Fertilizer

A fertilizer (American English) or fertiliser (British English; see spelling

differences) is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil
or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from
liming materials or other non-nutrient soil amendments. Many sources of
fertilizer exist, both natural and industrially produced.[1] For most modern
agricultural practices, fertilization focuses on three main macro nutrients:
Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K) with occasional addition of
supplements like rock dust for micronutrients. Farmers apply these fertilizers
in a variety of ways: through dry or pelletized or liquid application processes,
using large agricultural equipment or hand-tool methods.

Historically fertilization came from natural or organic sources: compost, A large, modern fertilizer spreader
animal manure, human manure, harvested minerals, crop rotations and
byproducts of human-nature industries (i.e. fish processing waste, or
bloodmeal from animal slaughter). However, starting in the 19th century, after
innovations in plant nutrition, an agricultural industry developed around
synthetically created fertilizers. This transition was important in transforming
the global food system, allowing for larger-scale industrial agriculture with
large crop yields. In particular nitrogen-fixing chemical processes such as the
Haber process at the beginning of the 20th century, amplified by production
capacity created during World War II led to a boom in using nitrogen
fertilizers. In the later half of the 20th century, increased use of nitrogen
fertilizers (800% increase between 1961 and 2019) have been a crucial
component of the increased productivity of conventional food systems (more A Lite-Trac Agri-Spread lime and
than 30% per capita) as part of the so-called "Green Revolution".[2] fertilizer spreader at an agricultural
show

Contents
History
Mechanism
Microbiological considerations
Classification
Single nutrient ("straight") fertilizers
Multinutrient fertilizers
Micronutrients
Environment
Production
Nitrogen fertilizers
Phosphate fertilizers
Potassium fertilizers
NPK fertilizers
Organic fertilizers
Application
Liquid vs solid
Slow- and controlled-release fertilizers
 Foliar application
Chemicals that affect nitrogen uptake
Overfertilization
Statistics
Environmental effects
Water
Soil
Energy consumption and sustainability
Atmosphere
Policy
Regulation
See also
References
External links

History
Management of soil fertility has preoccupied farmers for
thousands of years. Egyptians, Romans, Babylonians,
and early Germans are all recorded as using minerals or
manure to enhance the productivity of their farms.[1] The
science of plant nutrition started well before the work of
German chemist Justus von Liebig although his name is
most mentioned. Nicolas Théodore de Saussure and
scientific colleagues at the time were quick to disprove
the simplications of Justus von Liebig. There was a
complex scientific understanding of plant nutrition,
where the role of humus and organo-mineral interactions
were central, and which was in line with more recent
discoveries from 1990 onwards.[5] Prominent scientists
on whom Justus von Liebig drew were Carl Ludwig Total fertilizer production by type.[3]
Sprenger and Hermann Hellriegel. In this field, a
'knowledge erosion'[6] took place, partly driven by an
intermingling of economics and research.[7] John Bennet
Lawes, an English entrepreneur, began to experiment on
the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots
in 1837, and a year or two later the experiments were
extended to crops in the field. One immediate
consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure
formed by treating phosphates with sulfuric acid, and
thus was the first to create the artificial manure industry.
In the succeeding year he enlisted the services of Joseph
Henry Gilbert; together they performed crop experiments
at the Institute of Arable Crops Research.[8]

The Birkeland–Eyde process was one of the competing

industrial processes in the beginning of nitrogen-based World population supported with and without synthetic
fertilizer production.[9] This process was used to fix nitrogen fertilizers.[4]
atmospheric nitrogen (N2 ) into nitric acid (HNO3 ), one
of several chemical processes generally referred to as
nitrogen fixation. The resultant nitric acid was then used as a source of nitrate
(NO3 −). A factory based on the process was built in Rjukan and Notodden in
Norway, combined with the building of large hydroelectric power
facilities.[10]

The 1910s and 1920s witnessed the rise of the Haber process and the
Ostwald process. The Haber process produces ammonia (NH3 ) from
methane (CH4 ) (natural gas) gas and molecular nitrogen (N2 ) from the air. Founded in 1812, Mirat, producer of
The ammonia from the Haber process is then patially converted into nitric manures and fertilizers, is claimed to
acid (HNO3 ) in the Ostwald process.[11] After World War II, Nitrogen be the oldest industrial business in
production plants that had ramped up for war-time bomb manufacturing were Salamanca (Spain).
pivoted towards agriculture uses.[12] The use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers
has increased steadily in the last 50 years, rising almost 20-fold to the current
rate of 100 million tonnes of nitrogen per year.[13]

