ARCHITECTURE AND MUSIC:

VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS OF MUSIC IN THE ARCHITECTURAL FORM

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1. Tschumi, Bernard, the Tokyo National Opera, plans, 1986, Tokyo, Japan.
Source: Bernard Tschumi Architects (2010) http://www.tschumi.com/projects/26/ (Accessed: 15th
November 2010)

Figure 2. Tschumi, Bernard, the Tokyo National Opera, model, 1986, Tokyo, Japan.
Source: Bernard Tschumi Architects (2010) http://www.tschumi.com/projects/26/ (Accessed: 15th
November 2010)
Figure 3.3. Fedorko, Don, Conceptual Relationships between Architecture and Music,
Diagram, no date. Source: Antoniades, A.C. (1992) Poetics of Architecture: The Theory of Design. Van
Noestrand Reinhold. p. 274.

Figure 4. Piano, Renzo and Building Workshop, The Paganini Niccolo auditorium, 2001,
Parma, Italy.
Source: Piano, R. (2006) Architettura & Musica; Sette cantieri per la musica dall'Ircam di Parigi all'
Auditorium di Roma; Architecture & Music: Seven Sites for Music from the Ircam in Paris to the
Auditorium in Rome. Milan: Edizioni Lybra Immagine.

Figure 5. Xenakis, Iannis, Facade of the Monastery of la Tourette, drawing, 1955.

Source: Xenakis, I. (2008) Musique de l'Architecture: Music and Architecture. Hillsdale, New York:
Pendragon Press.

Figure 6. Holl, Steven, Stretto House, elevation, 1989-91, Dallas, Texas, USA.
Source: http://www.myarchn.com/photo/stretto-section-copy?
context=album&albumId=672283%3AAlbum%3A107191 (Accessed: 10th November 2010)

Figure 7. Holl, Steven, Stretto House, 1989-91, Dallas, Texas, USA.

Source: Steven Holl architects website [Online]. Available at: http://www.stevenholl.com/project-
detail.php?type=&id=26 (Accessed: 10th November 2010)

Figure 8. Libeskind, Daniel, The Jewish Museum, 1999, Berlin, Germany.

Source: http://www.lostateminor.com/2007/12/15/berlins-jewish-museum/ (Accessed: 22nd November
2010)

Figure 9. Libeskind, Daniel, The Jewish Museum, voids, 1999, Berlin, Germany.
Source: Studios Daniel Libeskind, [Online]. Available at: http://www.daniel-
libeskind.com/projects/show-all/jewish-museum-berlin/ (Accessed: 22nd November 2010)
 Architecture is the knowledge and science of conceiving, associating and arranging, with the
suitable techniques, solid or voided spaces, opaque or transparent, designed as a shelter for the various
occupations of human life (Alter and Oxford Dictionaries Staff, 2009). This combination applies to the
development of space, its proportions, materials, colours and context, the overall conception can create
a harmonious unit or not, of various dimensions, and of the sight can arouse an aesthetic effect or not.
The architectural expression is usually associated with other visual arts, such as painting or
sculpture as they are means to express with forms or volume to the sense of sight.
However, music is commonly described with a similar definition to architecture: it is the art of
combining sounds, following compositional rules, and arranging pitches, rhythms and pauses to create
a harmonious unit.
Drawing analogies from architecture to the immaterial art of music opens the field of building
design to the question of a broader and intrinsic relationship between the two forms of art. Widening
the architectural vocabulary of expression can allow for a more imaginative and creative process,
process that is fundamental for architecture to evolve.

All works of art worth their name are symbolic, and works of architecture are no
exception. By symbolism, I mean that these works, in addition to their physical
functions, such as that of sheltering, protecting and facilitating the activities of their
users, convey through their visible appearance the spiritual and philosophical meaning of
these functions. This symbolic meaning is not simply an attribute applied to the building
by some thinker 'from the outside’ as a kind of added interpretation, but it is of the very
nature and essence of the design itself.
(Arnheim, 1993, cited in Jodidio, 2005, p.8).

