CLIMATOLOGY

Topics covered 17. World distribution of isobars

18. Pressure Systems of the World (Vertical and
1. Climate and weather horizontal Pressure Belts)
2. Evolution of atmosphere 19. El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
3. Composition of atmosphere 20. Wind Systems of the World
1. Air 1. Permanent- Planetary Winds
2. Dust particle 2. Variable- Seasonal and Local winds
3. Green House Gases 21. Jet Streams
4. Structure of Atmosphere 22. Air Mass
1. Troposphere 23. Fronts
2. Stratosphere 24. Cyclones- Tropical & Temperate Cyclone, their
3. Mesosphere Formation, their Distribution, their Differences
4. Thermosphere 25. Thunderstorm
5. Exosphere 26. Tornados or Twisters
5. Insolation and terrestrial radiation 27. Rossby Waves
1. Variability of insolation at the surface of 28. Polar Vortex
the Earth 29. Ozone Depletion & Hole
2. Albedo 30. Polar Stratospheric Clouds
3. Heat Budget 31. Aurora
6. Temperature Distribution on the Earth
1. Controlling factors Syllabus for GS Paper
2. Isotherm
7. Air moisture 1. Prelims Paper I
1. Water in the atmosphere o Indian and World Geography-Physical,
2. Humidity Social, Economic Geography of India
8. Temperature lapse rate and the World.
1. Rising and Falling Air Parcel 2. Paper 2 (GS-I)
2. Adiabatic Lapse Rate o Salient features of the world’s physical
9. Types of condensation geography.
10. Temperature Inversion
1. Ground surface inversion
2. Upper air inversion
3. Frontal or cyclonic inversion
4. Surface inversion of temperature
5. Valley inversion
11. Temperature inversion implications
12. Types of precipitation - Rain, Frost, Sleet, Hail
13. Rainfall Types
14. Atmospheric circulation
1. Vertical and horizontal variation
2. Coriolis force
3. Frictional force
4. Pressure gradient force
15. Geostrophic wind
16. Pressure and wind
EVOLUTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE 2. They don’t lose their properties
3. They act as a single unified gas
Climate Weather
Climate is the weather It is the mix of events that COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
of a place averaged happen each day in our
over a period of time, atmosphere (One atmosphere • Atmosphere is a mixture of different odorless,
often 30 years. on the Earth but different tasteless and colorless gases, dust and vapour.
weathers at different • It is a relatively thin layer enveloping the earth all
locations). round and held by the Earth’s gravity. It extends
Describes what the Refers to short-term changes several thousands of kilometres above earth surface.
weather is like over a in the atmosphere. • It is a protective boundary between outer space and
long period of time in a the biosphere.
specific area.
Its study known as Its study known as Air
Climatology Meteorology
• Air is mostly gas.
• There are three stages in the evolution of the present • Air in motion is called wind.
atmosphere. • Atmosphere is an envelope of air composed of
numerous gases. These gases support life over the
1. Loss of primordial atmosphere. earth’s surface.
• The air in Earth’s atmosphere is made up of
• The early atmosphere, with hydrogen and helium, is approximately 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen.
supposed to have been stripped off as a result of the • Air also has small amounts of lots of other gases,
solar winds. too, such as carbon dioxide, neon, and hydrogen.
1. Evolution of the atmosphere by hot interior of the
earth.
▪ During early life of the earth, Nitrogen, Sulphur,
Carbon Dioxide, Water Vapour, and Argon came
out due to the extensive volcanism and
degassing.
2. Modification of atmospheric composition by the
living world through the process of
photosynthesis.
▪ Water vapour condensed,that led to the formation
of clouds andhence the rainfall washed out the
bulk of Carbon Dioxide intothe Oceans.
▪ Oxygenwas produced from anaerobic respiration
of bacteria like, Cynobacteria (and not from
degassing).
• The present composition of earth’s atmosphere is
chiefly contributed by nitrogen and oxygen.

PROPERTIES OF GASES

• Nitrogen, Oxygen, Hydrogen and Argon are

permanent gases.
• Water vapour, Carbon Dioxide, Ozone are variable
gases.
• Neon, Argon – inert gases
• Atmospheric gases
1. No chemical interaction among them
 • This process makes Earth much warmer than it
would be without an atmosphere.
• The greenhouse effect is one of the things that make
Earth a comfortable place to live.

Greenhouse Gases

• Greenhouse gases are gases in Earth’s atmosphere

that trap heat.
• They let sunlight pass through the atmosphere, but
they prevent the heat that the sunlight brings from
leaving the atmosphere.
• GHGs absorblong wave terrestrial radiation.
• Some of the main greenhouse gases are:
Dust Particles 1. Water vapor
2. Carbon dioxide
• Small solid particles originate from different 3. Methane
sources. 4. Ozone
• It includes sea salts, fine soil, smoke-soot, ash,
pollen, dust and disintegrated particles of meteors. Each gas's effect on climate change depends on 3 main
• They are generally concentrated in the lower layers factors
of the atmosphere.
• They canbe transported to great heights by
1. How much is in the atmosphere?
convectional air currents.
o Concentration, or abundance, i.e. the amount of a
• The higher concentration of dust particles is found
particular gas in the air.
in subtropical and temperate regionsdue to dry winds
o Larger emissions of greenhouse gases lead to
in comparison to equatorial and Polar Regions.
higher concentrations in the atmosphere.
2. How long do they stay in the atmosphere?
Hygroscopic nuclei: They are the dust particles around o Each of these gases can remain in the atmosphere
which the water vapor condense to form clouds. for different amounts of time, ranging from a few
years to thousands of years.
3. How strongly do they impact the atmosphere?
o Some gases are more effective than others at
making the planet warmer and "thickening the
Earth's blanket."

For each greenhouse gas, a Global Warming Potential

(GWP) has been calculated to reflect how long it
remains in the atmosphere, on average, and how strongly
it absorbs energy. Gases with a higher GWP absorb
more energy than gases with a lower GWP, and thus
contribute more to warming Earth.

Water vapour

• A variable gas in the atmosphere that decreases with

altitude and on moving from the equator towards the
poles.
Greenhouse Effect • Its concentration is higher in warm and wet tropics
in comparison of the dry and cold areas of desert and
• The greenhouse effect is aprocess that occurs when Polar Regions.
gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's heat.
• It also absorbs parts of the incoming solar • Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and
radiationand preserves the radiated heat from the industrial activities, combustion of fossil fuels and
earth (terrestrial radiation). solid waste, as well as during treatment of
• Hence, it acts like a blanket allowing the earth wastewater.
neither to become too cold nor too hot.
• It also contributes to the stability and instability in Fluorinated gases
the air.
• These are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that
Carbon Dioxide are emitted from a variety of industrial processes.
• Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as substitutes
• Meteorologically a very important gas because of its for stratospheric ozone-depleting substances.
transparency to the incoming solar radiation but • These gases are typically emitted in smaller
opaqueness to the outgoing terrestrial radiation. quantities, but because they are potent greenhouse
• It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global
back some part of it towards the surface of earth. Warming Potential gases ("High GWP gases").
• It is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect.
Ozone
Methane
• Important component of the atmosphere found
• One of the most important greenhouse gases. between 10 and 50 km above the earth’s surface.
• It is produced from decomposition of animal wastes • Prevents surface of the earth by absorbing the
and biological matter. harmful ultra-violet radiations coming from the sun.