The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global population growth — it has been
estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.[14]
The use of phosphate fertilizers has also increased from 9 million tonnes per year in 1960 to 40 million tonnes per
year in 2000. A maize crop yielding 6–9 tonnes of grain per hectare (2.5 acres) requires 31–50 kilograms (68–110 lb)
of phosphate fertilizer to be applied; soybean crops require about half, as 20–25 kg per hectare.[15] Yara International
is the world's largest producer of nitrogen-based fertilizers.[16]

Mechanism
Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants. This goal is met in
two ways, the traditional one being additives that provide
nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilizers act is to
enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water
retention and aeration. This article, like many on fertilizers,
emphasises the nutritional aspect.
Fertilizers typically provide, Six tomato plants grown with and without nitrate
in varying proportions:[18] fertilizer on nutrient-poor sand/clay soil. One of the
plants in the nutrient-poor soil has died.
three main macronutrients:
Nitrogen (N): leaf growth
Phosphorus (P): Development of roots, flowers, seeds, fruit;
Potassium (K): Strong stem growth, movement of water in
plants, promotion of flowering and fruiting;
three secondary macronutrients: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg),
and sulfur (S);
micronutrients: copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn),
molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), boron (B). Of occasional
significance are silicon (Si), cobalt (Co), and vanadium (V).

The nutrients required for healthy plant life are classified according to the Inorganic fertilizer use by region[17]
elements, but the elements are not used as fertilizers. Instead compounds
containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers. The macro-nutrients are
consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (DM)
(0% moisture) basis. Plants are made up of four main elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide. Although nitrogen makes up most of the
atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is
present in proteins, DNA and other components (e.g., chlorophyll). To be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made
available in a "fixed" form. Only some bacteria and their host plants (notably legumes) can fix atmospheric nitrogen
(N2 ) by converting it to ammonia. Phosphate is required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier
in cells, as well as certain lipids.
Microbiological considerations

Two sets of enzymatic reactions are highly relevant to the efficiency of nitrogen-based fertilizers.

Urease

The first is the hydrolysis (reaction with water) of urea. Many soil bacteria possess the enzyme urease, which
catalyzes conversion of urea to ammonium ion (NH4 +) and bicarbonate ion (HCO3 −).

Ammonia oxidation

Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), such as species of Nitrosomonas, oxidize ammonia to nitrite, a process termed
nitrification.[19] Nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, especially Nitrobacter, oxidize nitrite to nitrate, which is extremely mobile
and is a major cause of eutrophication.

Classification
Fertilizers are classified in several ways. They are classified according to whether they provide a single nutrient (e.g.,
K, P, or N), in which case they are classified as "straight fertilizers." "Multinutrient fertilizers" (or "complex
fertilizers") provide two or more nutrients, for example N and P. Fertilizers are also sometimes classified as inorganic
(the topic of most of this article) versus organic. Inorganic fertilizers exclude carbon-containing materials except
ureas. Organic fertilizers are usually (recycled) plant- or animal-derived matter. Inorganic are sometimes called
synthetic fertilizers since various chemical treatments are required for their manufacture.[20]

Single nutrient ("straight") fertilizers

The main nitrogen-based straight fertilizer is ammonia or its solutions. Ammonium nitrate (NH4 NO3 ) is also widely
used. Urea is another popular source of nitrogen, having the advantage that it is solid and non-explosive, unlike
ammonia and ammonium nitrate, respectively. A few percent of the nitrogen fertilizer market (4% in 2007)[21] has
been met by calcium ammonium nitrate (Ca(NO3 )2 · NH4 · 10 H2 O).

The main straight phosphate fertilizers are the superphosphates. "Single superphosphate" (SSP) consists of 14–18%
P2 O5 , again in the form of Ca(H2 PO4 )2 , but also phosphogypsum (CaSO4 · 2 H2 O). Triple superphosphate (TSP)
typically consists of 44–48% of P2 O5 and no gypsum. A mixture of single superphosphate and triple superphosphate
is called double superphosphate. More than 90% of a typical superphosphate fertilizer is water-soluble.