Therefore the symbolic and emotional powers of architecture can be analysed in relation to
music as fundamental elements.
Moreover the connexion between music and architecture has been referred to repetitively.
From Pythagoras and Plato in the ancient Greece, who developed their theory of beauty around a
system of combination of mathematics, music and architecture (Leopold, 2005), to Alberti in the
fifteenth century (Alberti, 1443-1452, cited in Sterken, 2009) (the Italian architect and philosopher
considered as a reference in architecture) who joined music and architecture in terms of proportions
and densities, to contemporary architects such as Iannis Xenakis, Daniel Libeskind or Renzo Piano
who consider music as a tool in their designs (Xenakis, 2008; Piano, 2006; Libeskind, 2008).
This dissertation will demonstrate that music and architecture nourish a strong, concrete and
tangible relationship, and that architecture is capable of visually representing music.

The conventional representations of both architecture and music will be discussed, by

demonstrating that the musical vocabulary and notation were the bases of Tschumi's National Theatre
and Opera house in Tokyo and by comparing the structure of both the musical and architectural
compositions. This parallel will be supported by architectural studies (that concluded with
methodologies to translate music to architecture), the analysis of Piano's, Xenakis' and Holl's uses of
music to conceive the aesthetics of their buildings, and the analysis of the musical architecture
designed by Libeskind.

Through this dissertation, the aim is to highlight the meaning and the reason why architects
would consider using music to conceptualize their buildings and how the relationship
music/architecture can make architecture evolve in its creative qualities.
 Music's materiality is resonantly conveyed via the instruments to aural temporal
experience. Architecture's materiality is likewise conveyed via the structure and material
of the optic and haptic spatial experience.
(Holl, 1996, p.14)

Although communicating their thought via distinct mediums, both architects and composers
design structured arrangements.
First of all the constitutions of architecture and music are represented with specific notations and
conventional tools, such as plans, sections and elevations for architecture, and sheets of music. To be
concretized they need to be interpreted and performed, however the graphic symbols, letterforms and
signs mean structures for an educated reader: temporal phenomenon in music, supportive or
constitutional for architecture.
Notes, on a music score1, transcribe the entire musical expression for any composition of any genre,
just as line-weights and symbols on plans can represent any construction and architectural feature.
Thus music sheets and architectural plans are the perfect example of visual translations based on
structural characteristics.

Applying directly this principle to architecture could be an approach to bind music and
architecture with a structural motive.
In fact Swiss architect Bernard Tschumi, in his project for the Tokyo National Theatre and
Opera house in 1986, attempted to use the graphic language of scores, notes and rhythms as the bases
for plans, a process Tschumi called “data mapping” (http://www.tschumi.com/projects/26/, 2010). The
spatial organisation imitated the method of musical composition: the architect abstracted graphic
forms and lines from the musical language on his architectural drawings and reinterpreted them into
walls, screens and spatial partitions. The musical graphic transcription subdivides the constant flow of
music in measures with bar-lines, therefore by mimicking its structure, B. Tschumi related the
conceptualisation of space to the temporal quality of music.
The functional spaces required for the Theatre and Opera house were deduced from musical
staves, each linear form: a “strip”, contained one main activity. Therefore the building's composition
and harmony originated in “form follows the musical analogy” (Bernard Tschumi Architects, 2010).
However Tschumi's metaphor stops at the basic transposition of musical graphic elements. The shapes
of the architecture only highlight the various strips composing the building; indeed the Tokyo National
Theatre and Opera house's exterior shape does not arouse a musical feeling in the viewer. The overall
architecture only shelters the process in four major strips, each in a different shape and various
materials.

In music, the superimposition of the layered voices and instruments creates a coherent and
overall composition, comparable to the relationship between each strip and each floor in Tschumi's
design. Each instrument plays its own score, but the whole orchestra offers to the audience a complete
auditory experience, the same approach used in architecture gives a global and harmonious spatial
experience to the visitor. On that account, Tschumi’s architecture could highlight the paths of the
plans, and therefore the measures' bar-lines, pauses' signs and staves.
 Figure 1

Figure 2

The analysis of Tschumi's Tokyo National Theatre and Opera house verifies the possibility of
transcribing the musical expression into architecture. Nonetheless no impression of the musical
essence arouses from the design of the building itself.
As a result, the question whether architecture can visually personify music, using as bases
structural parallels, comes to light. In order to investigate this issue, one needs to define each of these
structural characteristics and underline their similarities in architecture and music.
 Many theories have been deduced from the alliance of architecture and music. They all have in
common a fundamental methodology that allows an architect or a designer to interpret the conceptual
similarities between the two fields.
Expressionist architect Erich Mendelssohn2 had the habit of listening to Bach's rhythmic music
to immerse himself in a new project and liberate his creativity, he would then let his subconscious
sketch music-inspired forms and structures (Stephan, 1999); William (1998) noted a similar creative
process in Frank Lloyd Wright's3 work.