Nitrous oxide

GROUND-LEVEL OZONE VERSES STRATOSPHERIC OZONE

Ground-level Ozone Stratospheric Ozone

Description • Bad Ozone • Good Ozone
• Part of Photochemical Smog (We will read • Act as natural filter which absorbs the Sun’s UV
about it later) rays
• Found in Troposphere • Found in Stratosphere

Sources • Forms when Nitrous Oxides (NOx) react • Naturally forms when Oxygen is in the presence of
with Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). UV radiation.

Effects • Eye and respiratory irritation Thinning of ozone shield leads to

• Lung disease
• Corrosion in buildings • Crop damage
• Aquatic life death
• Eye irritation
• Skin cancer
STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
Thermal Zone Segregation • Most important layer for all biological activity.
• Temperature reduces at 6.5ºC/km or 1ºC▼/165m
Troposphere (normal lapse rate) as we move up.

• Lowermost layer of the atmosphere. Stratosphere

• Also known as convective region(all convection
occurs till the Tropopause). • Extends from tropopause to 50 km.
• Tropopause: Zone separating the troposphere from • Important Feature = It contains the Ozone Layer
stratosphere. The temperature here is nearly (Shields life on the earth by absorbing intense,
constant. harmful ultra-violet radiation)
• Temperature inversion: Normal Lapse Rate ends
here. This warming of the stratosphere with altitude
is caused largely due to absorption of solar energy
by ozone.
• The air movements are almost horizontal. This is
because the effect of convection currents is almost
negligible in comparison to troposphere. This in turn
prevents vertical mixing of pollutants from
troposphere to stratosphere.
• Ideal region for flying jets as clouds are almost
absent (sometimes layer possess cirrus clouds in
lower level).
• Winds blow from west to east.

Mesosphere

• Ranges 50-80 km (Stratopause and Mesopause)

• Temperature again starts falling with elevation
(because no GHGs exists here, i.e. no heat absorbing
layer nor ozone layer).
o Temperature decrease from 0 ºC to -90 ºC.
• Meteors burn in this layer.
o Mesospheric or Noctilucent clouds visible at high
latitude during summer season due to the
condensation of moisture around the meteoric
dust.
o
Average height = 13 km • Mesopause= Upper limit of mesosphere
o
Highest at equator (18 km) because heat is • Very thin layer causes difficulty in breathing.
transported to great heights by strong convectional
currents
Thermosphere
o Lowest at poles (8 km)
• The temperature is also lowest at equator (-80ºC) as
compared to poles (-45ºC). This is because • It extends from 80-400 km and contains electrically
convectional currents are strongest at equator. charged particles known as ions (Region is known as
• 90% of total mass. Ionosphere).
• Contains dust particles and water vapor. • Temperature rises with height again due to
• Most cloud appear here as approx 99% of water proximity to the sun (Ions absorbs heat).
vapor is found here. o Even though the temperature is high but because
• All changes in climate and weather take place in this
of rarified atmosphere the heat could not be felt.
layer. • International Space Station&Satellitesorbit in this
• Seasons and jet streams affect troposphere. layer
• Aurorasalso form in this layer.
Exosphere • This layer reflects the harmful ultraviolet radiation
due to the presence of ozone molecules.
• Uppermost layer of the atmosphere. • The ozonosphere is also known as
• Above the thermosphere. chemospherebecause of immense chemical activity
• Highest layer and extremely rarefied. goes on here.
• It gradually merges with the outer space. • The temperature increases at a rate of 5°C/km.

Functional Zone Segregation Ionosphere

Ozonosphere • Where electron density is very high (100-300 km).

• Ions useful for Radio communication(reflects radio
waves).
• It spans the stratosphere and lower mesosphere and
lies at an altitude between 30 km and 60 kmfrom the
earth’s surface.
Gyanbazi (Extra Knowledge) atmosphere (mainly in the troposphere) while solar
Electromagnetic Spectrum radiation passes through it.

Coloring of the sky

• Sunlight reaches Earth's atmosphere and is scattered
in all directions by all the gases and particles in the
troposphere.
• A clear cloudless day-time, sky is blue because
molecules in the air scatter blue light from the sun
more than they scatter red light.
• When we look towards the sun at sunset, we see red
and orange colors because the blue light has been
scattered out and away from the line of sight.
Temperature

An objective measurement of how hot or cold an object

is. It can be measured with a thermometer or a
calorimeter.

Heat
Planck–Einstein relation ( Planck's energy–frequency It is a form of energy that is transferred between two
relation) substances at different temperatures.The effects of this
energy transfer usually, but not always, is an increase in
the temperature of the colder body and a decrease in the
temperature of the hotter body.

• A substance may absorb heat without an increase in

temperature by changing from one physical state
(known as phase) to another. This absorbed heat is
known as Latent Heat.

• Frequency = Number of occurrences of a repeating

event per unit of time.
• Wavelength = Distance between identical points in
the adjacent cycles of a waveform signal.
• Higher the Frequency = High Energy or Short
Wavelength

Much of the near infrared radiation absorbed by the

water vapor, ozone and other gases present in the
Heat versus Temperature 3. Advection– Heat transfer through horizontal
movement of the air.
While heat represents the molecular movement of 4. Radiation– The transfer of energy through empty
particles comprising a substance, the temperature is the space. There is no direct contact between heat source
measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or and an object.
a place) is. The interaction of incoming solar radiation
with the atmosphere and the earth’s surface creates heat
INSOLATION & TERRESTRIAL RADIATION
which is measured in terms of temperature.

• Plank’s law states that hotter a body, the more • Earth’s surface receives most of its energy in the
energy it will radiate and shorter the wavelength of form of short wavelengths known as incoming solar
that radiation. radiation (Insolation).
• Specific heat is the energy needed to raise the • The earth absorbs short wave radiation (Short
temperature of one gram of substance by one wavelength = High Energy) during daytime and
Celsius. reflects back the heat received into space as long-
wave radiation (mostly infrared radiation) during
Heat Transfer mechanisms night. It makes the Earth a radiating body.
• The long wave energy radiated by the Earth known
1. Conduction– Heat transfer by direct contact of as Terrestrial Radiation.
particles of matter. • Terrestrial Radiation heats the atmosphere from
2. Convection– Transfer of heat by the movement of a below as it is absorbed by the atmospheric gases
heated fluid (liquids and gases) molecules. Heat particularly the green house gases.
transfer by convection is caused by differences in • The atmosphere in turn radiates and transmits heat to
temperature and density within a fluid. the space.
• Finally, the amount of heat received from the sun is • This is the amount of insolation reflected by the
returned to space thereby maintaining constant body.
temperature at the earth’s surface and in the • It is defined as the ratio of the reflected radiation to
atmosphere. the total intercepted radiation.
• This is why earth neither warms up nor does it get • It is described in terms of percentage of reflected
cooled over a period of time. radiation.
• The amount of heat received by different parts of the • When sun is overhead, albedo is less.
earth is not equal which causes pressure differences • Albedo commonly refers to the "whiteness" of a
in the atmosphere. surface, with 0 meaning black and 1 meaning white.
• This leads to transfer of heat from one region to • A value of 0 means the surface is a "perfect
the other by winds. absorber" that absorbs all incoming energy and the
object having this surface is known as Blackbody.
VARIABILITY OF INSOLATION AT THE SURFACE OF THE
EARTH
The factors that cause these variations in insolation are:

1. Rotation of earth on its tilted axis (at 66.5 degree

with the plane of its orbit round the sun).
2. Angle of inclination of the sun’s rays
o Area under the insolation increases with
increasing latitude as a result of slant sun rays.
3. Length of the day
o Duration of the day affects the amount of
insolation received.
o Shorter the duration results in less received
insolation.
4. Transparency of the atmosphere
o Affects reflection, absorption or transmission of
insolation.
o Depends upon the cloud cover and its thickness,
dust particles, water vapor, etc
o Thick cloud hinders the solar radiation to reach
the earth’s surface.
o Water vapor absorbs solar radiation resulting in
less amount of insolation reaching the surface.
o Slant rays are required to pass through greater
depth of the atmosphere resulting in more
absorption, scattering and diffusion.
5. Configuration of land in terms of its topography
o Sun facing slopes receive more vertical rays of
sun. Heat Budget

Sub-solar point and Sun's declination • The earth as a whole does not accumulate or loose
• The point on earth where the sun is directly heat. It maintains its temperature.
overhead at a given point of time is called sub-solar • This can happen only if the amount of heat received
point. in the form of insolation equals the amount lost by
• The latitude of the sub-solar point is called Sun's the earth through terrestrial radiation
declination. (insolation=terrestrial radiation).