The main potassium-based straight fertilizer is muriate of potash (MOP). Muriate of potash consists of 95–99% KCl,
and is typically available as 0-0-60 or 0-0-62 fertilizer.

Multinutrient fertilizers

These fertilizers are common. They consist of two or more nutrient components.

Binary (NP, NK, PK) fertilizers

Major two-component fertilizers provide both nitrogen and phosphorus to the plants. These are called NP fertilizers.
The main NP fertilizers are monoammonium phosphate (MAP) and diammonium phosphate (DAP). The active
ingredient in MAP is NH4 H2 PO4 . The active ingredient in DAP is (NH4 )2 HPO4 . About 85% of MAP and DAP
fertilizers are soluble in water.

NPK fertilizers

NPK fertilizers are three-component fertilizers providing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. There exist two types
of NPK fertilizers: compound and blends. Compound NPK fertilizers contain chemically bound ingredients, while
blended NPK fertilizers are physical mixtures of single nutrient components.
NPK rating is a rating system describing the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in a fertilizer. NPK
ratings consist of three numbers separated by dashes (e.g., 10-10-10 or 16-4-8) describing the chemical content of
fertilizers.[22][23] The first number represents the percentage of nitrogen in the product; the second number, P2 O5 ; the
third, K2 O. Fertilizers do not actually contain P2 O5 or K2 O, but the system is a conventional shorthand for the
amount of the phosphorus (P) or potassium (K) in a fertilizer. A 50-pound (23  kg) bag of fertilizer labeled 16-4-8
contains 8 lb (3.6 kg) of nitrogen (16% of the 50 pounds), an amount of phosphorus equivalent to that in 2 pounds of
P2 O5 (4% of 50 pounds), and 4 pounds of K2 O (8% of 50 pounds). Most fertilizers are labeled according to this N-
P-K convention, although Australian convention, following an N-P-K-S system, adds a fourth number for sulfur, and
uses elemental values for all values including P and K.[24]

Micronutrients

Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts-per-million
(ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm or less than 0.04% dry matter.[25][26] These elements are often required for
enzymes essential to the plant's metabolism. Because these elements enable catalysts (enzymes), their impact far
exceeds their weight percentage. Typical micronutrients are boron, zinc, molybdenum, iron, and manganese.[18]
These elements are provided as water-soluble salts. Iron presents special problems because it converts to insoluble
(bio-unavailable) compounds at moderate soil pH and phosphate concentrations. For this reason, iron is often
administered as a chelate complex, e.g., the EDTA or EDDHA derivatives. The micronutrient needs depend on the
plant and the environment. For example, sugar beets appear to require boron, and legumes require cobalt,[1] while
environmental conditions such as heat or drought make boron less available for plants.[27]

Environment
Synthetic fertilizer used in agriculture has wide-reaching environmental consequences. According to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on Climate Change and Land, production of
these fertilizers and associated land use practices are drivers of global warming.[2] The use of fertilizer has also led to
a number of direct environmental consequences: agricultural runoff which leads to downstream effects like ocean
dead zones and waterway contamination, soil microbiome degradation,[28] and accumulation of toxins in ecosystems.
Indirect environmental impacts include: the environmental impacts of fracking for natural gas used in the Haber
process, the agricultural boom is partially responsible for the rapid growth in human population and large-scale
industrial agricultural practices are associated with habitat destruction, pressure on biodiversity and agricultural soil
loss.

In order to mitigate environmental and food security concerns, the international community has included food systems
in Sustainable Development Goal 2 which focuses on creating a climate-friendly and sustainable food production
system.[29] Most policy and regulatory approaches to address these issues focus on pivoting agricultural practices
towards sustainable or regenerative agricultural practices: these use less synthetic fertilizers, better soil management
(for example no-till agriculture) and more organic fertilizers.

