FOUNDATION COURSE

IN BAKERY LEVEL 1
(THEORY)
BAC 105
BACHELOR OF ARTS IN CULINARY ARTS

VASANTHAN SIGAMANY
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, [email protected], 9964668004

The “Foundation Course in Bakery Level 1 (theory)"is a foundation level

module which allows students to explore the basics of Bakery and Patisserie Arts.
The informative lectures to enhance the fundamental knowledge and the
technical applications will make learning a valuable experience.

A brief summary of each module is presented in the following sections.

Module 1: Introduction to Baking and Patisserie

History of Baking
Basic Baking Principles, baking math and sanitation
Equipment and Ingredients used in Bakery

Module 2: Techniques of Making Yeast Dough Products

Basic Bread Making Techniques
Bread Faults
Artisan breads, Lean Breads, Rich Breads and Quick Breads

Module 3: Understanding Cookies

 Understanding Cookies

Course Learning Outcomes:

*Describe the fundamentals of Baking and Patisserie arts (C1)

*Comprehend the techniques in the production of yeast goods, and comprehend
the factors affecting dough fermentation. (C2)
*Understand and produce various types of Cookies and their variations. (C2)

Reference Books and Other Required Material

WAYNE GISSLEN – Professional Baking, 5th Edition, John Wiley USA.

HANEMAN L.J. Bakery: Flour Confectionery HEINMAN.
MERMAID BOOKS The Book Of Ingredients DOWELL PHILIP.
JOHN WILEY Understanding Baking AMENDOLA JOSEPH.
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL, A Professional Text to Bakery And Confectionery,
KINGSLEE JOHN.
VIRTUE AND COMPANY LTD., The New International Confectioner: WILFRED J.
FRANCE.
CHARRETTE JACQUES, Great Cakes and Pastries, TEUBNER CHRISTIAN.
JOSEPH AMENDOLA, Baker’s Manual, 5th Edition, NICOLE REES.
JOSEPH AMENDOLA, Understanding Baking, 3rd Edition, NICOLE REES.
CULINARY INSTITUTE OF AMERICA, Baking and Pastry: Mastering the Art and
Craft, JOHN WILEY.

The student should maintain a long notebook cover to take down notes in class.

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CONTENTS
Module 1: Introduction to Baking and Patisserie

Lesson 1: History of Baking ...................................................................... 5

Lesson 2: Basic Baking Principles, Baking Math and Sanitation ................... 9

Lesson 3: Equipment and Ingredients Used in Bakery................................. 21

Module 2: Techniques of Making Yeast Dough Products

Lesson 1: Basic Bread Making Techniques ................................................. 39

Lesson 2: Bread Faults ............................................................................. 45

Lesson 3: Artisan breads, Lean Breads, Rich Breads and Quick Bread………….49

Module 3: Understanding Cookies

Lesson 1: Understanding Cookies .............................................................. 62

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INTRODUCTION TO
BAKING AND PATISSERIE
THIS IS AN INTRODUCTORY MODULE THAT INTRODUCES THE STUDENT TO
THE HISTORY, INGREDIENTS, EQUIPMENT, BASIC PRINCIPLES, MATH AND
SANITATION USED IN THE BAKERY AND PATISSERIE DEPARTMENT.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

by the end of this module the student will be able to:

* Understand the History of Baking and its evolution. (C2, A2)

*Explain the basic baking principles with an understanding of basic bakeshop

math and sanitation. (C2, A2)

*Identify the types of equipment used in bakery and their functions. (C2, A2)

*Understand the varieties of basic ingredients used in bakery and their functions.
(C2, A2)

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 HISTORY OF BAKING

• Grains have been the most important staple food in the human diet since
prehistoric times.

• Unleavened flatbreads made from grain pastes were the first step in the
development of breads.

• A grain paste left to stand for a time collects wild yeasts from the air and
begins to ferment. This was the beginning of leavened breads.

BAKING TIME LINE

• Prehistoric times: Wild grains were gathered, toasted, and pounded with
wooden tools to make paste.

• 500-600 B.C.: Greeks created enclosed ovens.

• Several centuries later: Roman baking was introduced by the Gauls, who
used beer froth in their bread dough.

• Collapse of the Roman Empire: Baking as a profession almost disappeared

at this time.

• Latter Middle Ages: Baking and pastry making began to reappear as an

important profession in the service of nobility. Bread baking was performed
by professional bakers, not homemakers, because it required ovens.

• 1400s: Pastry chefs from France took pastry making away from bakers.

• 1492: Revolution in pastry making begins. Americas provided ample

supplies of sugar, chocolate, and cocoa.

• 1650: Bread bakers started buying flour from mills.

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 • 1765: A Parisian named Boulanger started the first restaurant.

• 1775: The Art of the Miller, the Bread Baker, and the Pastry Maker was
published.

• 1778: The Perfect Bread Baker was published.

• 1784-1833: Marie-Antoine Carême lived. He was known for his spectacular

constructions of sugar and pastry.

• Eighteenth century: The stove was invented.

• 1847-1935: Georges-August Escoffier was the greatest chef of his time.

Escoffier introduced:

• The simplification of the classical menu.

• The systematization of cooking methods.

• The reorganization of the kitchen.

