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Pure Math – Complex Numbers

Definition
Complex Set:
 The set ℂ is defined to be the set of all complex numbers:
ℂ = { a+bi: a, bℝ  i 2 = –1 }
 Any two complex numbers z1 = a1+b1i and z2 = a2+b2i are equal iff a1=a2  b1=b2
 A complex number z=a+bi is said to be purely imaginary iff a=0  b0
 Let z=a+bi be a complex number,
 Function Re(z) returns the real part of z, i.e. Re(z) = a
 Function Im(z) returns the imaginary part of z, i.e. Im(z) = b
 Complex number: z = Re(z) + Im(z) i

Conjugate & Modulus:

 Conjugate of a complex number is defined as: z  Re( z )  Im( z ) i
 Re( z )  Re( z ) ; Im( z )   Im( z )
 z1  z 2  z1  z 2
 z1 z 2  z1  z 2
z  z
  1   1
 
 z2  z2  
 Modulus of a complex number is defined as: | z | (Re z ) 2  (Im z ) 2
 | z | 2  zz  (Re z ) 2  (Im z ) 2
 | z1 z 2 || z1 | | z 2 |
z1 z
  1
z2 z2
 | z1  z 2 |  | z1 |  | z 2 |

Complex Arithmetic
Real multiplication:
 :ℝℂℂ
 zℂ kℝ kz = kRe(z) + kIm(z) i
 Negative complex number is defined as: –z = (–1)z

Addition operation:
 +:ℂℂℂ
 z1, z2ℂ z1 + z2 = Re(z1)+Re(z2) + [Im(z1)+Im(z2)] i
 Properties of addition:
 z 1 + z2 = z2 + z1
 z1 + (z2 + z3) = (z1 + z2) + z3
z+0=0+z=z
 z + (–z) = 0
 Subtraction is defined as: z1 – z2 = z1 + (–z2)

Multiplication & division operation:

 :ℂℂℂ
 :ℂℂℂ
 z1, z2ℂ z1  z2 = z1z2 = [Re(z1)Re(z2)–Im(z1)Im(z2)] + [Re(z1)Im(z2)+Re(z2)Im(z1)] i
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z1  Re z1 Re z 2  Im z1 Im z 2   Im z1 Re z 2  Im z 2 Re z1 
 z1, z2ℂ   i
z 2  (Re z ) 2  (Im z ) 2   (Re z ) 2  (Im z ) 2 
 2 2   2 2 
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Polar Form Representation

Polar form: z=a+bi
 z = a + bi : Standard form1
representation of a complex number b

imaginary
 When z is presented on the Argand diagram2, it is a point with real coordinate a r
and imaginary coordinate b
 z is a position vector where length = r and makes an angle  w/real axis 
O real a
 a  r cos
b  r sin 
 Polar form3 of complex number: z = r(cos + isin)
 Argument4 has the principle value: – <   
b a b
 Arg(z) =   sin 1  cos 1  tan 1
|z| |z| a
 r = | z | = Modulus5 of z
 When z1 = r1 (cos1+ isin1) and z2 = r2 (cos2+ isin2),
 z1z2 = r1r2[cos(1+2) + isin(1+2)]
n n
 n n

 By induction,  z k   rk cos( k )  i sin( k )
k 1 k 1  k 1 k 1 
z r
 1  1 [cos( 1   2 )  i sin( 1   2 )]
z 2 r2
 Arg(z1z2) = Arg(z1) + Arg(z2) + 2n nℕ
z
 Arg( 1 )  Arg( z1 )  Arg( z 2 )  2n nℕ
z2

Exponential form:
 exp : ℂ  ℂ
 exp(z) = ez = ea+bi = ea eib

xk 
 x 2 k 1  
 k x
2k

 By Taylor’s theorem, e   x
; sin x    (1)
 k

 ; cos x    (1)
 
k  0 k! k 0  (2k  1)!  k 0  (2k )! 

(i ) k  2 i 3  4 i 5 2 4 3 5
 e i   1  i        (1     )  (     )i
k 0 k! 2! 3! 4! 5! 2! 4! 3! 5!

 x 2 k 1    x 2k 
 e i    (1) k     (1) k  i  cos  i sin 
k 0  (2k  1)!  k 0  (2k )! 
 cos + i sin = ei
 r (cos + i sin) = rei = rexp(i)
 e i  z  cos  i sin   cos( )  i sin(  )  e i (  )

Some important formulae:

 Re(z1 + z2) = Re(z1) + Re(z2)
 Re(z1z2)  | z1z2 |
 Re(z)  | z |; Im(z)  | z |
 Re( z )  1 ( z  z ) ; Im( z )  1 ( z  z )  i ( z  z )
2 2i 2
 (z)  z
 | z |  | z |; Arg ( z )   Arg ( z )
 zz  zℝ
 | zn | = | z |n; ( z n )  ( z ) n