Production

Nitrogen fertilizers

Nitrogen fertilizers are made from ammonia (NH3 ) produced by the Haber-Bosch process.[21] In this energy-
intensive process, natural gas (CH4 ) usually supplies the hydrogen, and the nitrogen (N2 ) is derived from the air. This
ammonia is used as a feedstock for all other nitrogen fertilizers, such as anhydrous ammonium nitrate (NH4 NO3 ) and
urea (CO(NH2 )2 ).
 Deposits of sodium nitrate
(NaNO3 ) (Chilean saltpeter) are Top users of nitrogen-based fertilizer[30]

also found in the Atacama desert Amt. used for

in Chile and was one of the Total N use feed/pasture
Country (Mt pa) (Mt pa)
original (1830) nitrogen-rich
fertilizers used.[32] It is still China 18.7 3.0
mined for fertilizer.[33] Nitrates India 11.9 N/A[31]
are also produced from ammonia
U.S. 9.1 4.7
by the Ostwald process.
Total nitrogenous fertilizer
France 2.5 1.3
consumption per region, measured in
tonnes of total nutrient per year. Germany 2.0 1.2
Phosphate fertilizers
Brazil 1.7 0.7
Phosphate fertilizers are obtained Canada 1.6 0.9
by extraction from phosphate
Turkey 1.5 0.3
rock, which contains two
principal phosphorus-containing UK 1.3 0.9
minerals, fluorapatite Mexico 1.3 0.3
Ca5 (PO4 )3 F (CFA) and
Spain 1.2 0.5
hydroxyapatite Ca5 (PO4 )3 OH.
These minerals are converted Argentina 0.4 0.1
An apatite mine in Siilinjärvi, Finland.
into water-soluble phosphate
salts by treatment with sulfuric (H2 SO4 ) or phosphoric acids (H3 PO4 ). The
large production of sulfuric acid is primarily motivated by this application.[34] In the nitrophosphate process or Odda
process (invented in 1927), phosphate rock with up to a 20% phosphorus (P) content is dissolved with nitric acid
(HNO3 ) to produce a mixture of phosphoric acid (H3 PO4 ) and calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3 )2 ). This mixture can be
combined with a potassium fertilizer to produce a compound fertilizer with the three macronutrients N, P and K in
easily dissolved form.[35]

Potassium fertilizers

Potash is a mixture of potassium minerals used to make potassium (chemical symbol: K) fertilizers. Potash is soluble
in water, so the main effort in producing this nutrient from the ore involves some purification steps; e.g., to remove
sodium chloride (NaCl) (common salt). Sometimes potash is referred to as K2 O, as a matter of convenience to those
describing the potassium content. In fact, potash fertilizers are usually potassium chloride, potassium sulfate,
potassium carbonate, or potassium nitrate.[36]

NPK fertilizers

There are four major routes for manufacturing NPK fertilizers: 1) steam granulation, 2) chemical granulation, 3)
compaction, 4) bulk blending. The first three processes are used to produce compound NPKs. During steam
granulation raw materials are mixed and further granulated using steam as binding agent. Chemical granulation
process is based on chemical reactions between liquid raw materials (such as phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid,
ammonia) and solid raw materials (such as potassium chloride, recycle material). Compaction implements high
pressure to agglomerate dry powder materials. Lastly, bulk blends are produced by mixing straight fertilizers.

Organic fertilizers

“Organic fertilizers" can describe those fertilizers with an organic – biologic – origin—that is, fertilizers derived from
living or formerly living materials. Organic fertilizers can also describe commercially available and frequently
packaged products that strive to follow the expectations and restrictions adopted by “organic agriculture” and
”environmentally friendly" gardening – related systems of food and plant production that significantly limit or strictly
avoid the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. The "organic fertilizer" products typically contain both some
organic materials as well as acceptable additives such as nutritive rock
powders, ground sea shells (crab, oyster, etc.), other prepared products such
as seed meal or kelp, and cultivated microorganisms and derivatives.

Fertilizers of an organic origin (the first definition) include animal wastes,

plant wastes from agriculture, seaweed, compost, and treated sewage sludge
(biosolids). Beyond manures, animal sources can include products from the
slaughter of animals – bloodmeal, bone meal, feather meal, hides, hoofs, and
horns all are typical components.[18] Organically derived materials available
to industry such as sewage sludge may not be acceptable components of Compost bin for small-scale
organic farming and gardening, because of factors ranging from residual production of organic fertilizer
contaminants to public perception. On the other hand, marketed "organic
fertilizers" may include, and promote, processed organics because the
materials have consumer appeal. No matter the definition nor composition,
most of these products contain less-concentrated nutrients, and the nutrients
are not as easily quantified. They can offer soil-building advantages as well
as be appealing to those who are trying to farm / garden more "naturally".[37]