A composition, in the extensive sense, is the arrangement of elements, their specific

proportions and relations to each other (Oxford University Press (ed.), 2010). Therefore architects are
equal to music composers, as they orchestrate forms, volumes and structures to build. When using,
changing and transforming musical qualities, architects fashion shapes, structures and compositions
that correspond to a primary analysis in terms of harmony, progression, transposition, movement,
proportion, etc… The American architect Rudolph Schindler wrote:

The architect needs a unit dimension large enough to give his building scale, rhythm and
cohesion. And last, but most important for the 'space architect,' it must be a unit which
he can carry palpably in his mind in order to be able to deal with space and forms freely
but accurately in his imagination.
(Rudolph Schindler, 1946, cited in Darling and Smith, 2001, p.43)

This quotation brings Le Corbusier's modulor to mind, as it is a mathematically calculated unit that
allowed the architect to design harmoniously. Harmony is defined as a consistent, orderly, or pleasing
arrangement of parts (Oxford University Press (ed.), 2010); it is also considered as an aesthetic
element of beauty. It relates to such terms as structure, shape or motifs in architecture. Thus to
deliberately employ another unit than the usual meter or feet, a temporal unit for instance, would
enable architects to transfer other musical qualities aside from harmony.

Additionally, Martin (1994) in her book “Architecture as a Translation of Music” defined a

methodology that consists in analyzing musical compositions, pulling out ideas and impressions, from
which to initiate a design work. The author researched minimal music and defined a methodology to
translate the musical language into the architectural one. Minimal music uses terms that can be easily
related to architecture, such as lineal and cyclical, sequences that can be visually represented. Also
both minimal music and architecture share rhythm: the principle of organisation giving substance,
solidity and stability to a composition; repetition and symmetry generally determine such a
relationship of balanced proportions similar in shape, size and position to an opposite side.

The American Don Fedorko also contributed to the research on music and architecture. The
architect, musician and songwriter expressed his opinion on the relationship music/architecture by
saying: “I believe that you can get ideas from many sources” (Fedorko, no date, cited in Annotates,
1992). The basis for his concept was mostly to relate musical and architectural vocabularies. For
instance, he combined mono music to symmetric architecture, stereo to asymmetric, introduction to
entry, passage to facade, basses to structure. In addition, in Fedorko’s mind, space equally relates to
music when it defines the open portion between two lines of a stave on a score. His diagram (figure 3)
representing the analogies he had drawn from music to architecture, became for him a tool to infuse
musical qualities into his designs, as a “source of inspiration”, a “synthetic guide” (Fedorko, no date,
cited in Annotates, 1992).
Figure 3

The methodologies introduce a supplementary vocabulary of forms, shapes and concepts for
the architectural language. Many similarities between the conception of music and the conception of
architecture can be distinguished; composer Luciano Berio (Berio, Piano, Regge, 2002) said, “music is
a building to which you constantly add rooms, windows and new wings.” For him, both architects and
musicians have a general idea in mind to which they had details and substance.
Therefore, the use of fundamental features from music can contribute to the evolution of
architecture, providing that the interpretation of musical substance is dealt with imagination and
creativity.

For Renzo Piano the importance in architecture lies in the emotions that the project conveys
and the ideas that it transmits. When designing a space for music, Piano wishes to create: “an
architecture that is almost airy, light, suspended, that can quiver like the notes that will pervade these
spaces” (Piano, 2006).
His aim being to convey these specific characteristics of music into his concert halls designs, he
focuses on making visible an “immaterial and anti-iconic art by nature that is music” (Piano, 2006).
Explaining his desire to design an airy architecture, the architect highlights light and transparency, not
only as physical qualities, but also as immaterial properties (Berio, Piano, Regge, 2002). Indeed one
cannot touch and feel them but they are extremely important in architecture; atmospheres in building
are not only made of walls, but light, its variations and vibrations mostly create them.

