Internal Loadings Developed

in Structural Members
Before a structural member can be proportioned, it is necessary to
determine the force and moment that act within it. In this chapter we
will develop the methods for finding these loadings at specified
points along a member’s axis and for showing the variation graphically
using the shear and moment diagrams. Applications are given for
both beams and frames.

4.1  Internal Loadings at a Specified Point

As discussed in Sec. 2.4, the internal load at a specified point in a member
can be determined by using the method of sections. In general, this loading
for a coplanar structure will consist of a normal force N, shear force V,
and bending moment M.* It should be realized, however, that these
loadings actually represent the resultants of the stress distribution acting
over the member’s cross-sectional area at the cut section. Once the
resultant internal loadings are known, the magnitude of the stress can be
determined provided an assumed distribution of stress over the
cross-sectional area is specified.

*Three-dimensional frameworks can also be subjected to a torsional moment, which tends

to twist the member about its axis.

139
 140 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

Sign Convention.  Before presenting a method for finding the

internal normal force, shear force, and bending moment, we will need to
establish a sign convention to define their “positive” and “negative”
values.* Although the choice is arbitrary, the sign convention to be
adopted here has been widely accepted in structural engineering practice,
and is illustrated in Fig. 4–1a. On the left-hand face of the cut member the
normal force N acts to the right, the internal shear force V acts downward,
and the moment M acts counterclockwise. In accordance with Newton’s
third law, an equal but opposite normal force, shear force, and bending
moment must act on the right-hand face of the member at the section.
Perhaps an easy way to remember this sign convention is to isolate a
small segment of the member and note that positive normal force tends
to elongate the segment, Fig. 4–1b;  positive shear tends to rotate the
segment clockwise, Fig. 4–1c; and positive bending moment tends to bend
4
the segment concave upward, so as to “hold water,” Fig. 4–1d.

M M

N N
V V
(a)

N N

(b)

V M M

V
(c) (d)

Fig. 4–1

*This will be convenient later, in Secs. 4.2 and 4.3, where we will express V and M as

functions of x and then plot these functions. Having a sign convention is similar to assigning
coordinate directions x positive to the right and y positive upward when plotting a function
y = f(x).
 4.1  Internal Loadings at a Specified Point 141

Procedure for Analysis

The following procedure provides a means for applying the method

of sections to determine the internal normal force, shear force, and
bending moment at a specific location in a structural member.

Support Reactions
• Before the member is “cut” or sectioned, it may be necessary to
determine the member’s support reactions so that the equilibrium
equations are used only to solve for the internal loadings when
the member is sectioned.
• If the member is part of a pin-connected structure, the pin
reactions can be determined using the methods of Sec. 2.6. 4

Free-Body Diagram
• Keep all distributed loadings, couple moments, and forces acting
on the member in their exact location, then pass an imaginary
section through the member, perpendicular to its axis at the point
where the internal loading is to be determined.
• After the section is made, draw a free-body diagram of the
segment that has the least number of loads on it. At the section
indicate the unknown resultants N, V, and M acting in their
positive directions (Fig. 4–1a).

Equations of Equilibrium These hammerhead piers are tapered

due to the greater shear and moment
• Moments should be summed at the section about axes that pass they must resist at their center.
through the centroid of the member’s cross-sectional area, in
order to eliminate the unknowns N and V and thereby obtain a
direct solution for M.
• If the solution of the equilibrium equations yields a quantity
having a negative magnitude, the assumed directional sense of the
quantity is opposite to that shown on the free-body diagram.
 142 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

EXAMPLE 4.1
The building roof shown in the photo has a weight of 1.8 kN>m2 and is
supported on 8-m long simply supported beams that are spaced 1 m
apart. Each beam, shown in Fig. 4–2b transmits its loading to two
girders, located at the front and back of the building. Determine the
internal shear and moment in the front girder at point C, Fig. 4–2a.
Neglect the weight of the members.
3.6 kN 7.2 kN 7.2 kN 7.2 kN 3.6 kN
1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m

edge
beam
girder C

4 girder

1.2 m 1.2 m 1.2 m

43.2 kN (a) 43.2 kN

SOLUTION
Support Reactions.  The roof loading is transmitted to each beam
as a one-way slab ( L 2 >L 1 = 8 m>1 m = 8 7 2 ) . The tributary loading
on each interior beam is therefore ( 1.8 kN>m2 )( 1 m ) = 1.8 kN>m.
(The two edge beams support 0.9 kN>m.) From Fig. 4–2b, the reaction
of each interior beam on the girder is ( 1.8 kN>m )( 8 m ) >2 = 7.2 kN.
1.8 kN/m

beam
3.6 kN 7.2 kN 7.2 kN 0.5 m
1m 1m 7m
0.4 m girder 0.5 m

MC
C 7.2 kN (b) 7.2 kN

VC
Free-Body Diagram.  The free-body diagram of the girder is shown
in Fig. 4–2a. Notice that each column reaction is
1.2 m 1.2 m
[ ( 2 ( 3.6 kN ) + 11 ( 7.2 kN ) ]>2 = 43.2 kN
43.2 kN
The free-body diagram of the left girder segment is shown in Fig. 4–2c.
(c) Here the internal loadings are assumed to act in their positive directions.
Fig. 4–2
Equations of Equilibrium.

+ c Fy = 0;    43.2 - 3.6 - 2 ( 7.2 ) - V C = 0  V C = 25.2 kN     Ans.

a + M C = 0;  M C + 7.2 ( 0.4 ) + 7.2 ( 1.4 ) + 3.6 ( 2.4 ) - 43.2 ( 1.2 ) = 0  M C = 30.2 kN # m  Ans.
 4.1  Internal Loadings at a Specified Point 143

EXAMPLE 4.2
Determine the internal shear and moment acting at a section passing
through point C in the beam shown in Fig. 4–3a.