Albedo
 • 34% is absorbed by atmosphere again (19% via
latent heat of condensation).
• 17% is radiated directly to space.
• Atmosphere together radiates back 48% to the space.

Latitudinal Heat Balance

• 35% of insolation is radiated (27% from clouds, 2%

from ice) and 14% of insolation is absorbed by

• Latitudinal Heat Balance is the state of balance

which exists between the latitudinal belts by
maintaining net incoming solar radiation and the
outgoing terrestrial radiation.
• The amount of insolation received by earth surface
varies from latitude to latitude.
o At latitudes below 40º = Insolation ≥ Outgoing
Radiation (surplus of net radiation)
o At latitudes above 40º = Insolation ≤ Outgoing
atmosphere. Radiation (deficit of net radiation)
• Rest 51% of insolation reaching earth's surface get • Heat transfer takes from heat surplus zone to the
absorbed by it and later radiated back. heat deficit zone by ocean currents (20%) and
atmosphere (80%).
• The temperature of the earth as a whole remains DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE
constant due to this equilibrium.
• If there is no latitudinal heat balance, the deficit heat • The global distribution of temperature can well be
belt will become extremely cold and the surplus heat understood by studying the temperature distribution
belt will become extremely hot to live in. in January and July.
• The temperature distribution is generally shown on
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION ON THE EARTH the map with the help of isotherms.
Factors controlling the distribution of Temperature • Isotherms: Lines joining places having equal
(LACTO PAE) (BHUMIKA BANDHO) temperature at a given time or on average over a
given period.
1. Latitudes: Intensity of insolation decreases with the o Effects of altitude is not considered while
increase in latitude. Maximum temperature is not at drawing an isotherm.
equator but at 20ºN. • Temperature anomaly: The difference between
o Major portion is reflected by the clouds and mean temperature of a place and the mean
sizeable amount is lost in evaporation. temperature of its latitude is called temperature
o At 45º latitude, insolation is about 75% of that at anomaly.
equator. o Positive Anomaly = Local Temperature >
o At 66.5º latitude, it is about 50% of that at Latitude Temperature
equator. o Negative Anomaly = Local Temperature <
o At poles, it is about 40% of that at equator. Latitude Temperature
2. Altitude: Temperature decreases with increasing
height at an average rate of 6.5ºC/km. Above 40º N, continents have Negative Anomaly and
o The layers of air are denser at the earth surface oceans have Positive Anomaly for the year as a whole
and become lighter with increasing altitude. and vice versa for ocean.
o The lower layers contain water vapor and dust
particles. Isotherms and their general characteristics
3. Distance from the Coast: Temperature is moderated
by marine environment because of sea breeze and • Generally, follow the latitude parallels (because all
land breeze. the points located on the same latitude receives same
4. Terrestrial radiation: Major source of atmospheric amount of insolation).
heat is the earth’s surface from where heat is • Sudden bends at ocean-continent boundaries even on
transferred to the atmosphere. the same latitude (because of the differential heating
5. Ocean Currents: Warm currents raise temperature of land and water).
where as cold current reduces. (We will read Ocean • High thermal gradient (rapid change in
Currents in detail in Oceanography Chapter) temperature) indicated by narrow spacing between
6. Prevailing Winds: Winds transfer heat from one isotherms.
latitude to another as well as between land and water • Low thermal gradient (small or slow change in
bodies. temperatures) indicated by wide spacing between
o The oceanic winds bring moderating effect from isotherm.
the sea to coastal areas (cool summers and mild
winters). General Temperature Distribution
o This effect is pronounced only on the windward
side. The leeward side or the interiors • Highest temperatures = Tropics and sub-tropics
experiences extreme temperature as it do not get (high insolation)
moderating effect of the sea. (Grammer) • Lowest temperatures = Polar and Sub Polar Regions
7. Air mass: Places having warm air mass experiences • The interiors of continents have highest diurnal and
higher temperature than the places comes under annual temperature range because of continentality
influence of cold air mass. (We will read Air Mass effect (No moderating effect of oceans).
in detail ahead) • Temperature gradients are usually low over the
8. Effect of continentality: Daily Range of temperature eastern margins (because of warm ocean currents)
is less in marine climate, while extremely high in and high over the western margins (because of cold
continental climate. ocean currents) of continents.
 o The isotherms show a poleward shift while apparent southward movement of the sun) and the
passing through an area with warm ocean high temperature belt runs somewhere along 30°S
currents. latitude.
• An enhanced land-sea contrast makes isotherms • The western margins of continents are more warm
irregular over the northern hemisphere. the eastern margins due to the Westerlies that carry
o Northern hemisphere is warmer than the southern high temperature into the landmasses.
o hemisphere due to the predominance of • The eastern margins of continents have close
landmass. temperature gradient.
• Temperature contrast between continents and oceans • The effect of the ocean makes isotherms almost
are greater during winters than in summers. parallel to the latitudes in southern hemisphere.
• Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical • Landmasses are cooler than the oceans in the
Deserts due to less cloudiness. northern hemisphere.
o The isotherms bend towards the poles while
The cold currents and warm currents would be discussed crossing oceans and to the equator while
in detail in Oceanography. crossing landmasses.
• Oceans are cooler than the landmasses in the
January southern hemisphere.
o Isotherms bend towards the equator while
• Summer in southern hemisphere and winter in the crossing oceans and towards the poles while
northern hemisphere. crossing landmasses.
• The thermal equator lies to the south of geographical
equator (because ITCZ shifts southward with the

July
• Summer in northern hemisphere and winter in the • The deviation of isotherms is not that much
southern hemisphere. pronounced in July as in January, especially in the
• The thermal equator lies to the north of geographical northern hemisphere.
equator (due to the northward shift of ITCZ with the • Oceans are cooler than the landmasses in the
apparent northward movement of the sun). northern hemisphere.
• The southern hemisphere has regular gradient but o Isotherms bend towards the equator while
shows a slight bend towards the equator at the crossing oceans and towards the poles while
continents edge. crossing landmasses.
• Landmasses are cooler than the oceans in the
southern hemisphere.
o The isotherms bend towards the poles while
crossing oceans and to the equator while crossing
landmasses.