• 19th century: Roller milling was developed.

• Wheat flour was more widely available in North America.

• 20th century: Advances in technology included:

• Refrigeration

• Air transportation

• Sophisticated oven

• Preservation techniques

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 • Modern equipment

MODERN STYLES

• Fernand Point (1897-1955): simplified and lightened classical cuisine.

• Nouvelle cuisine: included simpler, more natural flavors and preparations;

lighter sauces and seasonings; and shorter cooking times.

• Emphasized artful plating presentations.

• 1971: Alice Waters’ restaurant, Chez Panisse, opened in Berkeley,

California.

• Good food depends on good ingredients.

• 1980s: development of fusion cuisine, which includes the use of ingredients

and techniques from more than one regional cuisine in a single dish.

BAKING PROFESSIONS

Pâtissier: Pastry chef.

Confiseur: Confectioner or candy maker.

Décorateur: Prepares decorative cakes showpieces, and sugar work.

Head baker: The worker in charge of the production in a retail bakery.

Boulanger: Prepares yeast goods.

Glacier: Prepares ice cream and frozen desserts.

WHAT ELSE IS THERE IN THE MODERN WORLD???????

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PROFESSIONAL REQUIREMENTS

• Mastery of skills

• Eagerness to work

• Commitment to learning

• Dedication to service

• Professional pride

WHAT MORE DO YOU HAVE TO POSSESS TO BE A BAKING AND PATISSERIE

PROFESSIONAL??????

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 BASIC BAKING PRINCIPLES, BAKING MATHS AND SANITATION

MIXING AND GLUTEN DEVELOPMENT

Three phases of the Basic Mixing Process

1. Blending the ingredients.

2. Forming the dough.

3. Developing the dough.

PROCESSES THAT HAPPEN DURING THE MIXING PROCESS

1. Air cell formation

2. Hydration: the process of absorbing water

3. Gluten development

CONTROLLING GLUTEN DEVELOPMENT

• Glutenin and gliadin are two proteins found in wheat flour. When these
two proteins combine with water, they form a stretchable substance called
gluten.

METHODS FOR ADJUSTING GLUTEN DEVELOPMENT

Gluten development can be controlled through:

• Selection of flours.

• Fat and other tenderizers.

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 • Any fat used in baking is called a shortening because it shortens the
gluten strands.

• Water.

• Mixing Methods

• Proteins are hydrated.

• Air is mixed in the dough.

• Gluten strands are developed by mixing.

• Leavening

• Expansion of air cells stretches the gluten and strengthens it.

• Leavening also tenderizes the product by making cell walls thinner.

• Temperature

• Gluten develops more at a warm room temperature than at a cold

temperature.

Other Ingredients and Additives

• Salt: strengthens glutens and controls yeast growth.

• Bran: inhibits gluten development because it prevents some of the gluten

from sticking together.

• Dough conditioners.

• Milk: contains and enzyme that interferes with gluten development.

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THE BAKING PROCESS

1. Melting of fats

2. Formation and expansion of gases

3. Killing of yeast and microorganisms

4. Coagulation of proteins

5. Gelatinization of starches

6. Escape of water vapor and other gases

7. Crust formation and browning

8. Cooling: starches continue to gelatinize and molecule bond with each other
and become more solid as the product cools. This process is called starch
retrogradation and causes staling.

9. Staling: the change in texture and aroma of baked goods due to a change
of structure and a loss of moisture.

USES AND LIMITATIONS OF FORMULAS AND RECIPES

• Factors that cannot be accounted for in writing recipes:

• Equipment varies from bakeshop to bakeshop.

• It is impossible to give exact instructions.

• A standardized recipe or formula is a set of instructions describing the way

a particular establishment prepares a particular item.

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STANDARDIZED RECIPE / FORMULA

• Name of recipe or formula.

• Yield, including total yield, the number of portions, and exact portion size.

• Ingredients and exact amounts listed in order of use.

• Equipment needed.

• Method of preparation.

• Preparation and cooking times.

• Directions for holding between preparation and service.

• Directions for portioning, plating, and garnishing.

• Directions for storing leftovers.

Functions of Standardized Formulas

• They control quality.

• They control quantity.

Limitations of Formulas
Bakers talk about formulas rather than recipes because of the scientific nature of
the ingredient list and the accurate procedures.

• Many factors may affect the outcome of a recipe including:

• Equipment

• Processes may vary

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 Following Recipes and Formulas

• Read the entire recipe carefully and completely!

• Determine the yield of the formula and modify if necessary.

• Determine if substitutions are necessary, and then write them down.

• Assemble and measure all ingredients.

• Prepare all ingredients as necessary (e.g., sift flour, separate eggs).

• Read the entire procedure or method of preparation.

• Look up any terms or key words you do not know,

• Determine what equipment you need.

• Assemble all tools and equipment.

• Prepare equipment as needed (e.g., grease cake pans).

Units of Measure

US measuring system

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Abbreviations of U.S. Units of Measure

Pound lb

Ounce oz

Gallon gal

Quart qt

Pint pt

Fluid ounce fl oz

Tablespoon tbsp

Teaspoon tsp

Inch in.

AP Weight and EP Weight

• AP weight is As Purchased weight

• EP weight is Edible Portion weight

• To determine the percentage yield of fruit, you must:

• Weigh the item before trimming.

