MINSDSET FOR IELTS – LEVEL 2

UNIT 2: LEISURE AND RECREATION

SECTION 1: READING
READING PRACTICE - THEME: LEISURE AND RECREATION
1. READING PASSAFE 1

Running on empty

A revolutionary new theory in sports physiology.

A For almost a century, scientists have presumed, not unreasonably, that fatigue - or
exhaustion in athletes originates in the muscles. Precise explanations have varied but
all have been based on the ‘limitations theory’. In other words, muscles tire because
they hit a physical limit: they either run out of fuel or oxygen or they drown in toxic by-
products.
B In the past few years, however, Timothy Noakes and Alan St Clair Gibson from the
University of Cape Town, South Africa, have examined this standard theory. The deeper
they dig, the more convinced they have become that physical fatigue simply isn't the
same as a car running out of petrol. Fatigue, they argue, is caused not by distress
signals springing from overtaxed muscles, but is an emotional response which begins in
the brain. The essence of their new theory is that the brain, using a mix of physiological,
subconscious and conscious cues, paces the muscles to keep them well back from the
brink of exhaustion. When the brain decides its time to quit, it creates the distressing
sensations we interpret as unbearable muscle fatigue. This ‘central governor* theory
remains controversial, but it does explain many puzzling aspects of athletic
performance.
C A recent discovery that Noakes calls the ‘lactic acid paradox' made him start
researching this area seriously. Lactic acid is a by-product of exercise, and its
accumulation is often cited as a cause of fatigue. But when research subjects exercise
in conditions simulating high altitude, they become fatigued even though lactic acid
levels remain low. Nor has the oxygen content of their blood fallen too low for them to
keep going. Obviously, Noakes deduced, something else was making them tire before
they hit either of these physiological limits.
D Probing further, Noakes conducted an experiment with seven cyclists who had
sensors taped to their legs to measure the nerve impulses travelling through their
muscles. It has long been known that during exercise, the body never uses 100% of the
available muscle fibres in a single contraction. The amount used varies, but in
endurance tasks such as this cycling test the body calls on about 30%.
E Noakes reasoned that if the limitations theory was correct and fatigue was due to
muscle fibres hitting some limit, the number of fibres used for each pedal stroke should
increase as the fibres tired and the cyclist’s body attempted to compensate by recruiting
an ever-larger proportion of the total. But his team found exactly the opposite. As fatigue
set in, the electrical activity in the cyclists' legs declined - even during sprinting, when
they were striving to cycle as fast as they could.
F To Noakes, this was strong evidence that the old theory was wrong. ‘The cyclists may
have felt completely exhausted,’ he says, ‘but their bodies actually had considerable
reserves that they could theoretically tap by using a greater proportion of the resting
fibres.’ This, he believes, is proof that the brain is regulating the pace of the workout to
hold the cyclists well back from the point of catastrophic exhaustion.
G More evidence comes from the fact that fatigued muscles don’t actually run out of
anything critical. Levels of glycogen, which is the muscles’ primary fuel, and ATP. the
chemical they use for temporary energy storage, decline with exercise but never bottom
out. Even at the end of a marathon, ATP levels are 80-90% of the resting norm, and
glycogen levels never get to zero.
H Further support for the central regulator comes from the fact that top athletes usually
manage to go their fastest at the end of a race, even though, theoretically, that's when
their muscles should be closest to exhaustion. But Noakes believes the end spurt
makes no sense if fatigue is caused by muscles poisoning themselves with lactic acid
as this would cause racers to slow down rather than enable them to sprint for the finish
line. In the new theory, the explanation is obvious. Knowing the end is near, the brain
slightly relaxes its vigil, allowing the athlete to tap some of the body’s carefully hoarded
reserves.
I But the central governor theory does not mean that what's happening in the muscles is
irrelevant. The governor constantly monitors physiological signals from the muscles,
along with other information, to set the level of fatigue. A large number of signals are
probably involved but, unlike the limitations theory, the central governor theory suggests
that these physiological factors are not the direct determinants of fatigue, but simply
information to take into account.
J Conscious factors can also intervene. Noakes believes that the central regulator
evaluates the planned workout, and sets a pacing strategy accordingly. Experienced
runners know that if they set out on a 10-kilometre run. the first kilometre feels easier
than the first kilometre of a 5-kilometre run, even though there should be no difference.
That, Noakes says, is because the central governor knows you have farther to go in the
longer run and has programmed itself to dole out fatigue symptoms accordingly.
K St Clair Gibson believes there is a good reason why our bodies arc designed to keep
something back. That way, there's always something left in the tank for an emergency.
In ancient times, and still today, life would be too dangerous if our bodies allowed us to
become so tired that we couldn't move quickly when faced with an unexpected need.
Questions 1-6
Reading Passage 3 has eleven paragraphs A-K.
Choose the correct heading for Paragraphs A-F from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number (i-viii) in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
 
List of headings
i         Avoiding tiredness in athletes
ii        Puzzling evidence raises a question
iii       Traditional explanations
iv       Interpreting the findings
v         Developing muscle fibres
vi        A new hypothesis
vii       Description of a new test
viii      Surprising results in an endurance test
1   Paragraph A
2   Paragraph B
3   Paragraph C
4  Paragraph D
5  Paragraph E
6  Paragraph F

Questions 7-13
Classify the following ideas as relating to
A the Limitations Theory
B the Central Governor Theory
C both the Limitations Theory and the Central Governor Theory
 
Write the correct letter A, B or C in boxes 7-13 on your answer sheet.
NB: You may use any letter more than once.
7   Lactic acid is produced in muscles during exercise.
8   Athletes can keep going until they use up all their available resources.
9   Mental processes control the symptoms of tiredness.
10 The physiological signals from an athlete's muscles are linked to fatigue.
11  The brain plans and regulates muscle performance in advance of a run.
12  Athletes' performance during a race may be affected by lactic acid build-up.
13  Humans are genetically programmed to keep some energy reserves.