AIR MOISTURE

Water in the Atmosphere

Water or Hydrological cycle

• The water between the atmosphere, the oceans and

the continents continuously exchanges through the
processes of
1. Evaporation (Moisture driven from atmosphere
by transforming liquid into gaseous state)
2. Transpiration (Moisture driven from plants)
3. Condensation (In the form of clouds)
4. Precipitation ((In the form of rain)
• The hydrological cycle maintains the balance
between these processes so that the total amount of
moisture in the entire system remain constant.
• Water vapor in air varies from zero to four
percent by volume of the atmosphere and plays an
important role in the weather phenomena.
 o Change in temperature or pressure may be
impact volume hence affects absolute
humidity.
2. Specific Humidity
o It is the weight of water vapor per unit
weight of dry air.
o Since it is the weight of the air now, it is not
impacted by change in temperature or
pressure.
3. Relative humidity (RH)
o Proportion of actual water vapor present in
the air to its water vapor carrying capacity at
a constant temperature.
o Saturated Air parcel = 100% RH (The air is
at full moisture carrying capacity and no
further moisture addition is possible)
o Relative humidity can be affected by two
ways
1. By adding moisture through evaporation
(by increase in absolute humidity)
• RH = Over Ocean (greater
availability of water for
evaporation) > Over Continent
2. By changing temperature of air (Change
in saturation point)
• Change in temperature can affect
the moisture carrying capacity of the
atmosphere.
o Dew Point = Temperature at which the
sample of air becomes saturated and it
cannot hold moisture any further.

Measurement

• Hygrometer is an instrument used to measure

humidity.
• Psychrometer is a hygrometer with one dry bulb
thermometer and one wet bulb thermometer. The
difference between the two readings gives the
Humidity humidity.

Water vapor present in the air is known as humidity. Temperature Lapse Rate

1. Absolute humidity • It is rate of change in temperature observed with

o It is the weight of water vapor per unit rising altitude.
volume of moist air. • Positive = Temperature decreases with altitude
o It is an actual amount of water vapor present (Normal Lapse Rate)
in atmosphere. • Zero = Temperature is constant with altitude
o It is expressed as grams of moisture per • Negative = Temperature increases with altitude
cubic meter of air (g/m3). (known as temperature inversion)
 • This fall in temperature with altitude is called
Temperature Lapse and the rate at which it falls is
known as Temperature Lapse Rate.

Rising and Falling Air Parcel

• The object sinks or rises in a fluid based on the its

relative density with fluid.
• Air parcel density is more than the surrounding
environment = It will fall
• Air parcel density is less than the surrounding
environment = It will rise

Rising Air Parcel

1. Air parcel heated more than surrounding (Heat

exchange hence non-adiabatic) = Temperature
increase → Volume increase (due to expansion,
Charles's law) → Density decrease
o At constant Pressure, Change in Volume is
Why does temperature fall with rising altitude directly proportional to Temperature change
(i.e. Increase in Temperature →Increase in
• The temperature falls with rising altitude is primarily Volume)
due to two reasons. o Since there is only heat interaction take place
1. Atmospheric pressure falls (Pressure is directly with no addition of any mass in the air parcel,
proportional to Temperature and vice versa) volume increases at constant mass.
2. Reduced greenhouse gases concentration (leading
low heat absorption capacity of atmosphere).
 o As density is given by mass divided by volume, decrease in density.
volume increment at constant mass causes

2. Rising air parcel → Less pressure above increases volume, Boyle's law) due to decreased
(Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude) → pressure → Temperature falls (due to internal
Volume increases (Removing pressure from object changes rather than heat exchange hence adiabatic)

3. The increased volume causes further decrease in

density. The air parcel keeps rising. As there is no
 interaction of heat, only expansion leads temperature • Dry or unsaturated air parcel cools down early than
decrement. The rate at which this temperature fall the saturated as there is less release of latent heat of
occurs is called Positive Adiabatic Lapse Rate. condensation.
• Low amount of vapor = High ALR
Falling Air Parcel o Less internal heat release heat in the form of
latent heat of condensation, hence more
1. Air parcel at upper level → Heat exchange between temperature reduction.
the air parcel and the surrounding environment • Average DALR for the Earth’s atmosphere =
(hence non-adiabatic process) → Temperature falls 8°C/km
→ Volume decreases (Charles's law) → Density • DALR is mainly associated with stable
increases conditions (because it has less moisture).
o This can also occur if an air parcel comes in
contact with cooler surfaces like mountain slopes. Significance in meteorology
2. Air parcel start falling when its density become
greater than surrounding. • The difference between the Normal Adiabatic Lapse
3. With fall, internal temperature of a falling air parcel Rate (NALR) in the atmosphere and the DALR &
increases adiabatically due to the increased WALR determines the vertical stability of the
atmospheric pressure (Gay-Lussac's law). atmosphere.
4. The rate at which this temperature rise occurs is
called Negative Adiabatic Lapse Rate. Weather conditions at different Adiabatic Lapse Rates
(ALR)
Adiabatic Lapse rate
1. ALR = Adiabatic Lapse Rate of entire atmosphere =
• Fall in temperature of a rising air parcel without 6°C/km
losing any internal heat. 1. If ALR > 6°C/km = DALR
• Air expands and cools adiabatically when it rises. ▪ Less moisture than normal = more stable
• Rate of cooling depends on the water vapor content than normal
of the air. Hence, ALR is usually differentiated as 2. If ALR < 6 °C/km = WALR
dry or wet (moist) air. ▪ More moisture than normal = less stable
• Higher the water vapor = Lower the rate of cooling than normal or instability
due to release of latent heat of condensation.
• Dry adiabatic rate is about twice of the wet adiabatic Atmospheric Stability
rate.
• Conditional stability: WALR < NALR < DALR
Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR) o Normal moisture conditions = It may or may
not rain
• Saturated air parcel cools down slower than the • Absolute stability: NALR < WALR < DALR
unsaturated one due to the release of latent heat of o Little moisture in the air parcel = It won’t
condensation. rain
• The WALR varies considerably due to the high • Absolute instability: WALR < DALR < NALR
variability of water vapor amount in the air. o Excess moisture in the air parcel = It will
• High amount of vapor = Low ALR rain violently
o More release of internal heat in the form of latent
heat of condensation, hence less temperature TYPES OF CONDENSATION
reduction (Phase change occurs at constant
temperature). Place of Condensation Outcome
• Average WALR for the Earth’s atmosphere At height Cloud
= 4°C/km. At lower level Fog
• WALR is mainly associated with unstable
conditions (due to the high moisture content). On the cold surface Dew
On a surface having below freezing point
Frost
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) temperature
Clouds • Each cloud particles diameter ranges from 20 to 50
mm. It is formed around a solid matter called
• A cloud is an aggregation of moisture droplets and condensation nucleus.
ice crystals that are suspended in air. • They vary from sea level to 13,700 meters.
• They are great enough in volume and density to be
visible to the naked human eye. Based on altitude and shape they are given different
name

3 shape division

• Flat or layered
Stratiform • clouds are developed horizontally

• Puffy and globular

cumuliform • developed vertically
 • Wispy- hair
Cirroform • smoke- composed of ice crystals

Four altitudinal divisions

LOW

• Large globular masses

• Bumpy looking
Stratocumulus • Soft and grey in appearance
• Regular and sometimes wavy pattern

• Low clouds, dark grey with uniform

base
• Continuous rain or snow
Nimbostratus
• Nimbus- any cloud from which rain is
falling and dark grey in color

• Convection cloud
• Vertical development but lesser than
Cumulus cumulonimbus
• Appear like cotton balls
 • Dark grey from beneath and white
from side
Cumulonimbus • Associated with thunderstorms
• Torrential rain, hail or snow falls

• Uniform layer, resembling fog

• Dull grey and featureless
Stratus
• Fractostratus when broken

MEDIUM- 2 TO 6 KM

• Small, relatively thin, globular patches

Altocumulus • Sheep clouds or wool pack clouds

• Continuous sheet, difficult to see sun

or moon
Alto-stratus
• Associated with cyclone

HIGH ALTITUDE- ABOVE 6 KM

 • Fibrous or wispy, consisting of tiny
particles of ice
Cirrus • Indication of approaching depression
• Do not give precipitation