In Piano's design for the Paganini Niccolo auditorium in Parma in 2001 (figure 4), the
relationship between music and architecture reposed mostly on the incorporation of immaterial
qualities. In this project, the architect decided to design a concert hall in a former sugar factory. By
eliminating the main transversal facade and replacing it by three large glass walls, he created
transparency and light through the length of the building that contradicted the imposing structure of
the factory (Jodidio, 2008). However Piano designed the building in such a way that it still preserved
its original architectural and industrial features: the brick exterior remained untouched. The cut made
through the main facade created a roofed open air space leading inside and brought transparency
through the entire concert hall. Thus Renzo Piano transformed an abandoned factory into an
immaterial piece of architecture, in order for it to house its new musical use, while retaining the
integrity of its former use.
His design statement was to create an airy, light and suspended architecture corresponding to
the music that will bring the concert hall to life. In the Paganini Niccolo, visually transposing musical
immateriality into architecture not only channels the architect's aesthetic aspiration, but also brings a
functional purpose to the building.

Figure 4

As for the French architect and composer Iannis Xenakis, during his career, he strongly felt the
connexion between music and architecture as he was practicing both, often with the same goal in
mind. Working on geometrical qualities, with ideas taken from musical composition, he realized
architectural forms (Xenakis, 2008). Thus Xenakis' architecture can be considered as a spatial
translation of his melodies' pitch, silence and essence. He wrote: “I discovered the intoxicating effects
of combining architectural elements, after having experienced with them in music” (Xenakis, 2008).
Indeed the best known example of these experimentations is the Monastery of La Tourette (figure 5)
that he conceived with Le Corbusier from 1953 to 1955 at the same period during which he composed
his Metastaseis for Orchestra4.

The Dominican Monastery of La Tourette is a complete religious centre designed according to

the lifestyle of a community of monks and their need for silence and peace, with a library, classrooms,
a refectory, private rooms, a cloister and a church (Potié, 2001).
The architects' primary considerations for their design resemble Renzo Piano's, as they designed with
immateriality, building the architecture on pilotis around an interior courtyard. Only the church wing
came in contact with the ground. Thus the Monastery was an airy construction: Xenakis, very aware of
light designed his light “cannons” and light “mitraillettes” (which can be translated in “submachine
guns”). Light “cannons”, cone-shaped profiles allowed a variable intensity of light and colours in the
church, in a permanent and dynamic way. The “mitraillettes” of light were jagged forms in the roof
that also played with light into the building (Potié, 2001).

Figure
5

With
that
structure, the facades were “free” as in they did not have any structural role. Xenakis decided to take
advantage of that situation and designed them as a transposition of music, in a variation of a theme of
four standard windows. Xenakis wanted to organize and construct of melodic intervals (the musical
notation of movement). A movement such as Adagio, Vivace, Andante, etc., is in traditional music,
related to density: “the number of events per time or length unit” (Xenakis, 2008).
Therefore the architect juxtaposed dense reinforced concrete and window casings with the
immaterial quality of glass; his design defined degrees of densities and lengths, in agreement with
musical durations (Potié, 2001). Xenakis literally composed in glass by creating uneven vertical
divisions between the glass panels. The application of musical rhythm and harmony brought the facade
and the windows to life, indeed it seems that the windows gain an organic quality; they expand or
contract as if they were following a musical composition.

Iannis Xenakis (2008) investigated at once the question of transition between densities, the
passage from an immaterial glass panel and a dense concrete block could be either progressive or
brutal: “The problem of continuity in transition, as well as its speed or form, plays a fundamental role
in musical aesthetics or in the visual arts and in architecture.”
Xenakis' approach to the relation music/architecture is based on calculations, proportions and an entire
intellectual process, allowing him to translate audible qualities, such as rhythm, into a visual facade
that gives a feeling of movement, but also a feeling of harmony between the solid, dense concrete
blocks and the transparent, airy pieces of glass.

This design was called by Le Corbusier (1953 cited in Xenakis, 2008) “musical glass panels”
or “undulating glass panels”: the undulation of densities represents one tangible example of musical
movements and rhythms translated from music to architecture.