In terms of volume, peat is the most widely used packaged organic soil
amendment. It is an immature form of coal and improves the soil by aeration
and absorbing water but confers no nutritional value to the plants. It is
therefore not a fertilizer as defined in the beginning of the article, but rather
an amendment. Coir, (derived from coconut husks), bark, and sawdust when A large commercial compost
added to soil all act similarly (but not identically) to peat and are also operation
considered organic soil amendments – or texturizers – because of their limited
nutritive inputs. Some organic additives can have a reverse effect on nutrients
– fresh sawdust can consume soil nutrients as it breaks down, and may lower soil pH – but these same organic
texturizers (as well as compost, etc.) may increase the availability of nutrients through improved cation exchange, or
through increased growth of microorganisms that in turn increase availability of certain plant nutrients. Organic
fertilizers such as composts and manures may be distributed locally without going into industry production, making
actual consumption more difficult to quantify.

Application
Fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates
depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a soil test and
according to the particular crop. Legumes, for example, fix nitrogen from the
atmosphere and generally do not require nitrogen fertilizer.

Liquid vs solid

Fertilizers are applied to crops both as solids and as liquid. About 90% of
Applying superphosphate fertilizer by
fertilizers are applied as solids. The most widely used solid inorganic
hand, New Zealand, 1938
fertilizers are urea, diammonium phosphate and potassium chloride.[38] Solid
fertilizer is typically granulated or powdered. Often solids are available as
prills, a solid globule. Liquid fertilizers comprise anhydrous ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonia, aqueous
solutions of ammonium nitrate or urea. These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated
liquid fertilizer (e.g., UAN). Advantages of liquid fertilizer are its more rapid effect and easier coverage.[18] The
addition of fertilizer to irrigation water is called "fertigation".[36]

Urea

Urea is highly soluble in water and is therefore also very suitable for use in fertilizer solutions (in combination with
ammonium nitrate: UAN), e.g., in 'foliar feed' fertilizers. For fertilizer use, granules are preferred over prills because
of their narrower particle size distribution, which is an advantage for mechanical application.
Urea is usually spread at rates of between 40 and 300 kg/ha (35 to 270 lbs/acre) but rates vary. Smaller applications
incur lower losses due to leaching. During summer, urea is often spread just before or during rain to minimize losses
from volatilization (a process wherein nitrogen is lost to the atmosphere as ammonia gas).

Because of the high nitrogen concentration in urea, it is very important to achieve an even spread. Drilling must not
occur on contact with or close to seed, due to the risk of germination damage. Urea dissolves in water for application
as a spray or through irrigation systems.

In grain and cotton crops, urea is often applied at the time of the last cultivation before planting. In high rainfall areas
and on sandy soils (where nitrogen can be lost through leaching) and where good in-season rainfall is expected, urea
can be side- or top-dressed during the growing season. Top-dressing is also popular on pasture and forage crops. In
cultivating sugarcane, urea is side-dressed after planting, and applied to each ratoon crop.

Because it absorbs moisture from the atmosphere, urea is often stored in closed containers.

Overdose or placing urea near seed is harmful.[39]

Slow- and controlled-release fertilizers

A controlled-release fertiliser (CRF) is a granulated fertiliser that releases
nutrients gradually into the soil (i.e., with a controlled release period).[41]
Controlled-release fertilizer is also known as controlled-availability fertilizer,
delayed-release fertilizer, metered-release fertilizer, or slow-acting fertilizer.
Usually CRF refers to nitrogen-based fertilizers. Slow- and controlled-
release involve only 0.15% (562,000 tons) of the fertilizer market (1995). Methylene diurea (MDU) is
component of the most popular
controlled-release fertilizers.[40]
Foliar application

Foliar fertilizers are applied directly to leaves. This method is almost invariably used to apply water-soluble straight
nitrogen fertilizers and used especially for high-value crops such as fruits. Urea is the most common foliar
fertilizer.[18]