• Whitish in color
• Solar or lunar halo
Cirrostratus • Thickening cirrostratus indicates
approach of warm front

• Made of ice crystals

Cirro cumulus • Mackerel sky- resembles fish

Dew Fog

• It is the condensation of water vapor on a cold • Fog is ground level cloud reducing horizontal
surface that causes formation of water droplets. visibility to less than 1km.
• Condition => Clear Sky, calm air, high relative • It consists of very small water droplets in suspension
humidity temperature is above freezing point, long in the lower layer of the atmosphere.
and cold nights. • Depending on the temperature, the water may be
• Dew point should be above of freezing point. frozen which would result in freezing fog.
• Fog is a real danger for general aviation pilots.
White frost
There are several types of fog
• When under dew forming conditions, the dew point
1. Radiation fog
of the air is below or at 0º C, water vapor condenses
• When the ground cools rapidly due to radiation and
as minute ice. This is called white frost.
the adjacent air becomes too cool, its water vapor
condenses.
 ▪ Such fog is not very thick. Haze
2. Advection fog
▪ When moist warm air moves horizontally over a
cold surface. • Contrary to fog and mist, haze is a horizontal
▪ Such fogs are thick and persistent. visibility reduction due to non-aqueous particles.
3. Frontal fog • Particles can be dust, sand grains, pollen grains,
▪ Condensation and precipitation take place when chemical pollution, etc.
warm air mass is forced to rise over the cold air • These particles are invisible to the naked eye, but
mass and cools down. sufficient to give the air an opalescent appearance.
▪ If the cold air below is near the dew point, its • There is no condensation in haze. Smog is similar to
temperature falls further and excess moisture haze but with condensation.
condenses as fog.
▪ It is formed at convergence zone. Gyanbazi (Extra Knowledge)
4. Upslope Fog
▪ This fog forms adiabatically. Primary Pollutants (PP) and Secondary Pollutants
▪ Moist winds up glides while blowing toward a (SP)
mountain and this causes the air to rise and cool.
▪ The cooling of the air from rising causes to meet
up with the dew point temperature.
▪ Fog forms on top of the mountains.
5. Valley Fog
▪ Valley fog forms in the valley when the soil is
moist from previous rainfall.
▪ As the skies clear, solar energy exits earth and
allow the temperature to cool near to dew point.
▪ This form deep and dense fog.
6. Ocean current
▪ At meeting point of cold current and warm
current.

Mist

• Mist is a phenomenon consisting of a large amount

of water droplets/ice crystals present in a layer of the
atmosphere.
o In mist, each nuceli contains a thicker layer
of moisture.
o Fogs are drier than mist and they are Smog
prevalent where warm currents of air come Smog is a kind of air pollution, originally named for the
in contact with cold currents. mixture of smoke and fog in the air.
• Relative humidity is generally between 60% and 2 Types
100%.
• It contains more moisture than fog. 1. Sulfurous smog or “London smog”
• Mist does not represent a real danger for commercial o Sulfurous smog is the result of a high
aviation pilots (visibility is between 1 km and 5 km). concentration of sulfur oxides in the
• Mists are frequent over mountains as the rising atmosphere.
warm air up the slopes meets a cold surface. o This is usually caused by the burning of fossil fuels
like coal.
o It is intensified by dampness and a high
concentration of suspended particulate matter in the
air.
2. Photochemical smog or “Los Angeles smog” or NON-ADVECTIONAL INVERSION
“Summer smog”
o Photochemical smog is created when sunlight reacts
Ground surface inversion or radiation inversion
with nitrogen oxides (PP) and at least one volatile
organic compound (VOC, a PP) in the atmosphere.
o Nitrogen oxides are emitted in the atmosphere from • Radiation inversion occurs near the earth’s surface
automobiles, power plants, factory emissions. due to radiation mechanism.
o Volatile organic compounds are released in the • It is non-advectional as there is no movement of air
atmosphere due to paints, gasoline and cleaning either vertical or horizontal.
solvents. • It requires some necessary conditions like
o Occurs most prominently in urban areas or the 1. Long cold winter nights.
places having large numbers of automobiles 2. Cloudless and clear sky.
(Nitrogen oxides are the primary emissions). 3. Presence of dry air near the surface.
o This kind of smog requires neither smoke nor fog. 4. Slow movement of air to avoid mixing.
o This Ozone forms near the earth’s surface and 5. Snow covered ground surface.
causes several ill effects in comparison of • Air coming in contact with the cool ground surface
stratospheric Ozone also becomes cold while the air layer lying above is
relatively warm.
Effect on Visibility = Mist > Haze > Fog > Smog

TEMPERATURE INVERSION
Temperature inversion

• It is a phenomenon in which the normal behavior of

temperature in the troposphere get reversed. There is a
cooler air mass near the ground and warmer air at higher
altitudes. (Temperature usually decreases with altitude
under the normal conditions).
• This happens when earth surface is able to radiate solar
energy directly into space.
• Negative Lapse Rate = Increase in temperature with
increasing altitude.

Types of Temperature Inversion The heat of the day is radiated off during the night by the
Non-advectional Inversion earth. By early morning, the air near the surface becomes
cool due to conduction and settles. The air above it
1. Ground or surface inversion or radiation inversion. remains warm as convectional currents are not possible.
2. Upper air inversion. Over polar areas, temperature inversion is normal
throughout the year.
Advectional Inversion
Dew Formation (GRAMMER)
1. Frontal inversion or cyclonic inversion.
• Temperature inversion results cooler surface of earth
2. Valley inversion due to vertical air movement.
3. Surface inversion due to horizontal air movement. than the above air.
• Moisture laden air comes into the contact of cold
surface and releases heat.
Mechanical Inversion
• At a certain point, the release of heat becomes
unable to further reduce the temperature of air due to
1. Subsidence inversion. which phase change occurs.
2. Turbulence and convective inversion. • The change of phase causes condensation that result
in dew formation leading low visibility.
Upper Air Inversion • Strong wind movement and unstable conditions of
the atmosphere are prerequisite conditions for
Upper air inversion is of two types advectional inversion of temperature.

1. Thermal upper air inversion Frontal or cyclonic inversion

o This warming of the stratosphere with
altitude. • It is caused in the temperate zones due to temperate
o It is caused due to the absorption of solar cyclones.
energy by ozone. o Temperate Cyclones = Formed due to the
o The temperature of this layer becomes much convergence of warm westerlies and cold
higher than the air layers lying above and polar winds in the northern hemisphere.
below ozone layer. • The warm air is pushed up by the cold polar air and
o Occurs only when there is no vertical thus the warm air overlies the cold air because it is
movement of air (either ascent or descent of lighter than the cold air.
air). • The existence of warm air above and cold air below
• This creates stability condition reverses the normal lapse rate and inversion of
hence discouraging rainfall. temperature occurs.
• It is important to note that air moisture increases
upward in frontal inversion of temperature while it
decreases upward in other types of temperature
inversion.

Surface inversion of temperature

2. Mechanical upper air inversion
o At higher heights in the atmosphere due to
subsidence of air.
o This inversion also relates to anti-cyclones.
o Inversion results when the upper layer of air
moves down during an initial anti-cyclone.