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 • Trim and peel the item as necessary to gain the edible portion.

• Weigh the trimmed item. This is the EP weight.

• Divide the EP by the AP.

• Multiply this number by 100 to get the percentage.

Yield Percentage

The yield percentage may be used to calculate:

• Yield

• Amount needed to purchase

Baker’s Percentages

A baker’s percentage is the amount of each ingredient used as a percentage of

the amount of flour used. Flour is always 100%.

• Makes it easy to see the ingredient ratios.

• Useful tool in developing new formulas.

• This is calculated by:

Total weight of ingredient

Total Weight of flour × 100% = % of ingredient

Problems in Converting Formulas

1. Surface and Volume

2. Equipment
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 Calculating Formula Costs

• List all ingredients and quantities of the formula as prepared.

• Determine the EP unit cost of each ingredient.

• Convert the quantities in the formula to the same units used for the EP
costs.

• Calculate the total cost of each ingredient by multiplying the EP unit cost
by the number of units needed.

• Add the ingredient costs to get the total formula cost.

• To get unit costs, divide the total formula by the number of units produced,
or for better accuracy, the number of units actually sold.

Food Safety and Sanitation

• Contamination: contains harmful substances that were not originally

present in the food.

• Hazard: any substance in food that can cause illness or injury.

• Biological

• Chemical

• Physical

Biological Hazards

• Microorganism: tiny, usually single celled, organism that can be seen only
with a microscope.

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 • A microorganism that can cause disease is called a pathogen.

• Conditions needed for bacterial growth:

• Food

• Moisture

• Temperature

• Acidity or alkalinity

• Oxygen

• Time

Protection against bacteria

• Three basic principles of protecting food against bacteria:

1. Keep bacteria from spreading

2. Stop bacteria from growing

3. Kill bacteria

Other Biological Hazards

• Viruses

• Parasites

• Fungi

• Plant toxins
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 • Allergens

Chemical Hazards:

• Antimony

• Cadmium

• Cyanide

• Lead

• Copper

• Zinc

• Physical Hazard is the contamination of food with objects that may not be
toxic but may cause injury or discomfort

• Glass

• Metal shavings

• Stones

• Insects

• Soil

• Hair

• Cross-contamination: transferring of hazardous substances, mainly

microorganisms, to a food from another food or surface.

•
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 Personal Hygiene and Safe Food Handling

• Do not work with food if you have any communicable disease.

• Bathe or shower daily.

• Wear clean uniforms and aprons.

• Keep hair neat, clean, and controlled.

• Keep mustaches and beards trimmed and clean.

• Wash hands and exposed parts of arms before work and after every point
of contamination.

• Cover coughs and sneezes, then wash hands.

• Keep hands from face, eyes, hair, and arms.

• Keep fingernails clean and short. Do not wear nail polish.

• Do not smoke or chew gum while on duty.

• Cover cuts or sores with clean bandages and clean gloves.

• Do not sit on worktables.

Procedure for Washing Hands

• Wet your hands with hot running water (100°F or 38°C).

• Apply enough soap to make a good lather.

• Rub hands together thoroughly for 20 seconds or longer, washing the

hands, wrists, and lower part of the forearm.
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 • Use a nail brush to clean beneath fingernails.

• Rinse hands well.

• Dry hands with a clean single-use paper towel or a warm air hand dryer.

Procedure for Using Disposable Gloves

• Wash hands before putting on gloves or when changing to another pair.

• Remove and discard gloves, wash hands, and change to a clean pair after
handling one food item and before starting work on another .

• Change to a clean pair whenever gloves become torn, soiled, or

contaminated by contact with an unsanitary surface.

The HACCP System

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point System is an effective food safety system.

• Assess hazards.

• Identify critical control points.

• Set up standards or limits for CCPs.

• Set up procedures for monitoring CCPs.

• Establish corrective actions.

• Set up a recordkeeping system.

• Verify that the systems are working.

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 EQUIPMENT AND INGREDIENTS USED IN BAKERY

Equipment Safety and Sanitation

• Never use a piece of equipment until you are thoroughly familiar with the
operation and all its features.

• Study the operating manual supplied with each item.

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INGREDIENTS USED IN BAKERY

Wheat Flour

• Wheat flour is the most important ingredient in the bakeshop.

• In baked products, wheat flour provides:

• Structure

• Thickening

• Nutritive value

• Hard wheats contain greater quantities of the proteins glutenin and gliadin,
and are used to produce strong flours.

• Strong flours are used to make breads and yeast products.

• Soft wheats are used to produce weak flours often used in cakes, cookies,
and pastries.

The six principal classes of wheat grown in North America are:

• Hard red winter

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 • Hard red spring

• Hard white

• Soft white

• Soft red winter

• Durum

• Bran is the hard outer covering of the

kernel. It is present in whole wheat flour and
is high in fiber, B vitamins, fat, protein, and
minerals.

• Germ is the part of the kernel that

becomes a new wheat plant if sprouted. It is
high in protein, vitamins, minerals, and fat.

• Endosperm is the white, starchy part of

the kernel that remains when the bran and
germ are removed.

Composition of Flour

• Starch: white flour consists of about 68-76% starch.