27 k
3 k/ ft

A
B 4
C
6 ft 12 ft 6 ft
18 ft 9k 18 k
(a) (b)

Fig. 4–3

SOLUTION
Support Reactions.  Replacing the distributed load by its resultant
force and computing the reactions yields the results shown in Fig. 4–3b.

Free-Body Diagram. Segment AC will be considered since it yields

the simplest solution, Fig. 4–3c. The distributed load intensity at C is
computed by proportion, that is,

wC = (6 ft>18 ft)(3 k>ft) = 1 k>ft

Equations of Equilibrium.

+ c Fy = 0;   9 - 3 - V C = 0      V C = 6 k   Ans.

a + M C = 0;   -9 ( 6 ) + 3 ( 2 ) + M C = 0 M C = 48 k # ft Ans. 3k 1 k/ ft

MC
This problem illustrates the importance of keeping the distributed
loading on the beam until after the beam is sectioned. If the beam in NC
2 ft
VC
Fig. 4–3b were sectioned at C, the effect of the distributed load on 6 ft
segment AC would not be recognized, and the result VC = 9 k and 9k
MC = 54 k # ft would be wrong. (c)
 144 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

EXAMPLE 4.3
The 9-k force in Fig. 4–4a is supported by the floor panel DE, which in
turn is simply supported at its ends by floor beams. These beams
transmit their loads to the simply supported girder AB. Determine the
internal shear and moment acting at point C in the girder.
9k
6 ft 6 ft 2 ft
4 ft 6 ft
D E

A
C B
15 ft
24 ft
4
(a)

9k Fig. 4–4
2 ft
4 ft

6k 3k

6k
6k 3k
MC
C
NC
12 ft 6 ft A
12 ft 3 ft VC
24 ft
3.75 k 5.25 k 3.75 k
(b) (c)

SOLUTION
Support Reactions.  Equilibrium of the floor panel, floor beams,
and girder is shown in Fig. 4–4b. It is advisable to check these results.

Free-Body Diagram.  The free-body diagram of segment AC of the

girder will be used since it leads to the simplest solution, Fig. 4–4c.
Note that there are no loads on the floor beams supported by AC.

Equations of Equilibrium.
   
+ c Fy = 0;        3.75 - 6 - V C = 0    V C = -2.25 k Ans.

a + M C = 0;   -3.75 ( 15 ) + 6 ( 3 ) + M C = 0 M C = 38.25 k # ft Ans.

 4.2 Shear and Moment Functions 145

4.2  Shear and Moment Functions

The design of a beam requires a detailed knowledge of the variations of
the internal shear force V and moment M acting at each point along the
axis of the beam. The internal normal force is generally not considered for
two reasons: (1) in most cases the loads applied to a beam act perpendicular
to the beam’s axis and hence produce only an internal shear force and
bending moment, and (2) for design purposes the beam’s resistance to
shear, and particularly to bending, is more important than its ability to
resist normal force. An important exception to this occurs, however, when
beams are subjected to compressive axial forces, since the buckling or
instability that may occur has to be investigated.
The variations of V and M as a function of the position x of an arbitrary
point along the beam’s axis can be obtained by using the method of 4
sections discussed in Sec. 4.1. Here, however, it is necessary to locate the
imaginary section or cut at an arbitrary distance x from one end of the Additional reinforcement, provided
by vertical plates called stiffeners,
beam rather than at a specific point.
is used over the pin and rocker
In general, the internal shear and moment functions will be supports of these bridge girders.
discontinuous, or their slope will be discontinuous, at points where the Here the reactions will cause large
type or magnitude of the distributed load changes or where concentrated internal shear in the girders and
forces or couple moments are applied. Because of this, shear and moment the stiffeners will prevent localized
functions must be determined for each region of the beam located buckling of the girder flanges or web.
between any two discontinuities of loading. For example, coordinates x 1, Also, note the tipping of the rocker
support caused by the thermal
x 2, and x 3 will have to be used to describe the variation of V and M
expansion of the bridge deck.
throughout the length of the beam in Fig. 4–5a. These coordinates will be
valid only within regions from A to B for x 1, from B to C for x 2, and from
C to D for x 3. Although each of these coordinates has the same origin, as
noted here, this does not have to be the case. Indeed, it may be easier to
develop the shear and moment functions using coordinates x 1, x 2, x 3
having origins at A, B, and D as shown in Fig. 4–5b. Here x 1 and x 2 are
positive to the right and x 3 is positive to the left.

P P
w w

A D A D
B C B C
x1 x1 x2 x3
x2
x3
(a) (b)

Fig. 4–5
 146 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

Procedure for Analysis

The following procedure provides a method for determining the

variation of shear and moment in a beam as a function of position x.

Support Reactions
• Determine the support reactions on the beam and resolve all the
external forces into components acting perpendicular and parallel
to the beam’s axis.

Shear and Moment Functions

• Specify separate coordinates x and associated origins, extending
4 into regions of the beam between concentrated forces and/or
couple moments, or where there is a discontinuity of distributed
loading.
• Section the beam perpendicular to its axis at each distance x, and
from the free-body diagram of one of the segments determine the
unknowns V and M at the cut section as functions of x. On the
free-body diagram, V and M should be shown acting in their
positive directions, in accordance with the sign convention given
in Fig. 4–1.
• V is obtained from Fy = 0 and M is obtained by summing
moments about the point S located at the cut section, M s = 0.
• The results can be checked by noting that dM >dx = V and
dV >dx = w, where w is positive when it acts upward, away from the
beam. These relationships are developed in Sec. 4.3.