ADVECTIONAL INVERSION

• Also called as dynamic inversion because it is

always caused due to either horizontal or vertical
movements of air.
• It is caused by horizontal movement of air occurs in damage to fruit orchards and agricultural
several situations. crops whereas the upper parts of the
• Such inversion is caused when warm air invades the valleys are free from frost.
area of cold air or cold air moves into the area of o This is why the valley floors are avoided
warm air. for human settlements while the upper
o Warm air being lighter is pushed upward by parts are inhabited in the mountainous
relatively denser cold air. valleys of middle latitudes.
o When the warm air moves, such inversion is
caused over the continents during winter and
over the oceans during summer.
THEORIES OF PRECIPITATION
o When the cold air becomes active and
invades the areas of warm air, such Theories of Precipitation
inversion occurs over the continents during
summer and over the oceans during winter. 1. Collision-Coalescence hypothesis of precipitation:
• Such surface inversion occurs generally in the low This explains precipitation in tropical areas where
latitudes. the temperature in clouds is too high for the
• The convergence of cold and warm ocean currents formation of ice. So water droplets condense,
also causes such inversion of temperature. positive charge attracts negative charge, they come
together, become big and fall.
Valley inversion 2. Ice crystal hypothesis / Bergeron-Findesein
hypothesis: Saturation vapor pressure is lower over
ice than over water surface. Initially a cloud may
contain both ice and water. Since vapor pressure is
lower over ice, it attracts more water vapor in the
cloud. Thus the vapor present in the cloud begins to
decrease and the water droplets evaporate to
replenish the diminishing vapor. So ice crystals
grow at the expense of water droplets. As they
descend, they may melt and form as rain else snow.

Precipitation types
Rain

• This is the wet stuff that nourishes plants and for

which umbrellas were invented.
• It occurs when both the cloud temperature and
• Inversion takes place in hills and mountains due
ground temperature are above freezing.
to katabatically air drainage.
• It can take three forms.
o A katabatic wind (or
1. Simple rain = When the drops are about 0.5
fall/downslope/gravity wind) is the
mm (0.02 in) in diameter.
technical name for a drainage wind.
2. Drizzle = When the drops are smaller than
o Katabatic wind carries high-density air
Simple Rain.
from a higher elevation down a slope
3. Virga = When the drops are so small they
under the force of gravity.
don't reach the ground (Evaporated).
• The temperature of the upper parts of the
mountains becomes cold because of rapid rate of
loss of heat whereas the valley temperature does Sleet
not reduce because of slow loss of heat.
• The warmer valley air ascends and the cooler air 1. They are refrozen ice.
descends.
o This situation is responsible for severe
frost in the valley floors leading great
 Snow Fall due to the
condensation at higher levels
below freezing temperature

Snow melts due to the layer of

warm air between the cold
layers above and below

Refreezing after entering in

cold layer again

Hail

• Precipitation in form of hard round pellets.

• Strong ascending currents take water vapor to
great heights where it condenses and precipitates
as snow. • Occurs mostly in tropics where it is hot.
• As it comes down, it melts but strong currents • Air naturally rises up in convection current when it
push them up again increasing the size. Thus heats up.
size keeps on increasing until it becomes very o It cools and condenses due to the expansion
hard and big. while moving higher altitude leading
cumulus clouds formation.
• Heavy rainfall with lightning and thunder takes
place which does not last long.
o If the air is hot enough, it rises very quickly
and can cause thunderstorms.
• Such rain is usual in the summer or in the hotter
session of the day.
• This can happen over land or water as long as
moisture is present.
• When it happens over tropical oceans (where the air
is saturated with water), the combination of wind
and moisture can create a tropical cyclone or
hurricane.

Orographic or Relief Rainfall

Rainfall types

Rainfall has been classified into three main types based

on their origin

1. Convectional Rainfall
2. Orographic or Relief Rainfall
3. Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall

Convectional Rainfall • Relief rainfall occurs very frequently near mountains

beside the sea.
• The moisture-laden air is forced to rise on
encountering a mountain range. As it rises upwards,
it is cooled and cloud is formed.
• The cloud becomes saturated with water vapor and it Vertical Variation of Pressure
begins to precipitate on the side of the mountain
facing the sea (known as windward side) • The pressure decreases rapidly with height in the
o The cloud precipitates the most on the lower atmosphere.
windward side of the mountain. o It does not always decrease at the same rate
• The cloud becomes almost exhausted by the time due to the variations in the factors
they reach another side (known as leeward side) so it controlling air density (temperature, amount
rains very little there. of water vapor and gravity).
o This makes leeward sides of a mountain • The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger
very sheltered from rain and they hardly than that of the horizontal pressure gradient.
ever get much rain. • We do not experience these strong upward winds as
they are generally balanced by a nearly equal but
Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall opposite gravitational force.
• A rising pressure indicates stable weather whereas a
falling pressure indicates cloudy and unstable
weather.

Horizontal Distribution of Pressure

• It is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels.

1. Isobars are lines connecting places having
equal pressure after being reduced to sea
level.
• Frontal rainfall occurs when warm air is forced to • Low pressure system is enclosed by one or more
rise over cold air. isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre.
• The moisture in the warm air condenses as it cools • High pressure system is enclosed by one or more
which causes clouds and rain. isobars with the highest pressure in the centre.

Pressure and wind

ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
Important Laws of atmospheric circulation
Atmospheric Pressure
• Buys Ballot Law: If you stand with your back to the
• The weight of a column of air contained in a unit wind in the Northern Hemisphere, air pressure is
area from the mean sea level to the top of the lower on your left than on your right.
atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure. • Winds are strong where isobars are crowded and
• It is expressed in units of milibar (mb). weak where they are spread.
• Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser and • Pressure distribution affects wind speed in high and
hence has higher pressure. mid latitudes. Between 10 N and 10 S, it is difficult
• Wind = It is horizontal movement of air which flows to relate winds to pressure distribution.
from high pressure areas to low pressure areas. • Near Earth’s surface, wind direction is influenced by
• Air current = The vertical or nearly vertical surface features.
movement of air is called air current. • Maximum speed of wind at noon and minimum just
before sunrise.
Air Pressure at ground surface • Winds are named after the direction they come from.
• The wind circulation around a low pressure is called
• The atmospheric pressure = 1013.25 mb = 76 cm of cyclonic circulation. Around a high pressure it is
Mercury (Hg) column. called anti cyclonic circulation.
• It normally falls at a rate of 34 mb per 300 meters of • Generally, over low pressure area the air will
ascent. converge and rise. Over high pressure area the air
will subside from above and diverge at the surface.
Forces affecting the velocity and direction
of wind

• Horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to

the combined effect of three forces in addition with
downward gravitational force
1. Frictional Force
2. Coriolis Force
3. Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)

Coriolis Force
It is given by the formula 2vw sinX (v = Wind velocity;
w = Earth's particular point angular speed, X = Angle of
latitude)
 • PGF is produced by the differences in atmospheric
pressure.
• It operates from the high pressure area to a low
pressure area.
• The Pressure Gradient Force acts perpendicular to
the Coriolis force and to an isobar.
• The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is
• It is not a force, but an effect causes due to rotation the velocity of the wind and the larger is the
of the earth. deflection in the direction of wind.
• It turns the object to right or clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left or anti- Geostrophic Wind
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
• It affects wind direction and not the speed.
• Higher the wind speed greater is the coriolis effect.
• Maximum at poles as poles rotate slow and becomes
zero at the equator.
• It always acts at right angle to the direction of the
wind.