• Protein: 6 to 18% of white flour is protein. Glutenin and gliadin are 80% of
that protein.

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 • Moisture: 11 to 14%

• Gums: pentosans 2 to 3%

• Fats: 1%

• Ash: mineral content of flour 0.3 to 1.5%

• Pigments: carotenoids, orange-yellow.

Types of Flour

• Bread flour

• Cake flour

• High gluten flour

• Pastry flour

Other Wheat Flours

• All purpose flour

• Durum flour

• Self rising flour

• Whole wheat flour

• Bran flour

• Cracked wheat

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 Other Flours, Meals, Starches

• Rye

• Corn

• Spelt

• Oats

• Buckwheat

• Soy

• Rice

• Starches

• Cornstarch

• Waxy maize

• Instant

Sugars

• Add sweetness and flavor.

• Create tenderness and fineness of texture.

• Give crust color.

• Increase keeping qualities.

• Act as a creaming agent with fats.

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 • Act as a foaming agent with eggs.

• Provide food for yeast.

When a sucrose solution is heated with an acid, some of the sucrose breaks
down into equal parts of two simple sugars, dextrose, and levulose. Equal
parts of dextrose and levulose is called invert sugar.

Types of Sugars

• Granulated sugars include:

• Regular granulated sugar.

• Very fine sugars called caster sugar.

• Sanding sugars (coarse sugar used for coating).

• Pearl sugar (also called sugar nibs).

• Powdered sugar or Confectioner’s sugar: ground to a fine powder and

mixed with a small amount of starch to prevent caking.

• Dehydrated fondant: a dried form of fondant icing.

• Brown sugar: contains varying amounts of caramel, molasses, and other

impurities.

• Demerara sugar: a crystalline brown sugar.

• Non-Nutritive sweeteners-sugar substitutes.

Syrups

Syrups consist of one or more types of sugar dissolved in water.

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 • Simple syrup: dissolved sucrose in water.

• Molasses: concentrated sugarcane syrup.

• Glucose Corn Syrup: manufactured from cornstarch.

• Honey.

• Malt syrup: extracted from barley.

FATS

The major function of fats in baked items are:

• To tenderize gluten.

• To add moistness and richness.

• To increase keeping quality.

• To add flavor.

• To assist in leavening when used as a creaming agent.

• To add flakiness.

• Shortenings: any of a group of solid fats, usually white and tasteless, that
are especially formulated for baking (shortens gluten strands).

• High ratio shortenings: devised for use in making cake batters that contain
a high ratio of sugar.

• High Ratio Liquid Shortenings.

• Butter: Adds flavor and melts in the mouth at body temperature.

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 • Margarine: manufactured from various animal and vegetable fats plus
flavoring, emulsifiers, and coloring.

• Oils.

• Lard: rendered fat from hogs.

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

The functions of milk in baked products are:

• The water content in milk enables gluten development.

• Adds texture.

• Adds flavor.

• Provides crust color.

• Provides keeping quality.

• Provides nutritive value.

EGGS

Funtions of eggs in baking:

• Structure

• Emulsifying fats and liquids

• Leavening

• Shortening action

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 • Moisture

• Flavor

• Color

• Nutritive value

EGG SIZES

• One whole egg = 1.67 oz. (47 g)

• One egg white = 1 oz. (28 g)

• One yolk = 0.67 oz. (19 g)

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 • 9½ whole eggs = 1 lb. (21 whole eggs = 1 kg)

• 16 whites = 1 lb. (36 whites = 1 kg)

• 24 yolks = 1 lb. (53 yolks = 1 kg)

Leavening Agents

Leavening is the production or incorporation of gases in a baked product to

increase volume and to produce shape and texture.

YEAST

• Fermentation is the process by which yeast acts on sugars and changes

them into carbon dioxide.

• Yeast is a living organism. It is sensitive to temperature.

Temperature

34°F (1°C) Inactive (storage temperature)

60°-70°F (15°-20°C) Slow action

70°-90°F (20°-32°C) Best growth (fermentation and proofing

temperatures for bread doughs)

Above 100°F (38°C) Reaction slows

140°F (60°C) Yeast is killed

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 • Fresh or compressed yeast: moist and perishable, and is preferred by
professionals. It must be refrigerated as it only lasts 2 weeks.

• Active dry yeast: a dry, granular form of yeast. It requires rehydration.

• Instant dry yeast: dry granular form of yeast but does not require
rehydration. Contains little dead yeast so produces gases much
quicker than active dry yeast.

CHEMICAL LEAVENERS

• Baking Soda (sodium bicarbonate): if moisture and an acid are present,

soda releases carbon dioxide gas.

• Baking Powder: a mixture of baking soda plus one or more acids.

• Double-acting baking powder has two acids that release gases with
moisture and heat.

• Baking ammonia: a mixture of ammonium carbonate, ammonium

bicarbonate, and ammonium carbamate.

AIR

• Air is incorporated into all doughs and batters during mixing.

• The formation of air cells is important even in products leavened by yeast

or baking powder because the air cells collect and hold the leavening
gases.

Methods of Incorporating Air

• Creaming: the process of beating fat and sugar together to incorporate air.

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 • Foaming: the process of beating eggs, with or without sugar, to
incorporate air.