The joists, beams, and girders used to support this floor can be
designed once the internal shear and moment are known
throughout their lengths.
 4.2 Shear and Moment Functions 147

EXAMPLE 4.4
Determine the shear and moment in the beam shown in Fig. 4–6a as a
function of x.
2 k/ ft

x
30 ft
(a)

Fig. 4–6
4
SOLUTION
Support Reactions.  For the purpose of computing the support
reactions, the distributed load is replaced by its resultant force of 30 k,
Fig. 4–6b. It is important to remember, however, that this resultant is
not the actual load on the beam.
30 k

30 k

600 k  ft 20 ft

(b)

Shear and Moment Functions.  A free-body diagram of the beam

segment of length x is shown in Fig. 4–6c. Note that the intensity of the
triangular load at the section is found by proportion; that is,
w >x = 2>30 or w = x >15. With the load intensity known, the resultant
of the distributed loading is found in the usual manner as shown in the
figure. Thus,
1 x
+ c Fy = 0;  30 - a bx - V = 0 1 __
__ x x
2 15 2 15
x k/ft
w  __
V = 30 - 0.0333x 2 Ans. 30 k 15
M
1 x x
a + M S = 0;  600 - 30x + c a b x d + M = 0
2 15 3 x
—
600 k  ft 3 V
M = -600 + 30x - 0.0111x 3 Ans. x

Note that dM >dx = V and dV >dx = -x >15 = w, which serves as a (c)

check of the results.
 148 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

EXAMPLE 4.5
Determine the shear and moment in the beam shown in Fig. 4–7a as a
function of x.
60 k 4x1
4 k/ft
108 k M

x1 x3 x4 1588 k  ft x1 V
x2 —
100 k· ft 2
12 ft x1
20 ft
(a) (c)

48 k 60 k 48 k
108 k 108 k
4 M

1588 k ft 6 ft 14 ft 100 k ft 1588 k  ft 6 ft x2  6 V

x2
(b) (d)

Fig. 4–7
SOLUTION
Support Reactions.  The reactions at the fixed support are
V = 108 k and M = 1588 k # ft, Fig. 4–7b.
Shear and Moment Functions.  Since there is a discontinuity of
distributed load at x = 12 ft, two regions of x must be considered in
order to describe the shear and moment functions for the entire beam.
Here x 1 is appropriate for the left 12 ft and x 2 can be used for the
remaining segment.
0 … x 1 … 12 ft. Notice that V and M are shown in the positive
directions, Fig. 4–7c.

+ c Fy = 0;  108 - 4x 1 - V = 0,  V = 108 - 4x 1 Ans.

x1
a + M S = 0;   1588 - 108x 1 + 4x 1 a b + M = 0
2
M = -1588 + 108x 1 - 2x 21 Ans.
12 ft … x 2 … 20 ft, Fig. 4–7d.
+ c Fy = 0;  108 - 48 - V = 0,  V = 60  Ans.
a + M S = 0;  1588 - 108x 2 + 48 ( x 2 - 6 ) + M = 0
M = 60x 2 - 1300 Ans.
These results can be partially checked by noting that when
x 2 = 20 ft, then V = 60 k and M = -100 k # ft. Also, note that
dM >dx = V and dV >dx = w.
 4.2 Shear and Moment Functions 149

EXAMPLE 4.6
Determine the shear and moment in the beam shown in Fig. 4–8a as a
function of x.
30 kN/ m

10 kN/m

9m 90 kN 90 kN
4
(a)
20 kN/m
Fig. 4–8
10 kN/m

4.5 m
6m
9m

75 kN 105 kN

SOLUTION (b)
Support Reactions.  To determine the support reactions, the
distributed load is divided into a triangular and rectangular loading,
and these loadings are then replaced by their resultant forces. These
reactions have been computed and are shown on the beam’s­
free-body diagram, Fig. 4–8b.

Shear and Moment Functions.  A free-body diagram of the cut 1

__ x
__
10x 2 (20) 9 x
section is shown in Fig. 4–8c. As above, the trapezoidal loading is
x kN/m
replaced by rectangular and triangular distributions. Note that the 20 __
9
intensity of the triangular load at the cut is found by proportion. The 10 kN/m
resultant force of each distributed loading and its location are M
indicated. Applying the equilibrium equations, we have
x
–– V
3
1 x x
–– x
––
+ c Fy = 0;   75 - 10x - c ( 20 ) a b x d - V = 0 2 2
2 9 75 kN
V = 75 - 10x - 1.11x 2 Ans. (c)

x 1 x x
a + M S = 0;   -75x + ( 10x ) a b + c ( 20 ) a b x d + M = 0
2 2 9 3
M = 75x - 5x 2 - 0.370x 3 Ans.
 150 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