1 Standard form = Rectangular form = Algebraic form

2 Argand diagram = Argand plane = Complex plane
3 Polar form = Trigonometric form
4 Argument = Amplitude
5 Modulus = Absolute value
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Geometric representation of Complex Numbers

Argand Diagram: Im z1+z2
 Any complex number in Argand diagram is a vector in ℝ2 z2
 A complex number z = a + bi can be represented by row vector
z = [a b]
z1
 Addition: [a1 b1] + [a2 b2] = [a1+a2 b1+b2] O Re
 Triangle inequality: | z1 + z2 |  | z1 | + | z2 |
 | | z1 | – | z2 | |  | z1 + z2 |
 | | z1 | – | z2 | |  | z1 – z2 | z1–z2

iz Im
 Multiplication: Arg(z1z2) = Arg(z1) + Arg(z2); | z1 z 2 || z1 | | z 2 | z
 Multiply i to z rotate it for 90° counterclockwise in the Argand diagram
Re

z1 z1 z Im
 Division: Arg( )  Arg( z1 )  Arg( z 2 ) ;  1 –z
z –iz
z2 z2 z2
1 Re
 If | z | = 1, is the reflection of z about the real axis
z
1/z

Angle btw Complex Numbers: Im z1

 Let complex numbers z1, z2, z3, z4 on the Argand diagram z2
z z
 The angle  between vectors z1z3 and z2z4 is:   Arg( 1 3 )  Re
z4  z2
z z  z z z3 z4
 If z1z3  z2z4, Arg( 1 3 )   or 1 3 is pure imaginary
z4  z2 2 z4  z2
 z z   z1  z3   z1  z3  z1  z3
 Re 1 3   0 
or      0 or  ki kℝ
 z4  z2   z4  z2   z4  z2  z4  z2
z z z z
 If z1z3 // z2z4, Arg( 1 3 )  0 or , i.e. 1 3 is real
z4  z2 z4  z2
 z z   z1  z3   z1  z3 
z1  z3
 Im 1 3   0 or      ℝor
 z4  z2  z4  z2
 z4  z2   z4  z2 
z z
 Complex numbers z1, z2, z3 are collinear on the Argand diagram iff 3 1 ℝ
z3  z 2
 z1, z2, z3 are collinear iff z3z1 // z3z2 Im

 Alternatively, 1, 2, 3ℝ s.t. 1+2+3=0  1z1+2z2+3z3=0 z1

z2
 Re
 If complex numbers z1, z2, z3, z4 are concyclic, 
z z z z
 1  Arg( 1 4 ) and  2  Arg( 2 4 ) are equal z4
z1  z3 z 2  z3 z3
 ( z  z )( z  z )  ( z1  z 4 )( z 2  z3 )
 Arg 1 4 2 3   0 or is a non-zero real no. Im
 ( z1  z3 )( z 2  z 4 )  ( z1  z3 )( z 2  z 4 ) z1
z z z z
 On the other hand, Arg( 1 4 )  Arg( 3 2 )   z2 
z1  z 2 z3  z 4 Re
( z1  z 4 )( z3  z 2 )  ( z  z )( z  z )  
 ℝ or Arg 1 4 3 2   0
( z1  z 2 )( z3  z 4 ) ( z  z )(
 1 2 3 4  z  z ) z3 z4
( z  z )( z  z )
 Conversely, if 1 4 3 2 ℝ, z1, z2, z3, z4 are either concyclic or collinear
( z1  z 2 )( z3  z 4 )
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Transformation:
 Complex-valued function is a function whose range is the set ℂ
 f: ℂ  ℂ
 Let a fixed complex number z on the Argand diagram,
 f(z) = z + a will do translation to z
 f(z) = bz will do enlargement to z
 | f(z) | = | b || z |
 Arg f(z) = Arg b + Arg z
1
 f ( z)  will do reflection about real axis
z
 f(z) = z +  will do linear transformation to z
z  
 f ( z)  will do bilinear transformation to z
z  

Locus
Straight line: Im
 A point z1 is on line  and a vector z0 is parallel to 

 Equation of : z = z1 + kz0 zℝ z1
 Parametric form equation z2
 Line  joining pts z1 and z2, : z = z1 + k(z1–z2)
Re
 After transformation, the equation z = z1 + kz0 would becomes O
z0
(iz0 )z  (iz0 ) z  2 Im( z1 z0 )  0
 General form of a straight line:  z   z  n  0 ℂ, nℝ
 Straight line Ax + By + C = 0 on Cartesian plane transformed to complex form would become:
A B  A B 
  i z    i z  C  0
2 2  2 2 