THE ‘BEAUTIFUL’ GAME

A
Every nation has a sport to represent it. In the U.S., there is baseball; in New Zealand,
rugby. In the UK, football is the national sporting obsession. While many UK teams have
gained international recognition, Manchester United is among those most well-known on
a global scale. Yet while most people, regardless of the sporting preference or
nationality, have some passing knowledge of Manchester United, fewer can claim
knowledge of the origins of the team. Manchester United came into being in 1902 as a
result of bankruptcy of the team formerly known as Newton Heath. Newton Heath began
life as Newton Heath LYR (Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway) club and as the name
suggests, the original team was comprised of railway workers. Despite turning
professional in 1885 and becoming the founding member of the Football Lions in 1889,
Newton Heath – nicknamed the ‘Heathens’ – was constantly troubled by financial
difficulties.
B
Salvation came in the form of local brewer, John Henry Davis, who agreed to invest in
the team on condition of being given some interest in running it. After consideration of
the alternatives titles of Manchester Central and Manchester Celtic, the club was
christened Manchester United in April 1902. United’s first manager, though officially
titled Secretary, was Ernest Mangnall, who was appointed in September 1903, but it
was not until the season of 1905/1906, that United experienced its first taste of success.
His side reached the quarterfinals of the F.A, Cup and were runners up in the second
division.
C
In 1907, United claimed the championship for the first time and won the first ever
Charity Shield trophy in 1908. In the following year, United claimed the F.A. Cup trophy
after beating Bristol City. Manchester United moved to its new stadium, Old Trafford, in
early 1910. The move to the stadium, owned by the John Henry Davis brewery (a
Manchester beer-making company), was proven to be fortunate as on the 17th of
February, 1910, two days before the team’s first scheduled game, the previous stadium
Banks Street was destroyed in a fire. The new stadium had a capacity for a crowd of
80,000 spectators and despite losing to their first visiting team Liverpool, Manchester
United were once again league champions at the end of the first full season playing
from Old Trafford.
D
The following years were to be less of a success. From 1912 to the onset of the First
World War, no significant victories were achieved. During the war the football league
was suspended and only regional competitions took place. 1919 saw the return of
Manchester United to league football with only two of the original members in the team.
E
Although Britain has a long and proud history of football adoration, contemporary
football supporters from the UK have gained a negative reputation for outbursts of
violence against rival supporters, earning the label ‘football hooligan’. The football
hooliganism phenomenon has attracted the attention of a number of researchers and
psychologists who have offered theories relating to its causes. It is generally agreed that
a combination of factors may initiate this type of anti-social behaviour and that it is
unrealistic to contend that all such behaviour stems from a particular psychological
make-up or belongs to a specific age or class. Experts do however believe that
rampaging hooligan behaviour can instil a sense of belonging and ‘community’ in
participants who feel that they can strongly identify with their group, regardless of the
fact that the group’s behaviour is negative.
F
Analysts also argue that the motivations for outbursts of violence experienced in an
international setting are even more complex. Whilst alcohol and xenophobia no doubt
play a part they say, some psychologists hold that policing tactics, to a large degree,
dictate the level of disturbance likely to occur. Evidence supports the view that
confrontational policing is much more likely to escalate than calm any incidences of
trouble. The media’s actions have also been criticised due to the belief by some that
messages given in newspaper reporting may also exacerbate the existing problem of
football hooliganism.
G
Critics say that certain headlines used by tabloid newspapers may glorify acts of
violence and at least, the prolific news reports which are published in the UK about this
issue cause perpetrators to receive undue attention and acknowledgement for their
actions. Whilst few disagree that football hooliganism is a significant social problem,
many researchers hold that sensationalist media reporting may also be creating undue
panic since the problem is often presented as much more widespread than is the reality.
Extreme cases of hooliganism from British fans has reduced significantly over recent
years, and while it may take some considerable time for the negative reputation they
have earned to subside, it is also true that a large proportion of supporters have no
involvement in violence and simply share a love of the game.

Questions 1-3
Choose THREE letters A-H.
Write your answers in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.
NB Your answers may be given in any order
Which THREE of the following statements are true of Newton Heath?
A      Newton Heath football club was established in 1902.
B     It was the only Lancashire-based club at the time.
C It developed from a club with a similar name.
D    It ceased being an amateur team in 1885.
E     It was the most famous British football club of the period.
F    The club experienced economic hitches.
G   Its name changed one more time before becoming Manchester United.
 
Questions 4-7
Complete the summary with the list of words A-K below.
Write the correct letter A-K in boxes 4-7 on your answer sheet.
According to expert opinion, there is little (4)________ that football hooliganism
occurs as a result of a number of issues and does not necessarily correlate with
age, psychological profile or (5)________ . External triggers such as newspaper
reports and antagonistic (6) ________ can be attributed to escalation of the
problem in certain situations. Some psychologists believe that such behaviour
and membership of trouble-making groups can give certain individuals a sense
of (7)________that may otherwise be missing in their lives.
A isolation       B policing        C anger        D occupation
E belief            F proof           G class         H intelligence
I excitement    J unity             K doubt
 
 

Questions 8-12
Reading Passage has 7 paragraphs A-G.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter A-G in boxes 8-12 on your answer sheet
NB Each paragraph may be used more than once

8. details about stipulations made to offer financial assistance to the club

9. reasons for disruption of national competitions
10. information about why the problem of violence at football matches
may be perceived by the general public to be larger than it is.
11. deliberations about the Manchester United name
12. a reference to a new competition