4.3 
Shear and Moment Diagrams
for a Beam
If the variations of V and M as functions of x obtained in Sec. 4.2 are
plotted, the graphs are termed the shear diagram and moment diagram,
respectively. In cases where a beam is subjected to several concentrated
forces, couples, and distributed loads, plotting V and M versus x can
become quite tedious since several functions must be plotted. In this
section a simpler method for constructing these diagrams is discussed—a
method based on differential relations that exist between the load, shear,
and moment.
To derive these relations, consider the beam AD in Fig. 4–9a, which is
The many concentrated loadings acting
subjected to an arbitrary distributed loading w = w ( x ) and a series of
4 on this reinforced concrete beam create
a variation of the internal loading in the
concentrated forces and couples. In the following discussion, the distributed
beam. For this reason, the shear and load will be considered positive when the loading acts upward as shown.
moment diagrams must be drawn in We will consider the free-body diagram for a small segment of the beam
order to properly design the beam. having a length x, Fig. 4–9b. Since this segment has been chosen at a
point x along the beam that is not subjected to a concentrated force or
couple, any results obtained will not apply at points of concentrated
loading. The internal shear force and bending moment shown on the
free-body diagram are assumed to act in the positive direction according
to the established sign convention, Fig. 4–1. Note that both the shear force
and moment acting on the right face must be increased by a small, finite
amount in order to keep the segment in equilibrium. The distributed
loading has been replaced by a concentrated force w (x) that acts at a
fractional distance P ( x ) from the right end, where 0 6 P 6 1. (For
example, if w is uniform or constant, then w (x) will act at 21 x, so P = 21.)
Applying the equations of equilibrium, we have
+ c Fy = 0;  V + w ( x ) - ( V + V ) = 0
V = w(x)
a + M O = 0;  -V x - M - w(x) P ( x ) + ( M + M ) = 0

M = V (x) + wP ( x ) 2
w( x)

F2 F3 w
w F1 w  w(x)

P (x)
x
A D V
B C M M  M
M1 M2 O
x x
V  V
(a) x
(b)
Fig. 4–9
 4.3 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Beam 151

Dividing by x and taking the limit as x S 0, these equations become

dV
      = w
dx
Slope of Intensity of
f = e (4–1)
Shear Diagram Distributed Load

   dM
= V
dx
Slope of
      f = 5 Shear(4–2)
Moment Diagram
4

As noted, Eq. 4–1 states that the slope of the shear diagram at a point
(dV>dx) is equal to the intensity of the distributed load w at the point.
Likewise, Eq. 4–2 states that the slope of the moment diagram (dM>dx) is
equal to the intensity of the shear at the point.
Equations 4–1 and 4–2 can be “integrated” from one point to another
between concentrated forces or couples (such as from B to C in­
Fig. 4–9a), in which case

L
     V = wdx

Area under
Change in
  f = c Distributed Loading(4–3)
Shear
Diagram

and

L
M = V dx

Change in Area under

f = e
Moment Shear Diagram(4–4)

As noted, Eq. 4–3 states that the change in the shear between any two
points on a beam equals the area under the distributed loading diagram
between the points. Likewise, Eq. 4–4 states that the change in the moment
between the two points equals the area under the shear diagram between the
points. If the areas under the load and shear diagrams are easy to compute,
Eqs. 4–3 and 4–4 provide a method for determining the numerical values
of the shear and moment at various points along a beam.
 152 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

M M  M M¿
M M  M
O

V x V  V V x V  V

(a) (b)

Fig. 4–10

From the derivation it should be noted that Eqs. 4–1 and 4–3 cannot
be used at points where a concentrated force acts, since these equations
do not account for the sudden change in shear at these points. Similarly,
4 because of a discontinuity of moment Eqs. 4–2 and 4–4 cannot be used at
points where a couple moment is applied. In order to account for these
two cases, we must consider the free-body diagrams of differential
elements of the beam in Fig. 4–9a which are located at concentrated
force and couple moments. Examples of these elements are shown in
Figs. 4–10a and 4–10b, respectively. From Fig. 4–10a it is seen that force
equilibrium requires the change in shear to be

+ c Fy = 0; V = F(4–5)

Thus, when F acts upward on the beam, V is positive, so that the shear
diagram shows a “jump” upward. Likewise, if F acts downward, the jump
( V ) is downward. From Fig. 4–10b, letting x S 0, moment equilibrium
requires the change in moment to be

a + M O = 0; M = M (4–6)

In this case, if an external couple moment M is applied clockwise, M is

positive, so that the moment diagram jumps upward, and when M acts
counterclockwise, the jump ( M ) must be downward.
Table 4.1 illustrates application of Eqs. 4–1, 4–2, 4–5, and 4–6 to some
common loading cases assuming V and M retain positive values. The
slope at various points on each curve is indicated. None of these results
should be memorized; rather, each should be studied carefully so that
one becomes fully aware of how the shear and moment diagrams can be
constructed on the basis of knowing the variation of the slope from the
load and shear diagrams, respectively. It would be well worth the time
and effort to self-test your understanding of these concepts by covering
over the shear and moment diagram columns in the table and then trying
to reconstruct these diagrams on the basis of knowing the loading.
 4.3 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Beam 153

TABLE 4.1  Relationship between Loading, Shear, and Moment

dV dM
Loading Shear Diagram, = w Moment Diagram, = V
dx dx
P
0 slope  VR
ML MR
slope  VL
0
VL MR
VR
ML
VL VR
positive constant slopes
zero slope

0
ML M¿
MR
ML 0
4
MR
0
zero slope zero slope

slope  VR
w0
w0
slope  VL
ML MR
VL MR
VR ML
VL VR constant slope positive decreasing slope

w2
slope  w1 slope  VR

w1 slope  w2 slope  VL

ML MR VL MR
ML
VR

VL negative increasing slope positive decreasing slope

VR

slope  VR
w1 slope  w1

slope  VL
w2 slope  w2
VL
ML MR MR
VR ML

negative decreasing slope positive decreasing slope

VL VR
 154 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

Procedure for Analysis

The following procedure provides a method for constructing the

shear and moment diagrams for a beam using Eqs. 4–1 through 4–6.