Steam

• When water turns to steam, it expands to 1100 times its original volume.

• Because all baked products contain some moisture, steam is an important

leavening agent.

Gelling Agents

• Gelatin is a water-soluble protein extracted from animal connective tissue.

• Two forms available for bakeshop:

1. Powdered

2. Leaf gelatin, sheet gelatin

Using gelatin in formulas:

• Soften gelatin in water or other liquid. It absorbs 5 times its weight in

water (blooming).

• Softened gelatin is added to hot ingredients or is heated with other

ingredients until it dissolves.

• The mixture is chilled until it sets.

Pectin is a vegetable gum that can absorb a great deal of water and is used
for thickening or gelling liquids.

• Pectin is extracted from fruits and used to thicken or gel fruit preserves,
jams, and jellies.
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 • In order for pectin to gel, high sugar content and an acid are necessary.

CHOCLATE AND COCOA

Chocolate and cocoa are derived from cocoa or cacao beans. The beans are
fermented, roasted, and ground, yielding chocolate liquor, which contains
cocoa butter.

• Cocoa is the dry powder that remains after part of the cocoa butter is
removed from the
chocolate liquor.

• Dutch process cocoa is processed with an alkali to make it darker and more
easily dissolved in liquids.

• Unsweetened chocolate is straight chocolate liquor.

• Sweet chocolate is bitter chocolate with the addition of sugar and cocoa
butter.

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 • Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate to which milk solids have been added.

• Cocoa Butter is the fat pressed out of the chocolate liquor.

• White chocolate is made of cocoa butter, sugar, and milk solids.

Technically, it should not be called chocolate because it does not contain
cocoa solids.

Salt:

• Strengthens gluten structure and makes it more stretchable.

• Inhibits yeast growth.

Spices are plant or vegetable substances used to flavor foods. The

most important spices and seeds in the bakeshop are:

 Allspice

 Anise

 Caraway

 Cardamom

 Cinnamon

 cloves

 Ginger

 Mace

 Nutmeg

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  Poppy seeds

 Sesame seeds

 Zest of lemon and orange

Vanilla is the most important flavoring in the pastry shop:

• Vanilla beans

• Vanilla extract

• Extracts are flavorful oils and other substances dissolved in alcohol.

• Emulsions are flavorful oils mixed with water with the aid of emulsifiers
such as vegetable gums.

Alcohols

• Alcoholic beverages are useful flavoring ingredients in the pastry shop.

• Sweet alcohols and liqueurs (e.g., cassis, orange).

• Non-sweet alcohols (e.g., rum, cognac).

• Wines (e.g., Marsala, Madeira).

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TECHNIQUES OF
MAKING YEAST DOUGH
PRODUCTS
THIS MODULE INTRODUCES THE STUDENT TO
THE PRODUCTION OF YEASTED DOUGHS AND ITS
FAULTS. THE STUDENT WILL ALSO LEARN ABOUT
THE VARIOUS TYPES OF BREAD DOUGHS.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

*Identify the basic procedures in the production of basic kinds of yeast products.
(C1, A2)

*Identify the various mixing methods and the various steps involved in the
production of bread. (C1, A2)

*Describe the role of the various ingredients used in the bread making process.
(C1, A2)

*Evaluate and comprehend the various bread faults and their causes and their
correction.(C4, A2)

*Distinguish different types of doughs and their products. (C4, A2)

*Differentiate between Artisan breads and mass produced breads. (C4, A2)

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 Basic Bread Making Techniques
YEAST PRODUCT TYPES

• A lean dough is one that is low in fat and sugar.

• Rich doughs are those that contain higher proportions of fat, sugar, and
sometimes eggs.

• Rolled-in doughs or laminated doughs are those in which a fat is

incorporated into the dough in many layers by using a rolling and folding
procedure.

Twelve Basic Steps in Yeast Dough Production

 Scaling ingredients

 Mixing

 Bulk fermentation

 Folding or punching

 Scaling or portioning of dough

 Rounding

 Benching

 Makeup and panning

 Proofing

 Baking

 Cooling

 Storing

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 SCALING

• All ingredients must be weighed accurately.

• Water, milk, and eggs may be measured by volume.

MIXING

The three main purposes of mixing are:

• To combine all ingredients into a uniform, smooth dough.

• To distribute the yeast evenly throughout the dough.

• To develop the gluten.

• Pickup stage: Flour and other dry ingredients are hydrated or combined
with liquid ingredients.

• Cleanup stage: All the dry ingredients are hydrated and form a rough
dough.

• Development stage: The dough is further mixed and gluten is developed to

the desired degree.

Mixing Methods

• Straight Dough Method: Combine all ingredients in bowl and mix.

• Modified Straight Dough Method: The fat, sugar, eggs, and flavorings are
first blended until uniform before the dough is developed.

• Sponge/yeast starter/yeast pre-ferment: The liquid, yeast and part of the

flour are combined to form a sponge. The sponge is then punched down,

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 and the flour and remaining ingredients are added to make a uniform,
smooth dough.

BULK FERMENTATION

The process by which yeast acts on the sugars and starches in the dough to
produce carbon dioxide gas and alcohol.

• An underfermented dough is called a young dough.