In agreement with the statement that infusing architecture with music asks for a creative
process, Steven Holl (1996) affirmed that architecture must persist in being experimental and opened
to new aspirations and ideas.
His primary concern when imagining architecture is to anchor it in its situation, and to design
it according to the site and its historical situation. However his focus point in architecture is
“intertwining”, described as a concept based on a “symbolical or metaphorical idea that originates in a
poetical thought”. Therefore Steven Holl's architecture draws its powers from a poetic language and
the individual's experience of the building. From his architecture arises an idea, transmitted by
structure, material, space, colour, light and shadows.
Holl (1996, p.12) wrote, “Architecture surrounds us. It promises intimate contact with shifting,
changing, merging materials, textures, colours, and light in an intertwining of flat and deep three-
dimensional space and time”. Thus mass, solidity and movement are important architectural features in
Steven Holl's creations. Density, its alterations and modular character can be utilized as well to define
a pattern of sound or a material.

Putting into use his belief that the perception of architecture is precisely influenced by the
sensation of mass and gravity, his Stretto House in Dallas, Texas (figures 6 and 7) translates musical
properties. Indeed the building was directly transferred from Béla Bartok's musical composition Music
for Strings Percussion and Celeste5.
The name “Stretto” derives from the musical term, which defines overlapping entrances of instruments
or voices, especially found in fugal works. It consists of an accelerated moment and a rapid succession
of musical events coinciding in time (Holl, 1996).

The Stretto house consists of four sections, each defined by two modes: a heavy series of
concrete blocks called “spatial dams”, and a light, curved metal-framed “aqueous space”. Gravity,
weight and tension were for Holl the channel through which he transferred an orchestration of musical
instruments (Antoniades, 1992). Indeed the visual tension between the two modes is the transposition
in masses of the contrast between the bass instruments (bass, drums, tuba) and the high ones (flute,
violin, clarinet) in Béla Bartok's composition.
Moreover in the composition Music for Strings Percussion and Celeste, this contrast was emphasized
on stage during the musical performance, by the physical separation of the light and heavy instruments
(Holl, 1996). This dissociation is visible between the orthogonal, heavy forms and the fluid curved
lines and is emphasized by the contrasting materials: solid, porous concrete and fluid, glossy metal.
 Figure 6

Figure 7

The musical analogy was also developed on the technical drawings of the house (figure 6): the
plans are strictly orthogonal, the sections curvilinear; however the guest-house's representations are
inverted, the section is curvilinear, the plan orthogonal, similarly to the first movement of Béla
Bartok's composition where musical events happen with inversions of the subject (Antoniades, 1992).
Additionally, the main house was composed as a musical Stretto: floor planes are overlapping
from one level to the next, roof planes intertwine with the walls and an arched wall brings light down
the space from a skylight. The metal-framed roof is flowing over the spatial dams as an overlying
higher voice; therefore the overall building seems to be a clash of architectural events (fluid/massive,
moving/static, orthogonal/curvilinear), happening successively in space. The landscape and especially
the movement and texture of water outside the construction is also overlapping on the structure by
reflecting on the glass and metal panels, which doubles the space, makes it even more dynamic and
opens the house to the garden and the location.

Steven Holl (1996) described his process as a translation in light and space of the materiality
of music that is instruments and sound, by the following equation:

Material x sound = Material x light

time space

Steven Holl's translation of a specific composition resulted in a musical architecture that

conveys the atmosphere of Béla Bartok's arrangement.
With this particular design, the cross between the tangible and structural qualities of
architecture and the thoughtful, musical inspiration is obvious: the Stretto house was clearly designed
in parallel to Béla Bartok's musical composition, by using an analogue in space, light and density of
music. However the architect went beyond the initial analogy by using a sophisticated design
approach: the tool of “composing contrast of light and heavy” to recreate the atmosphere of music.
Exploring the composition of architecture as a tool to create visual experiences leads to the question
whether architecture could also engender musical experiences.

The Polish-born architect Daniel Libeskind, known for including complex ideas and infusing
his architecture with emotions, considers music and architecture very much alike: “they both are about
proportions of separate entities in their communication” (Libeskind, 2002).
For him, music is part of architecture because of the acoustics of buildings, the sound of a city, but
most importantly because it inspires him to create sonic experiences and to connect sound with his
design (Kipnis, Betsky, Vidler, 2000). Music was part of Libeskind's life long before he started to
study architecture as, younger, he was a talented musician. His knowledge of music led him to be
inspired by the structure of Schönberg's opera Moses and Aaron6 when he was designing his famous
Jewish Museum in Berlin in 1999 (Libeskind and Schneider, 1999).

