PHILO NOTES

INTRODUCTION - Durga is the fiercely protective divine mother.

- Ganesha has an elephant head and is the wise
THE FIVE MAJOR WORLD RELIGIONS patron of success. Hinduism is the third largest
 Religions – systems of beliefs that have developed religion in the world.
and evolved over time - And although most Hindus live in India, they can
- in response to these and other eternal be found on every continent, one billion strong.
mysteries, driven by the feeling that some
questions can only be answered by faith and  JUDAISM
based on an intuition that there is something - Found in the west
greater than ourselves, a higher power we must - Across deserts and mountains to the fertile
answer to, or some source we all spring from crescent about 4,000 years ago.
and to which we must return. - Judaism began with God calling Abraham and
Sarah to leave Mesopotamia and migrate to the
 HINDUISM land of Canaan.
- the religions of India - In return for their faith in the one true God, a
- It's not a single religion but rather a variety of revolutionary concept in the polytheistic world
related beliefs and spiritual practices. It dates of that time, they would have land and many
back five millennia to the time of Krishna, a man descendants.
of such virtue that he became known as an - From this promise came the land of Israel and
avatar of Vishnu, an incarnation of the god in the chosen people, but staying in that land and
human form. keeping those people together was going to be
- He taught that all life follows karma, the law of very difficult.
cause and effect, and our job is to do our duty, - The Israelites were enslaved in Egypt, but God
or dharma, according to our place in society freed them with the help of the prophet Moses,
without worrying how things turn out. who received the Ten Commandments and later
- When we die, we are reincarnated into a new hundreds more.
body. - They conquered the Promised Land, but could
- If we followed our dharma and did our proper only keep it for a few hundred years.
duty in our past life, we get good karma, which - Israel sits at a crossroads through which many
sends our soul upward in the social scale. armies marched over the centuries.
- Our rebirth into the next life is thus determined - And in the year 70, the Romans destroyed the
by what we do in this one. temple in their capital, Jerusalem.
- The wheel of rebirths is called samsara. - So, the religion transformed itself from a
- It's possible for a very holy person to lead a life temple religion with sacrifices and priests to a
with enough good karma to escape the wheel. religion of the book.
- This escape is called moksha. - Because of this, Judaism is a faith of symbolism,
- Hinduism teaches that everything is one. reverence, and deep meanings tied to the
- The whole universe is one transcendent reality literature of its history.
called Brahman, and there's just one Brahman - The many sacred scriptures make up the
but many gods within it, and their roles, Hebrew bible, or Tanakh, and hundreds of
aspects, and forms differ according to various written discussions and interpretations are
traditions. contained in an expansive compendium of
- Brahma is the creator, Vishnu is the preserver deeper meanings, called the Talmud.
who sometimes takes on human form, and - Jews find rich, symbolic meaning in daily life.
Shiva is the transformer, or Lord of the Dance.
 PHILO NOTES
- At the Passover meal, every item on the menu - And while meditating under a bodhi tree, the
symbolizes an aspect of the escape from rest of the answer came to him.
slavery. - All of life abounds with suffering.
- The importance of growing up is emphasized - It's caused by selfish craving for one's own
when young people reach the age of bar and fulfillment at the expense of others.
bat mitzvah, ceremonies during which they - Following an eight-step plan can teach us to
assume responsibility for their actions and reduce that craving, and thus reduce the
celebrate the weaving of their own lives into suffering.
the faith, history, and texts of the Jewish - On that day, Siddhartha became the Buddha,
people. the enlightened one.
- There are 14 million Jews in the world today, 6 - Not the only one, but the first one.
million in Israel, which became independent - The Buddhist plan is called the Eightfold Path,
following the horrors of genocide in World War and though it is not easy to follow, it has
II, and 5 million in the United States. pointed the way for millions to enlightenment,
which is what Buddhahood means, a state of
 BUDDHISM compassion, insight, peace, and steadfastness.
- Let's go back 2500 years and return to India - From the time he got up from under that tree to
where Buddhism began with a young prince the moment of his death as an old man, the
named Siddhartha. Buddha taught people how to become
- On the night he was conceived, his mother, enlightened:
Queen Maya, is said to have been visited in her  right speech,
sleep by a white elephant who entered her side.  right goals,
- Ten months later, Prince Siddartha was born  a mind focused on what is real,
into a life of luxury.  and a heart focused on loving others.