• An overfermented dough is called an old dough.

FOLDING OR PUNCHING

• It expels carbon dioxide.

• It redistributes the yeast for further growth.

• It relaxes the gluten.

• It equalizes the temperature throughout the dough.

PORTIONING THE DOUGH

Using a baker’s scale, divide the dough into pieces of the same weight,
according to the formula directions.

BENCHING, BENCH PROOFING, OR INTERMEDIATE PROOFING

Dough rests for 10 to 20 minutes.

MAKE-UP AND PANNING

• The dough is shaped into loaves or rolls.

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 • Hearth breads: breads baked directly on bottom of the oven. May be
placed in floured baskets or molds after makeup.

PROOFING

• Is a continuation of the process of yeast fermentation that increases

volume of the shaped dough.

• Lean doughs are usually proofed longer.

• Rich doughs are usually underproofed.

BAKING

• Oven spring: the rapid rising in the oven due to production and expansion
of trapped gases as a result of the oven heat.

• Coagulation of proteins and gelatinization of starches.

• Formation and browning of the crust.

Oven Temperature and Baking Times

• Large units are baked at a lower temperature and for a longer time than
small rolls.

• Rich and sweet doughs are baked at a lower temperature because their fat,
sugar, and milk content make them brown faster.

• French breads made with no added sugar require a very high temperatures
to achieve the desired crust color.

• Loaves that are finished baking sound hollow when thumped and are a
golden brown.

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 Washes

• Water is used primarily for hard-crusted products.

• Starch paste is used for rye breads.

• Egg wash is used to give a shiny brown crust to soft breads and rolls.

• Commercial aerosol washes provide a quick and easy way to give shine
and help seeds adhere.

Steam

• Hard-crusted breads are baked with steam injected into the ovens during
the first part of the baking period.

• The steam keeps the crust soft during the first part of baking so the bread
can expand rapidly without cracking or breaking.

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 • Rich doughs do not form crisp crusts so they are usually baked without
steam.

STORING

• Breads to be served within 8 hours may be stored on racks.

• For longer storage, wrap cooled breads in moisture-proof bags to retard

staling.

BREAD FAULTS

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 ARTISAN BREADS

Common Characteristics:

• Handmade.

• Use of pre-ferments and sourdough or culture starters (a fermented dough

or batter used to provide leavening for a large batch of dough).

• No chemical additives or preservatives.

• Traditional production methods.

YEAST PRE FERMENTS

• Poolish: thin yeast tarter made with equal parts flour and water plus
commercial yeast.

• Biga: the Italian term for pre-ferment. It usually is a stiff pre-ferment and
made with two times the quantity of yeast as a poolish.

• Levain-levure: French term for yeast pre-ferment. (Levure means “yeast.”

Levain means “sourdough.”)

• Pâte Fermentée: a piece of fermented bread dough saved from a previous

batch.

• Mixed fermentation: a straight dough in which both a pre-ferment and a

fresh addition of yeast are used for leavening.

SOURDOUGH STARTERS

A dough or batter that contains wild yeasts and bacteria.

• It has a noticeable acidity as a result of fermentation.

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 • The wild yeasts in sourdough starters are not the same as commercial
yeasts.

Wild yeasts can tolerate and grow in higher levels of acidity

• Sourdough starters contain bacteria as well as yeast. The most important

bacteria are from the group Lactobaccilli.

• Two kinds of acid are created by bacteria, lactic acid and acetic acid.

• Artisan breads are fermented at lower temperatures.

• Sourdoughs ferment more slowly.

• Artisan breads are usually baked as “hearth breads.”

• If baked on pans, perforated pans are best.

• Steam should be injected for the first 15 minutes. Most lean hearth breads
are best baked in a hot oven, 425° to 450°F (218° to 232°C).

REFRESHING THE STARTER

• After the initial fermentation has begun, the starter must be refreshed or
fed regularly so the yeasts and bacteria are nourished and will multiply
until they are strong.

• The basic procedure is to combine a portion of the fermenting starter with

additional flour and water.

AUTOLYSE

Artisan bakers may take an extra step during mixing called autolyse.

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 • Autolyse is to first combine the flour and water and mix at low speed just
until the flour is moistened and a dough is formed. Let stand 30 minutes.

• During the autolyse, the flour hydrates fully.

LEAN YEAST DOUGHS

Crisp Crusted Bread –

Thin, crisp crusts are achieved by using formulas with little or no sugar and
fat, and by baking with steam.

Makeup Techniques –

The objective of yeast dough makeup is to shape the dough into rolls or
loaves that bake properly and have an attractive appearance.

Use of Dusting Flour

• May use light rye flour or bread flour to prevent the dough from sticking to
the bench and hands.

• Use as little dusting flour as possible.

• Excessive flour makes seams difficult to seal and shows up as streaks in

the baked product.

RICH YEAST DOUGHS

Doughs that contain a high percentage of fat and sugar.

• High percentages of fat and sugar inhibits yeast growth.

• Sponge method is used, so most of the fermentation can take place before
fat and sugar are added.
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 • Rich dough is generally underfermented.

ROLLED IN DOUGHS

• Croissant dough resembles a puff pastry dough with the addition of yeast.