Frictional Force

• Friction is the resistance to motion of one object

moving relative to another.
• The friction force drags the wind as it moves across
surfaces.
• As the surface friction decrease wind speed, it • Geostrophic winds come about because pressure
reduces the effect of Coriolis force. gradient force and Coriolis force come into balance
after the air begins to move.
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) o Under the influence of both the Pressure
Gradient Force and Coriolis Force, air tends
• The rate of change of pressure with respect to to move parallel to isobars in conditions
distance is the pressure gradient. where friction is low (1000 meters above the
• Pressure Gradient is denoted by the spacing of surface of the Earth) and isobars are straight.
isobars that expresses the rate and direction of • At the surface level wind blows at an angle, but
pressure changes above it becomes parallel to isobars.
o Close spacing = Steep or strong pressure
gradient
o Wide spacing = Weak gradient
PRESSURE BELTS
• There are distinctly identifiable zones of • This area is called the Inter Tropical Convergence
homogeneous horizontal pressure regimes Zone (ITCZ) or the thermal equator or the
or ‘pressure belts’. “equatorial belt of variable winds and calms”.
• On the earth’s surface, there are in all seven pressure • The trade winds converge in the equatorial trough
belts. (or tropical low).
1. equatorial low
2. 2 sub-tropical highs Weather
3. 2 sub-polar lows
4. 2 polar highs • A very moist air heated by the sun tends to expand
and rise creating the area of low pressure.
• Due to the convergence of trade winds, only vertical
current creates and the moisture laden air rises
upward. This forms cumulonimbus clouds leading to
thunderstorms.
• This region coincides with the world’s latitudinal
belt of heaviest precipitation and most persistent
cloud cover.
• Old sailing ships often remained becalmed in the
doldrums for days at a time.

Sub-Tropical Highs Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes

• Areas of sinking and settling air from higher

altitudes.
o Winds blow poleward to become the
westerlies and equator-ward as the trade
winds.
• These areas located between latitudes 25° N and S.
• Often called the subtropical belts of variable winds,
or the “horse latitudes.”
o Name comes from the occasional need by
Two Main Factors Controlling Pressure Systems the Spanish sea captains to throw their
Thermal Factors horses overboard in order to conserve
drinking water and lighten the weight when
• Heating and cooling of air causes expansion their ships were becalmed in these latitudes.
(density decreases hence pressure reduces) and • The subtropical highs are areas like the doldrums in
contraction (density increases hence pressure which there are no strong prevailing winds.
increases) respectively.
Weather
Dynamic Factors
• Weather conditions are typically clear, sunny, and
• Arising out of Pressure Gradient Forces and rainless, especially over the eastern portions of the
rotation of the earth (Coriolis Force). oceans where the high pressure cells are strongest.
• As the subsiding air is warm and dry, most of the
Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’ deserts are present along this belt.
• Tropical and extra-tropical disturbances are frequent
• These winds are roughly in between 5° N and S. in this belt.
• The belt is generally known as doldrums (zone of
calm and weak winds). Reasons for sub-tropical high belt
o Doldrums = Characterized by convergence,
rising air, and heavy rainfall • The warm air rises from low pressure equator and
starts cooling. It begins to move towards poles after
 reaching the upper layers. It further cools down, and diverge near pole creating high pressure belt at
becomes dense and by 25-35º latitude it begins to the surface of earth.
subside. • The lowest temperatures are found over the poles.
• Due to Coriolis Effect, the movement of air
becomes effectively west to east instead of going Season shift of pressure belts
north in these latitudes. This produces a blocking
effect and the dense air begins to subside heavily. 1. The shift is less in Southern hemisphere due
• Hence, sub-tropical high belt is dynamically to abundant water.
produced Pressure Belt due to 2. The shift of the pressure belts is also higher
1. Coriolis Force (Produced by rotation of the in lower latitudes than in higher ones.
earth on its axis). 3. The ITCZ can shift about 20º N and only 10º
2. Descent of air (due to the convergence of S of equator.
Trade winds and Westerlies).
World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure
Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt
• The continents and oceans distribution influence
• Located between 45° N&S latitudes and the Arctic the distribution of pressure.
and the Antarctic circles (66.5° N and S latitudes) • In winter, the continents are cooler than the
• This is dynamically produced Pressure Belt due to oceans causing development of high pressure
o Coriolis Force (Produced by rotation of the (reverse with the oceans).
earth on its axis). • In summer, continents are relatively warmer
o Ascent of air (due to the convergence of causing development of low pressure (reverse
Westerlies and polar easterlies). with the oceans).
• Polar Jet Streams are formed due to the contrasting
areas between cold and warm air masses. July

Weather • The equatorial low pressure belt shifts towards

the north (Apparent northward movement of the
• Temperate cyclones are produced in this region due sun). This shift is maximum in Asia.
to a great contrast between the temperatures of the • The landmasses of the northern hemisphere
winds from sub-tropical and polar source regions. become excessively hot and low pressure areas
develop over them.
Polar High Pressure Belt • The sub-tropical high pressure belt of the
southern hemisphere extends continuously. In
• These are small area extends around the poles (lie contrast, it is broken over the continents and
around poles between 80°-90° North and South remains confined to the North Atlantic and
latitudes). North Pacific Oceans in the northern
• The saturated dry air from the sub-polar low hemisphere.
pressure belts becomes cold while moving towards • Sub-polar low is deep and continuous in the
poles through upper troposphere. This air subsides southern hemisphere, while there is only a faint
oceanic low in the northern hemisphere.
January
• The equatorial low pressure belt shifts a little south masses become much hotter than the adjoining
of its mean equatorial position (due to the apparent oceans).
southward movement of the sun). • Sub-tropical high pressure belt of the southern
• The lowest pressure pockets occur on the land hemisphere is broken over the continents and
masses of Southern Hemisphere (because land remains confined to the oceans only.
GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Headley's Model
1. The cell between equator low pressure belt and sub-
tropical highs.
2. The one between sub-tropical high and sub-polar
low is called Ferrel cell and the one between sub-
polar low and poles is called polar cell.
3. It assumes a rotating earth, uniform surface (i.e.
either land or water throughout) and sun being
stationary overhead at equator.

1. His model assumed only one cell in each

hemisphere.
2. Low pressure at equator and high pressure at pole
with air from pole flowing towards equator.
3. It assumed a non-rotating earth and uniform earth
surface.

Ferrel's Model
Pressure Cells o north-westerly winds in the southern
hemisphere
• These winds gain moisture while travelling through
the oceans.
• They meet cold air (drifting from the poles) at
around 60° N& S.
• Due to the relative light weight of
warm air mass from the tropics in comparison of
cold air mass, it rises as the two air masses meet.
This air upliftment causes low pressure at the
surface.
o The unstable weather conditions are
associated with this mid-latitude
depressions.

The Polar cell

Occurs between 60° N and S to pole.

• At the poles, air is cooled and sinks towards the

ground forming high pressure known as the Polar
high. It then flows towards the lower latitudes.
• At about 60° degrees N&S, the cold polar air mixes
with warmer tropical air and rises upwards, creating
a zone of low pressure called the sub-polar low.
• The boundary between the warm and cold air is
called the polar front.
o It accounts for a great deal of the unstable
weather experienced in these latitudes.
The Hadley cell
Occurs between ITCZ and 30° N&S
El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
• Ground is intensely heated by the Normal year condition and the Horizontal Pressure
sun. This leads to the rise of air which creates a low- Belt (Walker Cell)
pressure zone on the Earth's surface.
• The air separates and starts to moving towards pole
in both north and south hemispheres.
• The air cools and sinks towards the ground
after reaching about 30° north and south forming the
subtropical high-pressure zone.
• The sinking air becomes warmer and drier. This
creates the region of little cloud and low rainfall
(where deserts are found).
• The air completes the cycle by flowing back to the
equator as the trade winds.