Support Reactions
• Determine the support reactions and resolve the forces acting on
the beam into components which are perpendicular and parallel
to the beam’s axis.

Shear Diagram
• Establish the V and x axes and plot the values of the shear at the
4 two ends of the beam.
• Since dV>dx = w, the slope of the shear diagram at any point is
equal to the intensity of the distributed loading at the point. (Note
that w is positive when it acts upward.) Begin by sketching the
slope at the end points.
• If a numerical value of the shear is to be determined at the point,
one can find this value either by using the method of sections as
discussed in Sec. 4.1 or by using Eq. 4–3, which states that the
change in the shear force is equal to the area under the distributed
loading diagram.
• Since w(x) is integrated to obtain V(x), if w(x) is a curve of degree
n, then V(x) will be a curve of degree n + 1. For example, if w(x) is
uniform, V(x) will be linear.

Moment Diagram
• Establish the M and x axes and plot the values of the moment at
the ends of the beam.
• Since dM>dx = V, the slope of the moment diagram at any point
is equal to the intensity of the shear at the point. Begin by
sketching the slope at the end points.
• At the point where the shear is zero, dM>dx = 0, and therefore
this may be a point of maximum or minimum moment.
• If the numerical value of the moment is to be determined at a
point, one can find this value either by using the method of sections
as discussed in Sec. 4.1 or by using Eq. 4–4, which states that the
change in the moment is equal to the area under the shear diagram.
• Since V(x) is integrated to obtain M(x), if V(x) is a curve of degree
n, then M(x) will be a curve of degree n + 1. For example, if V(x) is
linear, M(x) will be parabolic.
 4.3 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Bea 155

m
EXAMPLE 4.7 
The two horizontal members of the power line support frame are
subjected to the cable loadings shown in Fig. 4–11a. Draw the shear
and moment diagrams for each member.

SOLUTION
Support Reactions.  Each pole exerts a force of 6 kN on each
member as shown on the free-body diagram.

Shear Diagram.  The end points x = 0, V = -4 kN and x = 6 m,

V = 4 kN are plotted first, Fig. 4–11b. As indicated, the shear between
each concentrated force is constant since w = dV>dx = 0. The shear
just to the right of point B (or C and D) can be determined by the 4
method of sections. Fig. 4–11d. The shear diagram can also be
established by “following the load” on the free-body diagram.
Beginning at A the 4 kN load acts downward so VA = -4 kN. No load
acts between A and B so the slope is zero and the shear is constant.
At B the 6 kN force acts upward, so the shear jumps up 6 kN, from
-4 kN to +2 kN. Again, the slope remains constant until it reaches
the 4 kN load, where the downward force of 4 kN drops the shear
A B C D E from 2 to −2, etc.
1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m Moment Diagram.  The moment at the end points x = 0, M = 0
and x = 6 m, M = 0 is plotted first, Fig. 4–11c. The slope of the
4 kN 4 kN 4 kN
6 kN 6 kN moment diagram within each 1.5-m-long region is constant because V
(a) is constant. Specific values of the moment, such as at C, can be
w0 determined by the method of sections, Fig. 4–11d, or by finding the
w0 V slope  0
V (kN) V slope  0 change in moment by the area under the shear diagram. For example,
4 since MA = 0 at A, then at C, MC = MA + MAC = 0 + ( -4 )( 1.5 )
2 + 2 ( 1.5 ) = -3 kN # m.
x (m)
1.5 3 8 4.5 6
2
4
(b)
V negative constant
M slope negative constant
V positive constant
M (kNm) M slope positive constant

1.5 3 4.5 6 MC
x (m)
1.5 m 1.5 m
VC
3
4 kN
6 kN
6 6
(c) (d)
Fig. 4–11
 156 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

EXAMPLE 4.8 
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam in Fig. 4–12a.

20 kN/m
20 kN/m

9m
(b)
30 kN 60 kN (a)

Fig. 4–12
w negative increasing
V slope negative increasing
V (kN) SOLUTION
4 30
Support Reactions.  The reactions have been calculated and are
x (m) shown on the free-body diagram of the beam, Fig. 4–12b.
5.20 m
(c) Shear Diagram.  The end points x = 0, V = +30 kN and x = 9 m,
60
V positive decreasing V = -60 kN are first plotted. Note that the shear diagram starts with
M slope positive decreasing zero slope since w = 0 at x = 0, and ends with a slope of
V negative increasing w = -20 kN>m .
M slope negative increasing The point of zero shear can be found by using the method of sections
M (kNm) 104 from a beam segment of length x, Fig. 4–12e. We require V = 0, so that

1 x
+ c Fy = 0;   30 - c 20a b d x = 0 x = 5.20 m
x (m) 2 9

(d)
Moment Diagram.  For 0 6 x 6 5.20 m the value of shear is
positive but decreasing and so the slope of the moment diagram is
1 [20 —
x ]x
—
2 9 also positive and decreasing ( dM>dx = V ) . At x = 5.20 m, dM>dx = 0.
x
20 —
9 Likewise for 5.20 m 6 x 6 9 m, the shear and so the slope of the
M moment diagram are negative increasing as indicated.
The maximum value of moment is at x = 5.20 m since
x dM >dx = V = 0 at this point, Fig. 4–12d. From the free-body diagram in
x V
—
30 kN 3 Fig. 4–12e we have
(e)
1 5.20 5.20
a+ M S = 0; -30 ( 5.20 ) + c 20a b d ( 5.20 ) a b + M = 0
2 9 3

M = 104 kN # m
 4.3 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Beam 157

EXAMPLE 4.9 
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for each of the beams shown in 6 kN/m
Fig. 4–13.