• Danish dough, brioche style, is a richer dough containing eggs. It is also

referred to as brioche feuilletée, or flaky brioche.

Basic Stages in Production of Laminated Doughs

• Preparing the dough.

• Selecting and preparing the fat for lamination.

• Enclosing the fat inside the dough.

• Rolling and folding the dough to develop the proper layers.

FAT FOR LAMINATED DOUGHS

• Butter is the preferred fat because it:

• Melts at body temperature.

• Produces a better flavor and color.

• Has better eating qualities.

• Butter is more difficult to work with than specially formulated roll-in fats
because it is hard when cold and very soft when a little too warm.

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 QUICK BREADS

• Quick breads are quick to make.

• They are leavened by chemical leaveners and steam.

• Little gluten development is required.

• Mixing takes a short time.

• Soft doughs: used for biscuits (usually rolled).

• Batters: may be pour batters or drop batters.

GLUTEN DEVELOPMENT

Only slight gluten development is desired in quick breads.

• Tenderness is a desirable quality rather than the chewiness of yeast

breads.

• Tunneling is a result of over mixing muffin batter. It creates

large, elongated holes and toughness inside the muffins.

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 To make quick breads, there are three mixing methods:

• Biscuit method: used for biscuits, scones.

• Muffin method: used for muffins, pancakes.

• Creaming method: used for muffins, loaf breads, and coffee cakes.

BISCUIT MIXING METHOD

• Scale all ingredients.

• Sift the dry ingredients.

• Cut in the shortening.

• Combine the liquid ingredients.

• Add the liquid to the dry ingredients.

• Knead dough lightly.

• Make-up.

MUFFIN MIXING METHOD

• Scale all ingredients.

• Sift together the dry ingredients.

• Combine the liquid ingredients.

• Add the liquids to the dry ingredients and mix just until all the flour is
moistened.

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 • Pan and bake immediately.

CREAMING MIXING METHOD

• Combine the fat, sugar, salt, and spices in the bowl of a mixer.

• Cream until light.

• Add eggs in two or three stages.

• Stir together the dry ingredients.

• Stir together the liquid ingredients.

• Add the dry and liquid ingredients alternately into the creamed mixture.

BISCUIT MAKEUP METHOD

• Roll out dough.

• Cut into desired shapes.

• Place biscuits on greased or paper-lined baking sheets.

• Brush the tops with egg wash.

• Bake.

Muffin Makeup Method

• Grease or spray loaf pans or muffin tins.

• Paper liners may be used.

• Take care not to overstir the mix as you portion it.

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 • Bake as quickly as possible.

DOUGHNUTS, FRITTERS, WAFFLES AND PANCAKES

YEAST RAISED DOUGHNUTS

The mixing method used for yeast-raised doughnuts is the modified straight
dough method.

• Use a yeast dough that is not too rich, as it will brown too quickly and the
gluten structure will not withstand the handling involved in proofing and
frying.

• Punch the dough and bring it to the bench in sufficient time to allow make-
up.

• Watch the dough temperature. It should not go above 80°F (24°C).

• Proof the doughnuts at a lower temperature and humidity than you would
use when proofing bread.

• Handle fully proofed units carefully.

• Arrange the proofed units on screens on which they can be lowered into
the fat.

• Fry for about 2½ minutes. Turn half way through for even browning.

• Lift from frying fat and drain fat over the fryer. Set the doughnuts on
brown paper to absorb excess fat.

CAKE TYPE DOUGHNUTS

• Scale ingredients carefully.

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 • Mix the dough until smooth, but do not overmix.

• Dough temperature should be about 70°-75°F (21° to 24°C).

• Let the cut-out units rest about 15 minutes before frying in order to relax
the gluten.

• Fry at the proper temperatures, 375°-385°F (190° to 195°C), for 1 ½ to 2

minutes. Doughnuts must be turned over when half done.

Preparation and Care of Frying Fat

• Use good quality, flavorless fat with a high smoke point.

• Fry at proper temperature.

• Maintain the fat at the proper level in the fryer.

• Do not fry too many doughnuts at a time.

• Keep the fat clean.

• Discard spent fat.

• Keep the fat covered when not in use.

Finishing Doughnuts

• Roll in cinnamon sugar.

• Roll in confectioner’s sugar.

• Ice the tops with fondant or fudge icing.

• Glaze by dipping in warm doughnut glaze.

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 • After glazing, while glaze is still moist, doughnuts may be rolled in coconut
or chopped nuts.

FRITTERS

• The term fritter is used for a variety of fried items, both sweet and savory.

• Simple fritters are portions of dough that are deep fried.

• Beignet soufflé is a fried éclair paste.

• Fruit fritters are made by dipping pieces of fresh, cooked, or canned

fruit in batter and then deep-frying them.

• Cannoli are a type of fried pastry that are made from a stiff dough
that is rolled thin, cut out and fried.

AMERICAN STYLE PANCAKES AND WAFFLES

• American style pancakes and waffles are made from pourable batters
mixed by the muffin method.

• In comparing pancake and waffle formulas:

• Waffle batter contains more fat.

• Waffle batter contains less liquid.

• Whipping the egg whites separately and folding them into the batter
gives lightness.