- Venturing forth from his sheltered existence as - Many Buddhists believe in God or gods, but
a young man, he witnessed the human suffering actions are more important than beliefs.
that had been hidden from him and - There are nearly a billion Buddhists in the world
immediately set out to investigate its sources. today, mostly in East, Southeast, and South
- Why must people endure suffering? Asia.
- Must we reincarnate through hundreds of
lives?  CHRISTIANITY
- At first he thought the problem was attachment - 2,000 years ago in Judaism's Promised Land,
to material things, so he gave up his Christianity was born.
possessions. - Just as Hindus called Krishna "God in Human
- He became a wandering beggar, which he Form," Christians say the same thing about
discovered certainly made him no happier. Jesus, and Christianity grew out of Judaism just
- Then he overheard a music teacher telling a as Buddhism grew out of Hinduism.
student, "Don't tighten the string too much, it - The angel Gabriel was sent by the God of
will break. But don't let it go too slack, or it will Abraham to ask a young woman named Mary to
not sound." become the mother of his son.
- In a flash, he realized that looking for answers - The son was Jesus, raised as a carpenter by
at the extremes was a mistake. Mary and her husband Joseph, until he turned
- The middle way between luxury and poverty 30, when he began his public career as the
seemed wisest. living word of God.
 PHILO NOTES
- Less interested in religiousness than in justice - He was visited by a divine messenger, again the
and mercy, Jesus healed the sick in order to angel Gabriel, in Arabic, Jibril, delivering to him
draw crowds and then taught them about his the words of Allah, the one God of Abraham.
heavenly father -- affectionate, forgiving, and - In the next few years, more and more messages
attentive. came, and he memorized and taught them.
- Then, he would invite everyone to a common - The verses he recited were full of wise sayings,
table to illustrate his Kingdom of God, outcasts, beautiful rhymes, and mysterious metaphors.
sinners, and saints all eating together. - But Muhammad was a merchant, not a poet.
- He had only three years before his - Many agreed the verses were indeed the words
unconventional wisdom got him into trouble. of God, and these believers became the first
- His enemies had him arrested, and he was Muslims.
executed by Rome in the standard means by - The word Muslim means one who surrenders,
which rabble-rousers were put to death, meaning a person who submits to the will of
crucifixion. God.
- But shortly after he was buried, women found - A Muslim's five most important duties are
his tomb empty and quickly spread word, called the Five Pillars:
convinced that he had been raised from the  Shahada, Muslims declare publicly, there is
dead. no other God but Allah, and Muhammad is
- The first Christians described his resurrected his final prophet;
appearances, inspiring confidence that his  Salat, they pray five times a day facing
message was true. Mecca;
- The message: love one another as I have loved  Zakat, every Muslim is required to give 2 or
you. 3% of their net worth to the poor;
- Christians celebrate the birth of Jesus in  Sawm, they fast during daylight hours for
December at Christmas, and his suffering, the lunar month of Ramadan to strengthen
death, and resurrection during Holy Week in the their willpower and their reliance on God;
spring.  Hajj, once in a lifetime, every Muslim who is
- In the ceremony of baptism, a washing away of able must make a pilgrimage to the holy city
sin and welcoming into the Christian of Mecca, rehearsing for the time when
community, recall Jesus's own baptism when he they will stand before God to be judged
left his life as a carpenter. worthy or unworthy of eternal life with
- In the rite of Communion, Christians eat the Him.
bread and drink the wine blessed as the body - The words of God, revealed to the prophet over
and blood of Jesus, recalling Jesus's last supper. 23 years, are collected in the Quran, which
- There are two billion Christians worldwide, literally translates into "the recitation."
representing almost a third of the world's - Muslims believe it to be the only holy book free
people. of human corruption.
- It's also considered by many to be the finest
 ISLAM work of literature in the Arabic language.
- Islam began 1400 years ago with a man of great - Islam is the world's second largest religion,
virtue, meditating in a mountain cave in the practiced by over one and a half billion Muslims
Arabian desert. around the globe.
- The man was Muhammad.
 PHILO NOTES
 Religion has been an aspect of culture for as long as - It becomes the focus of rituals to appease the
it has existed, and there are countless variations of possibly angry gods.
its practice. - Offerings are made in return one hopes for favors
 But common to all religions is an appeal for and kindness.
meaning beyond the empty vanities and lowly - Always there is the terror of death and the hope
realities of existence, beyond sin, suffering, and that the worst of it can be handled by an alliance
death, beyond fear, and beyond ourselves. with the gods.