8 kN/m
9 kN 3m 3m 9 kN

w negative increasing
42 kNm
15 kNm V (kN) V slope negative increasing
1.5 m 3m 9
30 kN
V (kN)
w negative increasing x (m)
V slope negative increasing 3
4
1.5 4.5 –9
x (m)
V negative increasing
Starts at M slope negative increasing
6 M (kNm)
zero slope
18 Ends at
Starts at slope
Ends at
slope of 9
slope of 8
30 of 9 x (m)
3 6
M (kNm)
V negative increasing
15 12 M slope negative increasing (a)
Starts at
15 k
zero slope 2.64 6 k/ft
x (m)
1.5
20 kft

4 ft 4 ft 8k
47 k
Ends at w negative constant
slope of 30 V slope negative constant
42 V (k)
32
(b)
8
Fig. 4–13 x (ft)
4 8
15
V positive decreasing
SOLUTION M slope positive decreasing
M (kft)
In each case the support reactions have been calculated and are shown
in the top figures. Following the techniques outlined in the previous 4 8
x (ft)
examples, the shear and moment diagrams are shown under each 20
Ends at
beam. Carefully notice how they were established, based on the slope slope of 8
and moment, where dV>dx = w and dM>dx = V. Calculated values Starts at
are found using the method of sections or finding the areas under the slope of 15 80
load or shear diagrams. (c)
 158 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

EXAMPLE 4.10 
The beam shown in the photo is used to support a portion of the
overhang for the entranceway of the building. The idealized model for
the beam with the load acting on it is shown in Fig. 4–14a. Assume B
is a roller and C is pinned. Draw the shear and moment diagrams for
the beam.

SOLUTION
Support Reactions.  The reactions are calculated in the usual
manner. The results are shown in Fig. 4–14b.
10 kN/m Shear Diagram.  The shear at the ends of the beam is plotted
4 first,  i.e., VA = 0 and VC = -2.19 kN, Fig. 4–14c. To find the shear
to  the left of B use the method of sections for segment AB, or
A B C
calculate  the area under the distributed loading diagram, i.e.,
V = VB - 0 = -10 ( 0.75 ) , VB - = -7.50 kN. The support reaction
0.75 m 1m causes the shear to jump up -7.50 + 15.31 = 7.81 kN. The point of
zero shear can be determined from the slope -10 kN>m, or by
proportional triangles, 7.81>x = 2.19> ( 1 - x ) , x = 0.781 m. Notice
how the V diagram follows the negative slope, defined by the constant
negative distributed loading.
Moment Diagram.  The moment at the end points is plotted
(a) first,  MA = MC = 0, Fig. 4–14d. The values of -2.81 and 0.239
on  the  moment diagram can be calculated by the method of
sections,  or  by finding the areas under the shear diagram. For
10 kN/m example, M = M B - 0 = 21 ( -7.50 )( 0.75 ) = -2.81, M B = -2.81 kN # m.
Likewise, show that the maximum positive moment is 0.239 kN # m.
Notice how the M diagram is formed, by following the slope, defined
A B C by the V diagram.
0.75 m 1m
15.31 kN 2.19 kN
(b)

V (kN) M (kNm)
7.81
Ends at slope
of 2.19
0.239
x (m) x (m)
0.781 m 2.19
Starts at
Starts at Slope zero slope
slope ends
of 10 7.50 2.81
at 10
(c) (d)
Fig. 4–14
 4.3 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Beam 159

EXAMPLE 4.11 
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the compound beam shown
in Fig. 4–15a. Assume the supports at A and C are rollers and B and E
are pin connections.

5k 3 k/ft
2 k/ft

60 k · ft
A B C D E

10 ft 6 ft 4 ft 6 ft 6 ft

20 k 5k 3 k/ ft
(a)
16 k
60 k  ft
4
0
0
16 k
4k 45 k 6k
(b)
V (k)
24

M (k  ft)
64
6 60
4 2 10 16 20 10 16 20
x (ft) x (ft)
32 2 32

96
16
21 (c)
180
Fig. 4–15 (d)
SOLUTION
Support Reactions.  Once the beam segments are disconnected
from the pin at B, the support reactions can be calculated as shown in
Fig. 4–15b.
Shear Diagram.  As usual, we start by plotting the end shear at A
and E, Fig. 4–15c. The shape of the V diagram is formed by following
its slope, defined by the loading. Try to establish the values of shear
using the appropriate areas under the load diagram (w curve) to find
the change in shear. The zero value for shear at x = 2 ft can either be
found by proportional triangles, or by using statics, as was done in
Fig.  4–12e of Example 4.8.
Moment Diagram.  The end moments MA = 60 k # ft and ME = 0
are plotted first, Fig. 4–15d. Study the diagram and note how the
various curves are established using dM>dx = V. Verify the numerical
values for the peaks using statics or by calculating the appropriate
areas under the shear diagram to find the change in moment.
 160 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

4.4  Shear and Moment Diagrams

for a Frame
Recall that a frame is composed of several connected members that are
either fixed or pin connected at their ends. The design of these structures
often requires drawing the shear and moment diagrams for each of the
members. To analyze any problem, we can use the procedure for analysis
outlined in Sec. 4.3. This requires first determining the reactions at the
frame supports. Then, using the method of sections, we find the axial force,
shear force, and moment acting at the ends of each member. Provided all
loadings are resolved into components acting parallel and perpendicular
to the member’s axis, the shear and moment diagrams for each member
can then be drawn as described previously.
4
When drawing the moment diagram, one of two sign conventions is
used in practice. In particular, if the frame is made of reinforced concrete,
designers often draw the moment diagram positive on the tension side of
the frame. In other words, if the moment produces tension on the outer
surface of the frame, the moment diagram is drawn positive on this side.
Since concrete has a low tensile strength, it will then be possible to tell at
a glance on which side of the frame the reinforcement steel must be
placed. In this text, however, we will use the opposite sign convention
and always draw the moment diagram positive on the compression side of
the member. This convention follows that used for beams discussed in
Sec. 4.1.
The following examples illustrate this procedure numerically.