Chemicals that affect nitrogen uptake

Various chemicals are used to enhance the

efficiency of nitrogen-based fertilizers. In this
way farmers can limit the polluting effects of
nitrogen run-off. Nitrification inhibitors (also
known as nitrogen stabilizers) suppress the
N-Butylthiophosphoryltriamide, an conversion of ammonia into nitrate, an anion
enhanced efficiency fertilizer. that is more prone to leaching. 1-Carbamoyl-
3-methylpyrazole (CMP), dicyandiamide,
nitrapyrin (2-chloro-6-
trichloromethylpyridine) and 3,4-Dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) are
popular.[42] Urease inhibitors are used to slow the hydrolytic conversion of urea into
ammonia, which is prone to evaporation as well as nitrification. The conversion of Fertilizer burn
urea to ammonia catalyzed by enzymes called ureases. A popular inhibitor of ureases
is N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT).

Overfertilization

Careful use of fertilization technologies is important because excess nutrients can be detrimental.[43] Fertilizer burn
can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in damage or even death of the plant. Fertilizers vary in their
tendency to burn roughly in accordance with their salt index.[44][45]
Statistics
Recently nitrogen fertilizers have plateaued in most developed countries.
China although has become the largest producer and consumer of nitrogen
fertilizers.[47] Africa has little reliance on nitrogen fertilizers.[48] Agricultural
and chemical minerals are very important in industrial use of fertilizers, which
is valued at approximately $200 billion.[49] Nitrogen has a significant impact
in the global mineral use, followed by potash and phosphate. The production
of nitrogen has drastically increased since the 1960s. Phosphate and potash Fertilizer use (2018). From FAO's
have increased in price since the 1960s, which is larger than the consumer World Food and Agriculture –
price index.[49] Potash is produced in Canada, Russia and Belarus, together Statistical Yearbook 2020[46]
making up over half of the world production.[49] Potash production in
Canada rose in 2017 and 2018 by 18.6%.[50] Conservative estimates report
30 to 50% of crop yields are attributed to natural or synthetic commercial fertilizers.[36][51] Fertilizer consumption has
surpassed the amount of farmland in the United States[49]. Global market value is likely to rise to more than US$185
billion until 2019.[52] The European fertilizer market will grow to earn revenues of approx. €15.3 billion in 2018.[53]

Data on the fertilizer consumption per hectare arable land in 2012 are published by The World Bank.[54] The diagram
below shows fertilizer consumption by the European Union (EU) countries as kilograms per hectare (pounds per
acre). The total consumption of fertilizer in the EU is 15.9 million tons for 105 million hectare arable land area[55] (or
107 million hectare arable land according to another estimate[56]). This figure equates to 151  kg of fertilizers
consumed per ha arable land on average by the EU countries.

Environmental effects
Use of fertilizers are beneficial in providing nutrients to plants although they
have some negative environmental effects. The large growing consumption
of fertilizers can affect soil, surface water, and groundwater due to dispersion
of mineral use.[49]

For each ton of phosphoric acid produced by the processing of phosphate

rock, five tons of waste are generated. This waste takes the form of impure,
useless, radioactive solid called phosphogypsum. Estimates range from
100,000,000 and 280,000,000 tons of phosphogypsum waste are produced Runoff of soil and fertilizer during a
annually worldwide.[57] rain storm

Water
Phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers when commonly used have major
environmental effects. This is due to high rainfalls causing the fertilizers to be
washed into waterways.[58] Agricultural run-off is a major contributor to the
eutrophication of fresh water bodies. For example, in the US, about half of all
the lakes are eutrophic. The main contributor to eutrophication is phosphate,
which is normally a limiting nutrient; high concentrations promote the growth
Large pile of phosphogypsum
of cyanobacteria and algae, the demise of which consumes oxygen.[59]
waste near Fort Meade, Florida.
Cyanobacteria blooms ('algal blooms') can also produce harmful toxins that can
accumulate in the food chain, and can be harmful to humans.[60][61]

The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer runoff are the primary cause
of serious oxygen depletion in many parts of oceans, especially in coastal
zones, lakes and rivers. The resulting lack of dissolved oxygen greatly
reduces the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic fauna.[62] The number of
oceanic dead zones near inhabited coastlines are increasing.[63] As of 2006,
the application of nitrogen fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in
northwestern Europe[64] and the United States.[65][66] If eutrophication can Red circles show the location and
be reversed, it may take decades before the accumulated nitrates in size of many dead zones.
groundwater can be broken down by natural processes.