- One comes away from the study of primitive
religions full of compassion for the terrors and
HISTORY OF IDEAS - RELIGION confusion that were responsible for generating
these beliefs.
- For most of history, religion has been a central - And for the frightening ignorance in which our for-
focus of human concerns. bearers were fated to live.
- But now in large parts of the developed world, it's - But one also comes away with respect for our own
become a side show or even an irrelevance. psychological ingenuity,
- Because its been declared untrue by the most - For our cleverness in telling ourselves stories to
powerful force of our age: Science. calm ourselves down, hold the community together
- But debating whether religion is true or not may not and deal with the unknown.
in the end be the most important move we can
make.  400 BC, Kushinagar, India
- Its also key to understand what needs have - A kind philosophical Indian prince, Siddhārtha
traditionally driven people to religion. Gautama meets his end, his other title Buddha
- So we can go on recognizing and answering these means awakened or enlightened one.
needs, even outside a supernatural structure. - He teaches his followers of whom they will soon be
millions, to expect constant suffering in life but also
 4000 BC, Arnhem land, Australia to strive to detach themselves from their immediate
- An aboriginal Australian paints an image of a circumstances and the anxious spasms of what
serpent on a rock. Buddhists call the "monkey mind" through
- The so-called Yingarna Serpent is a key part of reflection and meditation.
aboriginal religion. - In Buddhism we see a characteristic attempt of
- This creature and a few other associated divine religion to calm the minds of followers in relation to
serpents are worshiped for having done everything: anxiety, poverty, illness and death.
[They] created the sky, the lagoons the mountains, - The task of religion is to keep us hopeful, to stop
they colored the birds, they decreed laws relating to our minds caving in to terror and to hold our hands
marriage, food distribution and death ceremonies. through the worst last days of our lives.
- The serpents also generate rain and storms when
anyone breaks the rules of the tribes.  1025 AD, Song Dynasty, China
- The belief structure of the early Australians is - A sculptor produces this representation of a
almost identical to that found in primitive religions beautiful kindly female Buddhist deity called
pretty much everywhere around our planet. Guanyin.
- Religion has its origins in a desire to explain a very - Guanyin is the Buddhist counterpart of the Virgin
confusing world. Mary.
- It is a wild projection onto the natural realm of all - And she fulfills a similar role as this lady: that of
kinds of human concerns. hearing us in our distress, meeting us with
 PHILO NOTES
tenderness and strengthening us to face the tasks - In 1616 the Catholic Church moves to declare this
of life. heliocentric theory nonsense and angrily bands
- The centrality of these maternal figures in both Copernicus's work.
Buddhism and Christianity suggest that mature - However, Copernicus's revolution will not be
adult lives share moments of terrible and lacerating quelled.
self-doubt which breed longings to recover some of - Galileo Galilei will defend the system in "The
the security and coziness of childhood. Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems"
- Being reasonable and adult doesn't always work. published in 1632.
- In our worst crisis we regress, we want to be held - Again the papacy is furious.
and understood and forgiving like we were five - It curses Copernicus once more and put Galileo
years old. under house arrest.
- All this religion knows, honors and does not mock - It's tempting to laugh at the catholic church but the
us for. church is trying to hold on to something rather
lovely that had served humankind well: the idea of
 1133, Winchester, England our cosmic significance.
- The poorest people in the parish of Winchester in - The idea that we matter, that someone out there
Southern England take up residence in hospitals ?? cares.
and the almshouse of noble poverty. - Copernicus and Galileo's theories are like the very
- This is the oldest charitable institution in the United painful end of the childhood of man kind.
Kingdom, founded by the Bishop of Winchester who - Their discoveries that we are but a tiny forgotten
has read the Gospels thoroughly and taken meaningless blue dodge in the randomness of space
inspiration from Jesus command to treat the is akin to a child discovering that his or her parents
poorest with special dignity. are in truth really unimportant in the scheme of
- They're destined for the poorest, the almshouses things.
are built on the scale of an Oxford or Cambridge - A new existential terror will echo down the ages
College with the most beautiful noble architecture from these scientific discoveries.
of the day. - We are still dealing with it.