Circle: Im
 General form: | z – z0 | = r or | z – z0 = |2 r2
z0
 Center: z0
r
 Radius: r
 A circle x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 on Cartesian plane transformed to
complex form would become: Re
O
2
D E  1
z    i   (D 2  E 2  4F )
2 2  4

De Moivre’s Theorem
De Moivre’s Theorem:
 If z = r(cos + i sin = rei,
zn = rn ei(n = rn(cos n + i sin n) nℝ
 When applying the De Moivre’s Theorem,
1
 z  z 1 
z
 zz | z |2  1 if z = ei
 z n z n | z n |2  1 if z = ei
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Application in Trigonometry:
 Let z = cos + i sin = ei
n n
1 1  n  z nk 1  1
 cos n   [Re( z )]n  n ( z  z ) n  n
2 2
 k 
k 0   z k 2n
  kn  z
k 0
n2k

n 1
1  n  cos(n  2r )
2

n 1   k 
 When n is odd, cos n  
2 k 0  
n2
1 2 1 n
 When n is even, cos   n 1   n  cos(n  2r )  n  n 
n

2 k 0  k  2 2
 n  z n  k (1)  1
n k n
1 1
 sin n   [Im( z )]n 
(2i ) n
( z  z )n 
(2i ) n
  k
k 0  

zk (2i ) n
  kn (1)
k 0
k
z n2k
n 1 n 1
(1)
  kn (1)
2 2

 When n is odd, sin n   k

sin( n  2r )
2 n 1 k 0
n2 n2
(1) 2 1 n
  kn (1)
2

 When n is even, sin   n 1 n k

sin( n  2r )  n
2 k 0 2n  2 
n
 z n  (cos  i sin  ) n  cos n  i sin n    n  cos k  (i sin  ) n  k
k 0  
k
2 
n

 cos n  Re( z n )    n (1) k cos n  2 k  sin k 

k 0  
k
 n2 1 n  n  k 1 2 k  2
 [ 2 ]  k  32  (1) 2 n2
 When n is odd, cos n   
n  2 k  2[ n2 ] 2
 (cos )
k 1 
2k  2  2k  1
 2 1 n
n  n  k 1 2 k  4
 [ 2 ]  k  2  (1) 2 n2
 
n  2[ n2 ] n  2 k  2[ n2 ] 2
 When n is even, cos n  [ 2 ] cos n
 (cos )
k 2 
2k  3  k 1
2
n 1

 sin n  Im( z n )    n (1) k cos n  2 k 1  sin 2 k 1 

k 0 
2k  1
 n21   n21 
 n (1) k cos n  2 k 1  sin 2 k 1   n (1) k tan 2 k 1 

sin n k 0 
 2 k  1


k 0 
 2k  1

 tan n    n  n 
cos n 2
 n (1) k cos n  2 k  sin k 
2
 n (1) k tan 2 k 
 k 
k 0  
  2k 
k 0  

nth Root of a Complex Number:

 Any complex number z = r(cos + i sin has exactly n distinct nth roots
 If n = z = r(cos + i sin
   2k   2k 
  n r  cos  i sin  k = 0, 1, 2, …, (n–1); r  0
 n n 
   2k 
   n r exp 
 n 
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Factorization
Roots of Unity:
 1 = cos 0 + i sin 0 = ei0 = ei(2k) kℤ
  2k   2k
 Since n = cos + i sin    cos  i sin 
n n
 2 
i 
 If let   e  n 
, n 1 are k k = 0, 1, 2, …, (n–1)
 2 k 
i 
 e  n 
k = 0, 1, 2, …, (n–1)
 n roots of unity
th

 Properties of nth roots of unity:

 2 k  n 1 n 1
i 
 If z k    e  n 
,  z k   k  0
k 0 k 0
1
 If zn = Z, z  Z k k = 0, 1, 2, …, (n–1)
n

 a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b2)

 a3 – b3 = (a – b)(a – b)(a – b2)
 a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca = (a + b + c2)(a + b2 + c)
 a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c)(a + b + c2)(a + b2 + c)

Factorization:
n 1
 z n 1  
k 0
(z  e ) 2 k
n
i

n 1
  2k   2

 If n is even, z  1  ( z  1)( z  1)  z 2  2 z cos

n
  1
k 0   n  
n
  2k   2

 If n is odd, z  1  ( z  1)  z 2  2 z cos

n
  1
k 1   n  
n 1
 z 1  
n

k 0
(z  e ( 2 k 1) 
n
i
)
n 1
  (2k  1)  
2

 If n is even, z  1    z 2  2 z cos
n
  1
k 0   n  
[ n2 ]1
  (2k  1)  
 If n is odd, z  1  ( z  1)   z 2  2 z cos
n
  1
k 0   n  
n 1
  2k  2 
 z 2 n  2a n z n cos n  a 2 n    z 2  2az cos  a 
k 0   n  
 aℝ
 nℕ