Pancake and Waffle Advance Preparation

• Pancake and waffle batters leavened only by baking powder, and may be
mixed the night before.
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 • Batters leavened by baking soda should not be made too far ahead
because the soda will lose its power.

• Batters using beaten egg whites and baking powder may be partially made
ahead.

• Incorporate egg whites just before service.

• Crêpes are thin, unleavened pancakes.

• Crepes may be made in advance, covered, refrigerated, and used as

needed.

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UNDERSTANDING
COOKIES
THIS MODULE INTRODUCES THE STUDENT TO
THE BASIC COOKIES BASED ON THEIR MAKING
METHODS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

*Comprehend the various Characteristics of cookies and their causes. (C2, A2)

*Classify cookies based on their making methods citing examples for each type.
(C4, A2)

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 UNDERSTANDING COOKIES

CHARACTERISTICS AND CAUSES

CRISPNESS

• Low proportion of liquid in the mix.

• High sugar and fat content.

• Baking long enough to evaporate the moisture.

• Small size or thin shape.

• Proper storage.

SOFTNESS

• High proportion of liquid in the mix.

• Low sugar and fat content.

• Honey, molasses, or corn syrup in the formula.

• Underbaking.

• Large size or thick shape.

• Proper storage.

CHEWINESS

• High sugar and liquid content, low fat content.

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 • High proportion of eggs.

• Strong flour or gluten developed during mixing.

SPREAD

• High sugar content increases spread.

• High baking soda or baking ammonia increases spread.

• The creaming a mixture until light increases spread.

• Low oven temperature increases spread.

• A slack batter-one with a high liquid content- increases spread.

• Strong flour or activation of gluten decreases spread.

• Cookies spread more if baked on heavily greased pans.

• Coarser the sugar, more is the spread, hence Grain sugar = more spread
and caster sugar = less spread

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MIXING METHODS

One Stage Method

• Scale ingredients accurately.

• Place all ingredients in the mixer and mix until uniformly blended.

Creaming Method

• Scale ingredients accurately.

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 • Cream together at low speed the fat, sugar, salt, and spices.

• Add eggs and liquid.

• Sift in the flour and leavening. Mix until combined.

• DO NOT OVERMIX.

Sponge Method

• Scale ingredients accurately.

• Whip the eggs and the sugar to the proper stage indicated in the formula
used.

• Fold in the remaining ingredients as specified in the formula.

Bagged or Pressed Cookies: made from a soft dough.

• Fit a pastry bag with a tip of the desired size and shape.

• Fill with cookie dough.

• Press out cookies of desired shape onto prepared sheet pans.

Dropped: made from a soft dough.

• Select the proper size scoop for accurate portioning

• Drop the cookies onto prepared sheet pans.

• Allow enough space for spreading.

• If the formula requires it, flatten the dough with a weight dipped in sugar.

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Rolled

• Chill dough thoroughly.

• Rollout dough 1/8 inch (3 mm) thick on a floured canvas.

• Cut out cookies with cookie cutters. Place cookies on prepared sheet pans.

• Some décor may be applied before baking.

• After baking, decorate with desired icing, sugars, etc.

Molded

• Chill dough thoroughly. Roll it out into long cylinders about 1 inch thick, or
whatever size is required.

• With a knife or bench scraper, cut into ½ ounce (15 g) pieces or desired
size.

• Place cookies on prepared sheet pans.

• Flatten cookies with a weight.

• Alternative method: After step 2, shape the dough by hand into desired
shapes.

Icebox

• Scale the dough into pieces of uniform sizes.

• Form the dough into cylinders.

• Wrap the cylinders in parchment or wax paper.

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 • Chill overnight.

• Unwrap the dough and cut into slices of uniform thickness.

• Place cookies on prepared sheet pans.

Bar

• Scale the dough into 1¾ lb (450 g) units.

• Form the dough into cylinders the length of the sheet pans.

• Place three strips on each greased pan.

• Flatten the dough with the fingers into strips 3-4 inches (8-10 cm) wide
and ¼ inch (6 mm) thick.

• If required, brush with egg wash.

• Bake as directed.

• While cookies are still warm, cut each strip into bars
about 1 ¾ inches wide.

• In some cases, such as biscotti (twice baked) the strips

are baked a second time until dry and crisp.

Sheet

• Spread cookie mixture into prepared sheet pans.

• If required add topping or brush with egg wash.

• Bake as directed

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Stencil

• Line a sheet pan with a silicone mat.

• Use a ready made stencil.

• Place the stencil on silicone mat or parchment.

• Spread the batter across the stencil to make a thin layer that fills the hole.

Panning, Baking, and Cooling

Preparing the Pans

• Use clean, unwarped pans.

• Line sheets with parchment or silicone.

• Heavily greased pan increases the spread of cookie.

• Some high fat cookies may be baked on ungreased pans.

Baking

• Most cookies baked at high temperature for short time.

• Too low temperature increases spreading.

• Too high temperature may burn the edges.

• Over baking one minute can burn cookies.

• Doneness is indicated by color.

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 • Rich doughs may have burned bottoms easily. Double pan the cookies to
eliminate this problem.

Cooling

• Remove cookies from pan while warm.

• If very soft, remove from pan when cool enough and firm enough to
handle.

• Do not cool cookies in cold drafts.

• Cool completely before storing.

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