The simply supported girder of this concrete building frame was

designed by first drawing its shear and moment diagrams.
 4.4 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Frame 161

EXAMPLE 4.12 
Draw the moment diagram for the tapered frame shown in Fig. 4–16a.
Assume the support at A is a roller and B is a pin.

5k 5k
15 ft
15 ft
C
3k
B 5 ft
5 ft
3k
3k
1k
6 ft 6 ft

4
A
(a) 6k (b)

6k 5k 1k

15 k ft 15 kft 15 ft
C
3k 3k 3k 3k
5 ft B
15 kft
3k
3k
15 k ft 1k 1k

6k M (kft)
A

6k (c)
15
x (ft)
Fig. 4–16
15
SOLUTION
Support Reactions.  The support reactions are shown on the free-body member CB
diagram of the entire frame, Fig. 4–16b. Using these results, the frame is
then sectioned into two members, and the internal reactions at the joint x (ft)
ends of the members are determined, Fig. 4–16c. Note that the external
11
5-k load is shown only on the free-body diagram of the joint at C.
6
Moment Diagram.  In accordance with our positive sign convention,
and using the techniques discussed in Sec. 4.3, the moment diagrams for
M (kft)
the frame members are shown in Fig. 4–16d. 15
member AC
(d)
 162 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

EXAMPLE 4.13 
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the frame shown in
Fig. 4–17a. Assume A is a pin, C is a roller, and B is a fixed joint.

80 kN

B
C

40 kN/ m
2m 3m

4 A
4m 4m

(a)

80 kN

120 kN
Cy  82.5 kN
36.87 1.5 m
Ax  120 kN

6m 2m

Ay  2.5 kN
(b)
Fig. 4–17

SOLUTION
Support Reactions.  The free-body diagram of the entire frame is
shown in Fig. 4–17b. Here the distributed load, which represents wind
loading, has been replaced by its resultant, and the reactions have
been computed. The frame is then sectioned at joint B and the internal
loadings at B are determined, Fig. 4–17c. As a check, equilibrium is
satisfied at joint B, which is also shown in the figure.

Shear and Moment Diagrams.  The components of the distributed

load, ( 72 kN ) > ( 5 m ) = 14.4 kN>m and ( 96 kN ) > ( 5 m ) = 19.2 kN>m,
are shown on member AB, Fig. 4–17d. The associated shear and
moment diagrams are drawn for each member as shown in Figs. 4–17d
and 4–17e.
 4.4 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Frame 163

80 kN
170 kN m 170 kN m
B
C
B 2.5 kN
1.5 kN 2.5 kN
2 kN
170 kN m 82.5 kN
1.5 kN
B
170 kN  m
72 kN 2 kN
36.87

36.87 72 kN
96 kN
96 kN
A
1.5 kN 36.87 4
(c)
2 kN

80 kN

170 kN m
1.5 kN 170 kN m C
B
B 2 kN 2.5 kN
14.4 kN/m
82.5 kN

5m
x (m) V (kN)
19.2 kN/m
70 kN 2
A
4.86 2
170.1 170 x (m)
97.5 kN V (kN) 2.5
82.5
70

x (m)
M (kN  m) M (kN m)

4.86 170 165

(d) x (m)
2
(e)
 164 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

EXAMPLE 4.14 
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the frame shown in
Fig. 4–18a. Assume A is a pin, C is a roller, and B is a fixed joint.
Neglect the thickness of the members.
0.1414 k/ft
C

10 ft SOLUTION
Notice that the distributed load acts over a length of
10 ft 22 = 14.14 ft. The reactions on the entire frame are calculated
B
and shown on its free-body diagram, Fig. 4–18b. From this diagram the
free-body diagrams of each member are drawn, Fig. 4–18c. The
10 ft distributed loading on BC has components along BC and perpendicular
4 to its axis of ( 0.1414 k>ft ) cos 45 = ( 0.1414 k>ft ) sin 45 = 0.1 k>ft
as shown. Using these results, the shear and moment diagrams are also
A shown in Fig. 4–18c.
10 ft 0.1 k/ft
(a)
0.5 k
Fig. 4–18
0.1 k/ft

4 )
35 ft
0. x (
k
ft
4
.1
1.06 k

.6
14

10

t)
(f
x
1.77 k
)
5 kft
(k

5
62
V

0.
06
1.

1.77 k )
ft
(k
M

1.06 k
5 kft
(0.1414 k/ft)(14.14 ft)  2 k 0.5 k 0.5 k
5


5 kft

2k
2k
x (ft)

x (ft)

5 kft
20 ft
–5

0.5 k

10 ft
M (kft)
V (k)

0.5 k
0.5

5 ft 0.5 k

2k
(b) 2k (c)
 4.5  Moment Diagrams Constructed by the Method of Superposition 165

4.5  Moment Diagrams Constructed by

the Method of Superposition
Since beams are used primarily to resist bending stress, it is important
that the moment diagram accompany the solution for their design. In
Sec. 4.3 the moment diagram was constructed by first drawing the shear
diagram. If we use the principle of superposition, however, each of the
loads on the beam can be treated separately and the moment diagram
can then be constructed in a series of parts rather than a single and
sometimes complicated shape. It will be shown later in the text that this
can be particularly advantageous when applying geometric deflection
methods to determine both the deflection of a beam and the reactions
on statically indeterminate beams.
Most loadings on beams in structural analysis will be a combination of 4
the loadings shown in Fig. 4–19. Construction of the associated moment
diagrams has been discussed in Example 4.8.

