Grammatical Categories and Word Classes

Answer to Ex. 5.1: Nominal Categories

1. (a) possessive (g) partitive (double genitive)
(b) objective (h) descriptive
(c) subjective (i) partitive
(d) descriptive (j) measure
(e) origin (k) subjective
(f) measure (l) descriptive

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2. (a) generally known (e) first mention/previous mention
(b) immediate context (f) generic
(c) modifying expression (g) a = 'any'
(d) no identification possible (h) proper > common

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3. (a) derivational affix for feminine gender
(b) separate forms for masculine/feminine; masculine used for common gender
(c) compounding
(d) separate words for masculine/feminine/common gender
(e) common gender derivational affix
(f) compounding

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4. (a) suppletive
(b) incomparable adjective
(c) superlative used for high degree = 'very'
(d) superlative used for two things, where comparative expected
(e) inflection with disyllabic adjective ending in -le
(f) latter no longer comparative, last no longer superlative

Answer to Ex. 5.2: Verbal Categories

1. (a) gnomic (proverbial) statement
(b) future statement
(c) habit
(d) state
(e) plot summary
(f) narration in the present
(g) timeless statement
(h) information present
 (i) gnomic statement
(j) state
(k) instantaneous present
(l) habit
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2. (a) resultative (d) continuative
(b) resultative (e) continuative
(c) resultative (f) continuative
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3. (a) continuous activity - endpoint not reached
(b) process leading to an endpoint
(c) continuous activity - no necessary endpoint
(d) iterative activity
(e) continuous activity - endpoint not reached
(f) continuous activity - no necessary endpoint
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4. (a) agentless get-passive
(b) notional passive = 'is capable of being brushed off'
(c) active participle with passive meaning = 'need to be polished'
(d) middle/reflexive
(e) progressive passive, agentless
(f) become stative form
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5. (a) inflected subjunctive following suggest
(b) inflected subjunctive in if- clause, modal auxiliary in main-clause
(c) past tense used for politeness
(d) modal auxiliary
(e) modal adverb
(f) parenthetical clause

Answer to Ex. 5.3: Grammatical Categories

1. (a) inflection: the student's paper
periphrasis: the title page of the paper
inflection and periphrasis: one of the student's papers
(b) periphrasis: be + pstprt - The tree was felled.
get + pstprt - The roof got damaged.
inflection: notional passive - This fabric holds up well.
(c) periphrases: will - I will help you.
will + progressive - I will be working tomorrow.
be going to - I am going to look into the problem.
progressive - I am running a race this weekend.
inflection: simple present - I finish my job tomorrow.
 (d) periphrases: to - I gave the food to the dog.
for - I made a house for the dog.
word order: I made the dog a house.
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2. (a) genitive case subjective
(b) present tense timeless statement
(c) perfect aspect continuative
(d) future tense present intention
(e) definiteness immediate context
(f) plural number generic
(g) neuter gender expedient
(h) passive voice actional (get-passive)
(i) present tense gnomic
(j) dative case indirect object
(k) first person speaker
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3. (a) perfect aspect periphrasis
(b) subjunctive mood inflection
(c) common gender derivational affix
(d) indefiniteness covert
(e) 1st p imperative periphrasis
(f) common gender lexical
(g) perfect-progressive aspect periphrasis
(h) past tense inflection
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4. (a) progressive aspect expressed by periphrasis
present tense expressed by inflection of auxiliary
3rd p sgexpressed by inflection
indicative mood, active voice expressed by inflection
(b) genitive case, 1st person, and singular number expressed by inflected form of pronoun
(c) imperative mood expressed by syntactic form
(d) objective case expressed by word order
singular number expressed by zero inflection on noun
neuter gender expressed covertly
indefiniteness expressed by indefinite article, expressed covertly on noun by cooccurrence
(e) perfect aspect expressed by periphrasis
past tense expressed by inflection of auxiliary
3rd p sgexpressed by inflection
indicative mood, active voice expressed by inflection
(f) plural number expressed by inflection on noun
masculine gender expressed by compounded form of noun
objective case expressed by word order
 indefiniteness expressed covertly
(g) passive voice expressed by periphrasis
(h) definiteness expressed by definite article, expressed covertly on noun by cooccurrence
(i) comparative degree expressed by suppletion (better)
periphrasis (less verbose, more coherent)
inflection (clearer)

Answer to Ex. 5.5: Word Classes

1. (a) A
(b) A
(c) V
(d) Adv
(e) Prt
(f) N
(g) P
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2. (a) A
(b) Prt
(c) V
(d) N
(e) A
(f) P
(g) Adv
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3. ambitious predicative adjective
failed intransitive verb
discharged transitive verb
my determiner
duty abstract noun (also count)
society collective noun (also count)
stunt concrete noun (also count)
too degree word
long adverb
most degree word
already adverb
under preposition
need auxiliary
reflect transitive verb
makeshift attributive adjective
is auxiliary
whatever determiner
beauty mass noun (also abstract)
must auxiliary
exuberance mass noun (also abstract)
is copula verb
difference abstract noun
between preposition
planetary attributive adjective
Syntax 2: Phrases
Answer to Ex. 7.3: Noun Phrases
1. The subject is within square brackets, the predicate is underlined:
(a) Every evening this week, [there] will be a different movie.
Question test: Will [there] be a different movie every evening this week?
Tag test: [There] will be a different movie every evening this week, won't [there]?
(b) [Running the race] exhausted him.
Question test: Did [running the race] exhaust him?
Tag test: [Running the race] exhausted him, didn't [it]? (It replaces running the race.)
(c) [The boxes in the back room] are to remain.
Question test: Are [the boxes in the back room] to remain?
Tag test: [The boxes in the back room] are to remain, aren't [they]? (They replaces the boxes in the back
room.)
(d) [That I am not pleased with the findings] must be obvious.
Question test: *Must [that I am not pleased with the findings] be obvious?
(The difficulty arises from the fact that the subject is an entire clause. Note that when it is moved to the
end and replaced by it the question form is fine: Must it be obvious that I am not pleased with the findings?)
Tag test: ?[That I am not pleased with the findings] must be obvious, mustn't [it]? (It replaces That. The
awkwardness results from the use of must in the tag.)
(e) Last winter in Vancouver, [it] didn't snow.
Question test: Didn't [it] snow last winter in Vancouver?
Tag test: [It] didn't snow last winter in Vancouver, did it?
(f) Ketchup on French fries [I] find disgusting.
Question test: Do [I] find ketchup on French fries disgusting?
(Semantically this is odd since one doesn't usually question one's own likes, but syntactically fine.)
Tag test: [I] find ketchup on French fries disgusting, don't [I]?

