students.
 Have children practice reading certain texts a couple of times.
 Echo and choral reading both in groups and one–on–one (Blau, 2008).

With fluency comes accuracy which is where a student is able to recognize

most words automatically. The child needs little to no time to identify words.
Some miscues such as omissions, insertions or mispronunciations may occur
however.

To determine the accuracy rate: correct # of words read / total # of words read
= % accuracy this rate gives the reading levels which are:

96–100 Independent

95–90 Instructional

89–below Frustration
 VI. Vocabulary
What is it?

 All words are vocabulary.

Why is it important?

 Vocabulary is important because the more vocabulary words a child

knows the better success they will have in their academic including
content learning, reading comprehension and overall intelligence.
 Vocabulary – all words
 Academic Vocabulary – vocabulary learned in schools that would not
otherwise be encountered.
 Receptive Vocabulary – vocabulary that a person can understand
 Expressive Vocabulary – vocabulary that a person can use (a.k.a.
productive vocabulary) (Shedd, 2008c)

Stages of Vocabulary Learning:

1. “No knowledge
2. General sense – knowing that jubilant has a positive connotation
3. Narrow, context bound knowledge – only knowing one context of a
word.
o Ex: Knowing that a peaceful dog is a dog that is happy
where its at, but is unable to describe anything in a different
context as peaceful.
4. Having knowledge of a word, but unable to recall it – can’t recall it
quickly enough to use it in the right situations
5. Rich, decontextualized knowledge of a word’s meaning, its
relationship to other words and an ability to use it in a
metaphorical way” (Beck, Mckeown, & Omanson, 1987).
o Ex: understanding what it means when someone is
devouring a book. (a.k.a. They are really into it).

How is it learned?

- children learn specific words

- children learn to learn words using vocabulary strategies
- children becoming aware of and interested in words (a.k.a. word
consciousness)
 Students learn new words through:
- direct instruction
- exposure from reading and writing
 Students can also learn vocabulary through:
 - Contextual analysis – using the surrounding words to figure out a
words meaning
- Morphological analysis – using the parts of a word to figure out its
meaning
- Lexical resources – using electronic resources, dictionaries,
thesauruses amongst other forms of resources.

Tier Words

 Tier 1– common words known by most children. Ex: dog, happy, sad
etc.
 Tier 2 – more difficult words for mature language users such as
terrific, coincidence, opinion, etc.
 Tier 3 – words that are only found in specific places. Ex: science
words such as tundra, photosynthesis, hypothesis etc.

Issues for Second Language Learners (SLLs)

 SLLs have to learn vocabulary words in both their native language

and their new language.
 Academic vocabulary is harder to learn than everyday vocabulary
because it does not show up as often.
 Idioms can be difficult for SLLs
 Some words seem like cognates, but they aren’t really
 Words with multiple meanings would also be very difficult to learn

Examples of teaching vocabulary:

 Weekly spelling lists with a test on Friday.

 Post sight words around the room to promote new and important
words.
 Use fill in the blank sentences.
 Have children correct mistakes by inserting the correct vocabulary
word.
 Have children label their surroundings or a picture of something.
 Pick the word out of a list that is not similar to the others.
 VII. Comprehension
What is it?

 The ability to retrieve a meaning from a text.

Why is it important?

 Comprehension is important because it allows a student to access

background knowledge regarding subjects previously learned, allows
the reader to apply the strategies including predicting, questioning
and summarizing. Comprehension also allows the reader to use
inferences.

What do good comprehenders do?

 When children comprehend, we can see that they preview the text
before diving in, they are always thinking, they ask lots of questions,
both before, during and after reading, they use peers for ideas, and
they do collaborative work. Good readers also make connections
including text to self, text to text and text to world. Good
comprehenders also monitor themselves by stopping and rereading to
make sure they understand.
 Readers factors – what a reader brings to the process such as
purpose for doing it, motivation and strategies
 Text factors – the author’s ideas and words used along with how
the ideas are presented and organized
 Activity

Why might someone struggle with comprehension?

 Different readers struggle with different factors regarding

comprehension. Some readers struggle with:
o word knowledge
o decoding skills
o fluency
o vocabulary
o and sometimes something as simple as motivation
 Some readers may struggle with one of these areas, while some may
struggle with a few to all of them.

What are the issues for some Second Language Learners?

 Comprehension is important to second language learners because it

helps them to decode words along with the intended meaning of the
text. If SLLs are unable to understand vocabulary they will have to
 focus more on that and will miss out on the overall purpose of the
text.

Examples of teaching Comprehension:

 Read a text aloud and stop every once in awhile to ask questions and
discuss what was just read. Doing this allows the children to catch
up and understand what is going on.
 Split the children into small groups so they can discuss the topic
together and work on any problems they are having with
understanding.
 Give the children different texts to work with and see what they are
capable of comprehending.
 VIII. Composition/Writing
What are they?

 Composition – creative thinking and combination of ideas to form a

clear and straightforward answer in order to display an effective
message. Arranging parts and elements to form a whole.
 Writing – use of letters and symbols that are used to represent the
sounds of words in a language.

How do good writers write?

 Good writers have the ability to develop, organize and voice ideas,
they are able to use the right wording for what they are trying to say
and they are fluent.

What are the stages of writing development?

o drawing
o scribbling
o letter–like forms
o familiar units of letter strings
o estimated spelling
o conventional spelling

How do children learn how to write?