M0
L L

M M0
x x

PL

(a) (b)
w0
w0

L L

M M

x x

cubic curve
parabolic curve
 w0 L2
______  w0 L2
______
2 6
(c) (d)
Fig. 4–19
 166 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

4 k/ ft
300 k  ft
A B

10 ft 10 ft
15 k 25 k
4 k/ ft M (kft)
300 k  ft 250
A B x (ft)
50
10 ft 10 ft resultant moment diagram
15 k 25 k



4 k/ ft M (k  ft)
40 k
x (ft)
4 10 ft
200
200 k  ft
 M (k  ft) 
300 k  ft x (ft)
300
10 ft
300 k ft
500 k ft
 M (k ft) 
500
x (ft)
20 ft
25 k
25 k
superposition of cantilevered beams superposition of associated moment diagrams
(a) (b)
Fig. 4–20

To understand how to use the method of superposition to construct

the moment diagram consider the simply supported beam at the top of
Fig. 4–20a. Here the reactions have been calculated and so the force
system on the beam produces a zero force and moment resultant. The
moment diagram for this case is shown at the top of Fig. 4–20b. Note that
this same moment diagram is produced for the cantilevered beam when it
is subjected to the same statically equivalent system of loads as the
simply supported beam. Rather than considering all the loads on this
beam simultaneously when drawing the moment diagram, we can instead
superimpose the results of the loads acting separately on the three
cantilevered beams shown in Fig. 4–20a. Thus, if the moment diagram for
each cantilevered beam is drawn, Fig. 4–20b, the superposition of these
diagrams yields the resultant moment diagram for the simply supported
beam. For example, from each of the separate moment diagrams, the
moment at end A is M A = -200 - 300 + 500 = 0, as verified by the
top moment diagram in Fig. 4–20b. In some cases it is often easier to
construct and use a separate series of statically equivalent moment
diagrams for a beam, rather than construct the beam’s more complicated
“resultant” moment diagram.
 4.5  Moment Diagrams Constructed by the Method of Superposition 167

In a similar manner, we can also simplify construction of the “resultant”

moment diagram for a beam by using a superposition of “simply
supported” beams. For example, the loading on the beam shown at the
top of Fig. 4–21a is equivalent to the beam loadings shown below it.
Consequently, the separate moment diagrams for each of these three
beams can be used rather than drawing the resultant moment diagram
shown in Fig. 4–21b.

4
M (kN  m)

60.3
5 kN/m
20 kN m 40 kN m

x (m)
20 resultant moment diagram
12 m


40
M (kN  m)


90

5 kN/m

x (m)

12 m

 M (kNm)
20 kN m
x (m)
–20
12 m

 40 kN m M (kN  m)

x (m)
12 m
40

superposition of simply supported beams superposition of associated moment diagrams

(a) (b)
Fig. 4–21
 168 C h a p t e r 4    I n t e r n a l L o a d i n g s D e v e l o p e d in Structural Members

EXAMPLE 4.15
Draw the moment diagrams for the beam shown at the top of Fig. 4–22a
using the method of superposition. Consider the beam to be cantilevered
from the support at B.

SOLUTION
If the beam were supported as a cantilever from B, it would be
subjected to the statically equivalent loadings shown in Fig. 4–22a. The
superimposed three cantilevered beams are shown below it together
with their associated moment diagrams in Fig. 4–22b. (As an aid to
their construction, refer to Fig. 4–19.) Although not needed here, the
sum of these diagrams will yield the resultant moment diagram for the
4
beam. For practice, try drawing this diagram and check the results.

5 k/ft

150 k ft
A
B

5 ft 15 ft
22.5 k 15 k
5 k/ft

150 k ft
A
B

5 ft 15 ft
22.5 k 15 k M (k ft)
x (ft)


150 kft 150

M (k  ft)

337.5

x (ft)

15 ft

22.5 k 
 5 k/ ft

x (ft)

15 ft
187.5
superposition of cantilevered beams superposition of associated moment diagrams
(a) (b)
Fig. 4–22
 4.5  Moment Diagrams Constructed by the Method of Superposition 169

EXAMPLE 4.16 
Draw the moment diagrams for the beam shown at the top of Fig.
­­ 4–23a
using the method of superposition. Consider the beam to be cantilevered
from the pin at A.

SOLUTION
The superimposed cantilevered beams are shown in Fig. 4–23a
together with their associated moment diagrams, Fig. 4–23b. Notice
that the reaction at the pin (22.5 k) is not considered since it produces
no moment diagram. As an exercise verify that the resultant moment
diagram is given at the top of Fig. 4–23b.
4
M (kft)
5 k/ft

150 k ft 24.3

A x (ft)
B
150

5 ft 15 ft 16.6 ft

22.5 k 15 k




M (k ft)
150 kft
x (ft)

150
5 ft 150 k ft


M (k ft)
5 k/ ft

37.5 k x (ft)

375 k ft 15 ft
375
 
M (k ft)
225 k ft 225

x (ft)
15 ft
15 k
15 k
superposition of cantilevered from A beams superposition of associated moment diagrams
(a) (b)

Fig. 4–23