Nitrate pollution

Only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers is converted to plant matter. The remainder accumulates in the soil or
is lost as run-off.[67] High application rates of nitrogen-containing fertilizers combined with the high water solubility
of nitrate leads to increased runoff into surface water as well as leaching into groundwater, thereby causing
groundwater pollution.[68][69][70] The excessive use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers (be they synthetic or natural) is
particularly damaging, as much of the nitrogen that is not taken up by plants is transformed into nitrate which is easily
leached.[71]

Nitrate levels above 10  mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause 'blue baby syndrome' (acquired
methemoglobinemia).[72] The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and
for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.

Soil

Acidification

Nitrogen-containing fertilizers can cause soil acidification when added.[73][74] This may lead to decrease in nutrient
availability which may be offset by liming.

Accumulation of toxic elements

Cadmium

The concentration of cadmium in phosphorus-containing fertilizers varies considerably and can be problematic.[75]
For example, mono-ammonium phosphate fertilizer may have a cadmium content of as low as 0.14 mg/kg or as high
as 50.9 mg/kg.[76] The phosphate rock used in their manufacture can contain as much as 188  mg/kg cadmium[77]
(examples are deposits on Nauru[78] and the Christmas islands[79]). Continuous use of high-cadmium fertilizer can
contaminate soil (as shown in New Zealand)[80] and plants.[81] Limits to the cadmium content of phosphate fertilizers
has been considered by the European Commission.[82][83][84] Producers of phosphorus-containing fertilizers now
select phosphate rock based on the cadmium content.[59]
Fluoride

Phosphate rocks contain high levels of fluoride. Consequently, the widespread use of phosphate fertilizers has
increased soil fluoride concentrations.[81] It has been found that food contamination from fertilizer is of little concern
as plants accumulate little fluoride from the soil; of greater concern is the possibility of fluoride toxicity to livestock
that ingest contaminated soils.[85][86] Also of possible concern are the effects of fluoride on soil
microorganisms.[85][86][87]

Radioactive elements

The radioactive content of the fertilizers varies considerably and depends both on their concentrations in the parent
mineral and on the fertilizer production process.[81][88] Uranium-238 concentrations can range from 7 to 100 pCi/g in
phosphate rock[89] and from 1 to 67 pCi/g in phosphate fertilizers.[90][91][92] Where high annual rates of phosphorus
fertilizer are used, this can result in uranium-238 concentrations in soils and drainage waters that are several times
greater than are normally present.[91][93] However, the impact of these increases on the risk to human health from
radinuclide contamination of foods is very small (less than 0.05 mSv/y).[91][94][95]

Other metals

Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of zinc (essential to plant growth), wastes can
include the following toxic metals: lead[96] arsenic, cadmium,[96] chromium, and nickel. The most common toxic
elements in this type of fertilizer are mercury, lead, and arsenic.[97][98][99] These potentially harmful impurities can be
removed; however, this significantly increases cost. Highly pure fertilizers are widely available and perhaps best
known as the highly water-soluble fertilizers containing blue dyes used around households, such as Miracle-Gro.
These highly water-soluble fertilizers are used in the plant nursery business and are available in larger packages at
significantly less cost than retail quantities. Some inexpensive retail granular garden fertilizers are made with high
purity ingredients.

Trace mineral depletion

Attention has been addressed to the decreasing concentrations of elements such as iron, zinc, copper and magnesium
in many foods over the last 50–60 years.[100][101] Intensive farming practices, including the use of synthetic fertilizers
are frequently suggested as reasons for these declines and organic farming is often suggested as a solution.[101]
Although improved crop yields resulting from NPK fertilizers are known to dilute the concentrations of other
nutrients in plants,[100][102] much of the measured decline can be attributed to the use of progressively higher-
yielding crop varieties that produce foods with lower mineral concentrations than their less-productive
ancestors.[100][103][104] It is, therefore, unlikely that organic farming or reduced use of fertilizers will solve the
problem; foods with high nutrient density are posited to be achieved using older, lower-yielding varieties or the
development of new high-yield, nutrient-dense varieties.[100][105]