 Children learn how to write through discovery by creating their own

strategies and examples, they move from strategy to strategy as they
gain more, they learn from those around them and from each other as
they all learn how to write. The first thing most children learn to
write is their name. Strategies include tracing, copying and the
inventory principle which is where the child lists words.
 Ideas – content, theme, message
 Organization – is it easy to follow?, structure
 Voice – personal voice is easy to hear
 Word choice – use colorful, new words. Variety.
 Sentence fluency – rhythm in the writing
 Conventions – correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.

Concepts of Emergent writing:

 Reoccurring Principle – writing is the same moves over and over again
an example would be writing a g over and over again.
 Generative Principle – Combine a small set of letters in a couple of
ways.
 Flexibility Concept – Learn new letters
  Directionality – arrange print on the page in an organized way
 Negative Space – learn to leave blank spaces between words

Concepts for Practiced writers:

 Invented Spelling – create own spelling of words

 Letter–Name Strategy – using a letter based on its sound. Ex: lade for
lady
 Incorrect Use of Digraphs – uses one letter in place of a digraph
(sound produced by two letters)

Concepts for more Practiced writing:

 Invented spelling of long vowels – don’t mark to indicate longness. Ex:

gam for game
 Invented spelling of short vowels – use letter name in place of short
vowel. Ex: mod for mud.
 Vowel Omissions – doesn’t use vowels at all the times needed. Ex: letl
for little
 transitional spelling –words appear to be in English, but are spelled
wrong

What are the different components of writing?

 Pre–writing – prepares the writer to write. Involves choosing a topic,

audience and purpose along with gathering and organizing ideas.
 Drafting – writing without worrying about convention
 Revising – look over what was written, refine and reorganize ideas
 Editing – focus is on convention. Fix grammar, punctuation etc.
Proofreading is covered in this stage.
 Publishing – Final copy presented to audience.

What are the issues for SLLs?

 Some of the issues are developing and organizing ideas, because their
native language may use different contexts and ordering. They may
also have trouble using the correct vocabulary and punctuation along
with creating fluent sentences.

Examples of teaching Composition and Writing:

 Have children create their own stories and go through the

components of writing by themselves and then through peer editing.
Once they have gone through all of the stages, publish and bind the
child’s story and have them illustrate it so they will have made a
complete story.
 IX. Genre Knowledge
What is it?

 It is the ability to understand the differences in regards to the purpose

of the text (Duke, 2007).

Why is it important to comprehension and composition?

 It is important because success throughout school and life in general

especially future careers, depends upon the ability to write and
understand different kinds of genres. Also, it is important because it
allows the student to demonstrate the correct manner of addressing a
text presented to them that comes from a genre that they may not
have encountered before. It also allows them to write while using the
appropriate formality and information for the given genre. Genre
knowledge also helps to further understanding of the material that is
given to them and the knowledge they have about the material can aid
them in reading and writing. Finally, comprehension and composition
helps to avoid genre confusion, seeing as there are so many different
types of genres. Genre knowledge also allows students to differentiate
from genres used at home such as recipes to those used in school.
 X. Motivation
What is it?
 Finding academic activities both worthwhile and meaningful. The
ability to comprehend and get the learning benefits from the task at
hand.
What are the different kinds or aspects of motivation?
 Reading motivation – personal goals, beliefs and values of an
individual with regards to the topics covered by the reading.
 Situational motivation – someone may be completely motivated,
somewhat motivated or not motivated at all depending on the task at
hand. If it is found interesting, someone would be more motivated
than if it didn’t hold their attention.
 Competence motivation – everyone wants to be viewed as competent
so they go ahead with whatever is put in front of them.
 Self–efficacy – similar to self confidence related to accomplishing one’s
goals.
 Intrinsic motivation – occurs due to a person’s interest, desire to
learn, curiosity and enjoyment in mastering a task.
 Extrinsic motivation – motivation caused by an external force such as
rewards, money, grades, etc.
 Learning–oriented motivation – individual is motivated by things that
are intrinsic
 Performance–oriented motivation – individual is motivated by things
that are extrinsic
Why is motivation important?
 It is important because it helps to get students engaged in reading
and writing which in turn is related to their achievement. With the
help of motivation poor performance is sometimes avoided.
What motivates children to behave as they do?
 Children are motivated by influences at home and school, things they
are interested in and by engaging activities.
 Open task – students are in charge of both the process and the
product
 Closed task – students are in charge of either or both the
process and the product
What is the relationship between classroom management and motivation?
 This can vary depending on the type of motivation used and the
student. If classroom management is not up to par, motivation is
usually found extrinsically. If there is an atmosphere where children
feel safe, intrinsic motivation is usually developed.
Examples of teaching motivation:
 Read either one book in a series or one chapter and then leave the
children at a cliff hanger in hopes of motivating them to finish the
series or book.
 Have children create their own little lesson plan related to something
they would like the class to know about.
 Have tons of different types of books and genres in the classroom so
there is something for every student.
Works Cite

Beck, Mckeown, & Omanson. (1987). in Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002,.

Blau, L. (2008). 5 Surefire Strategies for Developing Reading Fluency. Retrieved November
13, 2008

Duke, N. K. (2007). Concepts of Print and Genre Knowledge. Presentation for TE 301 . East
Lansing, Michigan.

Ehri, L. C., & McCormick, S. (2006). Phases of word learning: Implications for instruction with
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