- The almshouses are typical example of a theme
found in all world religions: that of charity and of  July 1830, London, England
the duty of the rich towards the poor. - Charles Lyell publishes the first of three volumes of
- That there may be a regressive aspect of this, his geological masterpiece: Principles of Geology.
religions can be praised for moderating egoistic - The book uses new geological methods to show
impulses and urging the powerful to think of the that the earth is far older than was ever previously
defenseless. believed.
- It can be tempting to think of the poor as evil and - The Bible had said it was 6000 years old.
responsible for their fate but religions ask the - Lyle says the fossil record proves it must be at least
powerful to imagine them always as unfortunate 240 million years old, based on this observation of
and worthy of a special place in the divine scheme. marine fossils.
- Modern science now puts it at 4.5 billion years.
 1543, Nuremberg, Germany - In response to Lyle's discoveries the British social
- Nicolaus Copernicus publishes "On the Revolutions critic and essayist John Ruskin abandons belief.
of the Celestial Spheres". - He says his faith has been beaten to the thinness of
- This post a heliocentric view of the universe rather a gold leaf by such rockbound evidence.
than geocentric version widely accepted at the time - If only the geologists would leave me alone he
and based on the book of Joshua. writes I could do very well but those dreadful
 PHILO NOTES
hammers I hear the clink of them at the end of something that can imperfectly but still to a real
every cadence of the bible verses. extent reconcile us to our mortality.
- Science now makes it almost impossible for any
intelligent person to believe in the Bible is literally  2006, Oxford, England
true. - An English biologist Richard Dawkins publishes "The
God Delusion".
 1835 Tübingen, Germany - Dawkins argues that religion is intellectually wrong
- 27 year old David Friedrich Strauss publishes the and delusional and therefore should be removed
first edition of the first volume of an epochal work: entirely from public culture.
"The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined". - There Dawkins has just about stops from saying that
- Strauss advances the view that it doesn't matter people should be prevented by law from being
whether or not Christ really was the son of God or religious in private but only just.
worked miracles or came back from the dead after - Dawkins's mocking view of religion coincides with
being crucified because what's important about him deep disquiet about militant Islam in the West.
is the moral example he gives: his generosity, his - The murderous ways of fringe Muslim groups seems
immense tenderness to the week, his commitment to be Dawkins is real target.
to forgiveness: "You must forgive your brother - Religion just comes to seem like something a bunch
seven times seventy" he notes. of mad people could ever be interested in.
- His humility: he lived as a carpenter had a simple - Dawkins insists that reasonable people can find all
life lived amongst the poor. the consolation they need in science and medicine.
- Strauss initiates a new way of looking at religion: It - The doctor can replace the priest, the welfare state
isn't a true description of how the world actually is. can replace charity, and the laboratory can replace
- It something humans have invented to comfort rituals and ceremonies.
themselves in highly valuable and important ways - For the rest we have television and the news.
that deserve are selective reverence.
 The needs that religions answered were real and
 1885, Amsterdam, Netherlands important and despite science and TV and theme
- A new national museum, the Rijks Museum officially parks and cancer treatment centers we still have
opens. many of these needs.
- The architect Pierre Kuiper has spent his career - We still have to die, we still need to be comforted,
designing and restoring churches and it shows. we still need to be reminded in conditions of
- The building is quickly dubbed a new cathedral aggressive capitalism of our duties to the
devoted to art with it's stained glass and community and to the poor, and we still need
ecclesiastical solemnity. somewhere to take are disappointed ambitions,
- The museum is one of many to open the second frustrations and sorrows.
part of the 19th century. - Religion may well have been a deep illusion but it
- It's the result of a widespread panic as to what can was an important illusion that we need to
replace religion now that belief is in decline. understand with sincere depth and compassion in
- One leading answer is that Culture can replace order to know how to create functioning secular
Scripture. societies in our own time.
- The argument is that art can achieve for us many of
the things that religion once did: It can be a guide, a
source of consolation, a teacher of wisdom and
compassion, a reminder of our better nature and
 PHILO NOTES

There are different degrees of goodness in different

things. Following the “Great Chain of Being,” which
states there is a gradual increase in complexity, created
objects move from unformed inorganic matter to
biologically complex organisms. Therefore, there must
be a being of the highest form of good. This perfect
being is God.