Fertilizers are, in fact, more likely to solve trace mineral deficiency problems than cause them: In Western Australia
deficiencies of zinc, copper, manganese, iron and molybdenum were identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre
crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s.[106] Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and
deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements.[106] Since this time these trace elements are routinely
added to fertilizers used in agriculture in this state.[106] Many other soils around the world are deficient in zinc,
leading to deficiency in both plants and humans, and zinc fertilizers are widely used to solve this problem.[107]

Changes in soil biology

High levels of fertilizer may cause the breakdown of the symbiotic relationships between plant roots and mycorrhizal
fungi.[108]

Energy consumption and sustainability

In the US in 2004, 317 billion cubic feet of natural gas were consumed in the industrial production of ammonia, less
than 1.5% of total U.S. annual consumption of natural gas.[109]
A 2002 report suggested that the production of
ammonia consumes about 5% of global natural gas consumption, which is somewhat under 2% of world energy
production.[110]

Ammonia is produced from natural gas and air.[111] The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of
producing ammonia.[112] The increase in price of natural gases over the past decade, along with other factors such as
increasing demand, have contributed to an increase in fertilizer price.[113]

Contribution to climate change

The greenhouse gases carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are produced during the manufacture of nitrogen
fertilizer. CO2 is estimated as over 1% of global CO2 emissions.[114] Nitrogen fertilizer can be converted by soil
bacteria to nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas.[115] Nitrous oxide emissions by humans, most of which are from
fertilizer, between 2007 and 2016 have been estimated at 7 million tonnes per year,[116] which is incompatible with
limiting global warming to below 2°C.[117]

Atmosphere

Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which was used at a rate of
about 110 million tons (of N) per year in 2012,[118][119] adding to the already
existing amount of reactive nitrogen, nitrous oxide (N2 O) has become the
third most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide and methane. It has
a global warming potential 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon
dioxide and it also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.[120]
By
changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all,
of these effects on anthropogenic climate change.[121]

Methane emissions from crop fields (notably rice paddy fields) are increased
by the application of ammonium-based fertilizers. These emissions contribute
to global climate change as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.[122][123]

Policy Global methane concentrations

(surface and atmospheric) for 2005;
note distinct plumes

Regulation

In Europe, problems with high nitrate concentrations in runoff are being addressed by the European Union's Nitrates
Directive.[124] Within Britain, farmers are encouraged to manage their land more sustainably in 'catchment-sensitive
farming'.[125] In the US, high concentrations of nitrate and phosphorus in runoff and drainage water are classified as
nonpoint source pollutants due to their diffuse origin; this pollution is regulated at the state level.[126] Oregon and
Washington, both in the United States, have fertilizer registration programs with on-line databases listing chemical
analyses of fertilizers.[127][128]

In China, regulations have been implemented to control the use of N fertilizers in farming. In 2008, Chinese
governments began to partially withdraw fertilizer subsidies, including subsidies to fertilizer transportation and to
electricity and natural gas use in the industry. In consequence, the price of fertilizer has gone up and large-scale farms
have begun to use less fertilizer. If large-scale farms keep reducing their use of fertilizer subsidies, they have no
choice but to optimize the fertilizer they have which would therefore gain an increase in both grain yield and
profit.[129]

Two types of agricultural management practices include organic agriculture and conventional agriculture. The former
encourages soil fertility using local resources to maximize efficiency. Organic agriculture avoids synthetic
agrochemicals. Conventional agriculture uses all the components that organic agriculture does not use.[130]
See also
Agroecology
Circulus (theory)
Fertigation
Food and Agriculture Organization
History of organic farming
Milorganite
Leaf Color Chart
Nutrient Recovery and Reuse
Phosphogypsum
Soil defertilisation
Seaweed fertilizer

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External links
Nitrogen for Feeding Our Food, Its Earthly Origin, Haber Process (http://shakahara.com/nitrogen.shtm
l)
International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA) (http://www.fertilizer.org)
 Agriculture Guide, Complete Guide to Fertilizers and Fertilization (https://web.archive.org/web/20111
006151731/http://www.agricultureguide.org/a-complete-guide-to-fertilization-and-choosing-best-fertili
zers/)
Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium Values of Organic Fertilizers (https://extension.oregonstate.edu/crop
-production/organic/nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium-values-organic-fertilizers) Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20210226191906/https://extension.oregonstate.edu/crop-production/organic/nitroge
n-phosphorus-potassium-values-organic-fertilizers) 26 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine

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