Exercise 7.4: Verb Subcategorization

4. In many, but not all, cases these sentences allows indirect object movement:
?He gave a tune-up to the engine.
She gave a push to the door.
We gave a ride to the hitch-hiker.
Tammy didn't give a thought to her problems.
But note that the indirect object is often not animate (engine, door, problems). The direct object always
expresses an event rather than an object (tune-up, push, ride, thought) and the verb + object construction is
often equivalent to a simple verb identical or related in form to the direct object:
He tuned up the engine.
She pushed the door.
*We rode the hitch-hiker.
Tammy didn't think about his problems.
These collocations have been called "complex/composite predicates". They are commonly formed with the
verbs have (have a bath), take (take a walk), and make (make a decision) as well as give.
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5. In the examples given, the first is ditransitive, the second is transitive, the third is transitive, and the fourth is
intransitive. The second sentence would appear to have a latent object, however, since "salary" or "wages" must
be understood from context. The third sentence does not appear to have a latent indirect object, since bills need
not be paid to someone (though they may be). The fourth sentence does appear to have a latent object since
Bert paid is not equivalent to Bert is a payer. Thus, it can be concluded that pay is monotransitive and
ditransitive.

Exercise 7.5: Phrase Structure and Function

1. Category Function
(a) NP dO
(b) PP pC of V
(c) AdvP Mod of A
(d) NP Su
(e) AP sC
(f) AP oC
(g) PP Mod of N
(h) AP Mod of N
(i) NP iO
(j) NP OP
(k) PP oC
(l) PP pC of A
(m) NP sC
(n) PP pC of P
(o) AP Mod of N
(p) PP sC
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2. Verb type:
(a) copulative
(b) (mono)transitive
(c) complex transitive
(d) complex transitive
(e) prepositional
(f) copulative
(g) copulative
(h) prepositional
(i) (mono)transitive
(j) complex transitive
Syntax 3: Types of clauses
Answer to Ex. 8.1: Types of Adverbials
1. Category Type of Adverb
(a) unfortunately AdvP dA
(b) by the way PP cA
(c) to my annoyance PP dA
(d) finally AdvP aA
in 1960 PP aA
(e) finally AdvP cA
with the dawn prayer PP aA
(f) wickedly AdvP Mod of A high
otherwise AdvP Mod of A tame
(g) otherwise AdvP cA
(h) otherwise AdvP aA
(i) stupidly AdvP aA
(j) stupidly AdvP Mod of A happy
(k) stupidly AdvP dA

Answer to Ex. 8.2: Postverbal PPs

1. (a) for me oC
(b) for several hours aA
in the studio aA
(c) into a savage predator oC
(d) on Prt
(e) with the verdict comp of A
(f) of cookies Mod of N
to the minifridge oC (pC)
(g) up Prt
in the phone book oC (pC)
(h) for a position pC
at MIT Mod of N
(i) in operation sC
before the end aA
of the year Mod of N
(j) to Portugal pC
with three children pC
(k) down Prt
of the dream Mod of N
(l) back Prt
to the Pentagon oC (pC)
(m) on Prt
 for the prince's ball aA
(n) like an oil slick sC
in the summer aA
(o) of the need comp of A
for change Mod of N

3. (a) up is a preposition, part of the prepositional complement up the street.

(b) up is a particle, part of the transitive phrasal verb put up.
(c) up is a preposition, part of the adjunct adverbial up a steep grade
(d) up is an particle, part of the intransitive phrasal verb turn up.
(e) up is an adjunct adverbial.
(f) up is an adjective functioning as subject complement.

Answer to Ex. 8.3: Aux

1. (a) present perfect of be

(b) past progressive of be

(c) present perfect progressive of have

(d) past modal perfect progressive of eat

(e) present modal progressive of pay

(f) past modal perfect progressive of play

(g) past modal perfect of overlooked

(h) (past) modal progressive of earn

(i) past modal perfect passive of postpone

(j) present progressive passive of arrange

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2. (a) will be writing
(b) has seen
(c) was born
(d) are coming

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3. (a) {will, can, may, shall} be sung
 (b) {would, could, might, should} be singing
(c) {has, have} sung
(d) {am, is, are} being sung

Exercise 8.5: Passive Sentences

2. Explain why each of the following sentences cannot be passivized. What type of verb does each contain?
(a) The verb is prepositional-locative. Generally only nonlocative prepositional verbs can be
passivized.
(b) The verb is copulative, with upstairs being a subject complement, not a direct object.
(c) The verb is stative; hence my neighbors are not agents.
(d) The verb is intransitive. This morning is adverbial.
(e) The verb is copulative, with an airplane pilot being a subject complement, not a direct object.
(f) The verb is intransitive, and ten miles is adverbial.