The museum is composed of two linear structures, one is a zigzag form constituting a whole,
the other one is a straight line, broken into fragments, that cuts through the building (figure 8). At the
intersection of these two lines, the architect created voids that are vertically carving through the edifice
from the ground floor to the roof (figure 9). These voids were Libeskind's interpretation of the breaks
in Schoenberg's composition: in the opera, music was discontinued, the orchestra was playing the
same note continuously while one character, Moses, stopped singing and spoke (Libeskind, 2002).
By transferring the musical breaks, the architect composed highly significant voided spaces in his
architecture, creating an experience of reverberant and impressive sounds. This sonic experience
intended to make the visitor feel a hole and emptiness, representing the emotions of death and
devastation in Jewish History: “when the continuity of life is so brutally disrupted that the structure of
life is forever torqued and transformed” (Libeskind, 1999, date cited in Libeskind and Crichton, 2005).
This sudden disjunction or disturbance emanates as well from the visual experience, due to the
dramatic cuts in the walls and the dynamic linear forms of the building.
 Figure 8

Figure 9

Creating an experience via sound and analogies between a composition and architecture,
Libeskind related architecture, music, sensations and memory. In his words:

Music speaks to us in a way that is mysterious. You can listen to a symphony, a concerto
or a song and it can link you to the world. Architecture is very similar in that way. There
is a spiritual aspect, which is almost indefinable. We can talk about the music, the chords,
or the space and dimensions, but ultimately the effect is on memory and personality.
(Libeskind, 2002)

Libeskind associated the powerful intrinsic essence of music with the physical exploration of space to
offer to his audience, a complete, visual, aural and cognitive experience.

In this last example, the use of music in the designing process of architecture connects the two
forms of art to their emotional substance. As far as the creative process was concerned, integrating
music into architecture permitted Libeskind to create a distance between the constraints of designing a
museum and the state of mind that allowed him to concentrate on building a perceptual and
meaningful piece of architecture.

The consideration of conventional notations (plans and music scores) as graphic transcriptions
of both music and architecture based on the subdivision of structural characteristics reveals a
fundamental analogy between the two disciplines.
However the analysis of Tschumi's Tokyo National Theatre and Opera house, yet a direct
application of the relationship between plans and music scores, demonstrated that to charge
architecture with a musical impulse, mimicking its representation is not enough to visually induce a
melodic feeling.
Nevertheless, successful studies established structural characteristics as a method to translate
musical terms into an architectural conception process, providing that architects interpret the very
essence or particular attributes of music and perform a creative and sensitive work. Roland Barthes
(1991) stated “representation is not directly defined by imitation”, to translate musical terms into
architecture, an interpretation or a sensitive understanding of this duo is entailed. Indeed Iannis
Xenakis and Renzo Piano accomplished expressive architectures and included a functional purpose
with the analogy: bringing in light and creating an atmosphere. Steven Holl transposed the essence and
characteristics of one specific musical composition into an architectural one.

The connexion of architecture with music is far wider than the one between visual arts and
architecture, even though it is not as obvious. The visual and aural pair impacts on the human body
and mind in an inherent and sensitive manner.
Daniel Libeskind chose the use of music as means of producing an ambiance, but his understanding of
the intrinsic nature of music led him to employ a parallel of music, architecture and memory and to the
development of a perceptual, meaningful piece of architecture.

“Architecture is a science enhanced with many teachings and various branches of knowledge”.
(Palladio, 1570, cited in Antoniades, 1992).
According to Palladio, architecture is improved by learning from other disciplines. Indeed through this
argumentation and examples, it was highlighted that the use of music inspired architects to improvise
and experiment with space. The musical translation represents a creative channel through which
architects create innovative shapes, forms and experiences and express themselves as any other artist
does.
Considering the continuous evolution of music and constitution techniques, the scope of
architectural experimentations is wide and guaranties many surprises.
1 The technique of drawing vertical lines through the music is what engendered the name music score (Rasmussen, 1962,
p.132).
2 German architect (1887-1953).
3 American architect (1867-1959).
4 Metastasis, or Metastaseis, 8 minutes orchestral work for 61 musicians by Iannis Xenakis, written in 1953-54.
5 Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta is one of the best-known compositions by the Hungarian composer Béla
th th
Bartok. The music score is dated September 7 , 1936 and was premiered in Basel, Switzerland on January 21 1937.
6 Moses und Aaron, in English Moses and Aaron, was written by the German Composer Arnold Schoenberg, the three-act
opera was composed between 1930 and 1932.

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