The Ferrel cell

Occurs between 30° to 60° N and S

• Air on the surface is pulled towards the poles

forming • The easterly trade winds move water and warmed air
o warm south-westerly winds in the northern towards the west.
hemisphere
• The western side of the equatorial Pacific is • It is a climate pattern that intensifies the normal year
characterized by low pressure weather with warm conditions.
and wet air. • It creates cooling effect on surface ocean waters
o The Walker circulation leads movement of along the tropical west coast of South America.
warm and wet air from western side of • Effect of La Nina year on winter temperatures
equatorial Pacific to Eastern side of o Warmer than normal in the Southeast
Equatorial Pacific. o Cooler than normal in the Northwest
• The oceanic cycle develops below the water
surface. El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
o Warm water starts moving from Western
side of Equatorial Pacific to Eastern side of
Equatorial Pacific.
• Cold water upwelling brings nutrient to surface at
Peru which helps in Plankton development and
pisciculture.
• This is how water and air are returned to the east.
Both are now much cooler, and the air is much drier.

El-Nino

• El Nino means The Little Boy, or Christ Child in

Spanish.
• El Nino is an Oceanic and Atmospheric
phenomenon that leads to reversal of normal year
conditions by unusual warming of water in the Peru
coast.
• Prevailing conditions
o Warm water as well as low pressure
condition develops in the Eastern Pacific
(Peru)
o Cold condition as well as high pressure in • The El-Nino event is closely associated with the
Western Pacific (Australia). pressure variations in the Eastern and Western
• Due to the inverse relationship (increase of one Pacific. This change in pressure condition over
causes decrease in another) between Pressure and Pacific is known as the southern oscillation.
amount of rainfall, El Nino creates draught situation • The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation
in Australia and South East Asia. and El Nino is known as ENSO.
o Only El-Nino = Warm water in Eastern
La-Nina Pacific + Cold water in Western Pacific
o Only SO = Low Pressure over Eastern
• La Nina means The Little Girl in Spanish. Pacific + High Pressure over Western
Pacific
 o ENSO = Warm water and Low Pressure • On Earth’s surface, it blows out of the subtropical
near Eastern Pacific + Cold water and highs toward the equatorial trough in both the
High Pressure near Western Pacific Northern and Southern Hemispheres
• El Nino and La Nina are opposite phases of what is • Because of the Coriolis effect, the
known as the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) o Northern trades move in a clockwise
cycle. direction out of the northeast.
o La-Nina is sometimes referred to as the cold o Southern trades move in a counter-
phase of ENSO and El-Nino as the warm clockwise direction out of the southeast.
phase of ENSO. • Also known as the tropical easterlies (Because the
o The ENSO cycle is a scientific term that trades tend to blow out of the east)
describes the fluctuations in temperature • It tends to be constant, steady winds, consistent in
between the ocean and atmosphere in the their direction. This is most true when they cross the
east-central Equatorial Pacific. eastern sides of the oceans (near the eastern portion
• This deviation from normal surface temperatures of the subtropical high).
causes large-scale impacts not only on ocean • The area of the trades varies during the solar year. It
processes, but also on global weather and climate. moves north and south a few degrees of latitude with
• While their frequency can be quite irregular, El-Nino the sun.
and La-Nina events occur on average every two to • The weather of the trades is clear and dry near their
seven years. Typically, El-Nino occurs more source in the subtropical highs, but the trades have a
frequently than La-Nina. high potential for stormy weather after crossing
large expanses of ocean.
• Early Spanish sea captains depended on the
WIND TYPES northeast trade winds to drive their galleons to
PRIMARY WINDS OR PREVAILING WINDS OR destinations in Central and South America in search
PERMANENT WINDS OR PLANETARY WINDS of gold, spices, and new lands.
• Going eastward toward home, navigators usually
tried to plot a course using the westerlies to the
north.

Westerlies

• Occur between about 35° and 65° North and South

latitudes.
• Winds flows poleward out of the subtropical high
pressure cells deflected to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern Hemisphere.
o Northern Hemisphere = Blow from the
southwest
o Southern Hemisphere = Blow out of the
northwest
• Tend to be less consistent in direction than the
trades.
• Usually stronger winds and may be associated with
• Prevailing as they prevail throughout the year. stormy weather.
• Planetary because they are almost global in nature. • Westerlies of Southern hemisphere are stronger
(known as Roaring forties, Furious fifties, and
Trade Winds Screaming sixties) and more consistent in direction
due to predominance of water.
• The westerlies attain their greatest consistency and
• Occur is in the vicinity of the subtropical highs.
strength in the Southern Hemisphere due to the less
• Can be identified between latitudes 5° and 25° North
land than in the Northern Hemisphere.
and South latitudes.
Polar Easterlies • They are extremely cold winds as they blow from
the Tundra and Icecap regions.
• Dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the high- • More regular in the southern hemisphere than in the
pressure areas of the polar highs at the North and northern hemisphere.
South Poles towards low-pressure areas. • Unlike the westerlies in the middle latitudes, the
• Cold air subsides at the poles creating the high polar easterlies are often weak and irregular.
pressure, forcing an equator-ward outflow of air that
deflect westward by the Coriolis Effect.

LOCAL WINDS Foehn Hot, dry wind The Alps

• Differences in the heating and cooling of earth Khamsin Hot, dry wind Egypt
surfaces creates local differences of temperature and
pressure. This develops daily or annual cycles that Sahara to the
can create several common, local or regional winds. Siroco Hot, moist wind Mediterranean
Sea
Name Nature of wind Place
Sahara to the
Solano Hot, moist wind
Iberian Peninsula
Chinook The Rockies
Hot, dry wind
(Snow eaters) mountains
Harmattan Hot, dry wind West Africa
(Guinea
Doctor)

Blows from
Bora Cold, dry wind Hungary to North
Italy

The Alps and

Mistral Cold wind
France

Western side of
Punas Cold dry wind
Andes Mountain

Blizzard Cold wind Tundra region

Purga Cold wind Russia

Levanter Cold wind Spain

Norwester Hot wind New Zealand

Santa Ana Hot wind South California

Karaburun Sea Breeze

Hot dusty wind Central Asia • Day time = Land gets heated → Warm air rises up
(black storm)
→ Low pressure develops
Saharan Air Layer • Sea being less warm → High pressure develops at
Calima
Dust-laden dry
across the Canary sea → Winds blow from sea to land causing sea
wind breeze
Islands
Land Breeze
• Night time = Land cools faster than sea → High
Moist wind in
Elephanta Malabar coast pressure over land (Low pressure over ocean)
monsoon
• Winds blow from land towards sea.

Diurnal Mountain Wind Systems (Valley and

PERIODIC WINDS Mountain Breeze)
Katabatic Wind (Mountain Breeze)
Sea and Land Breeze • During the night, the slopes get cooled and the dense
Due to differential heating of land surface and sea water. air descends into the valley as the mountain wind.
• This cool air of the high plateaus and ice fields
draining into the valley is called Katabatic wind.
Anabatic Wind (Valley Breeze)
• In mountainous regions, the slopes get heated
up during the day and air moves upslope.
• The air from the valley blows up the valley to fill the
resulting gap.
• This air flow travelling up on an orographic surface
is known as anabatic wind.
SEASONAL WIND

• The pattern of wind circulation is modified in

different seasons due to the shifting of regions of
maximum heating, pressure and wind belts.
• The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed
in the monsoons, especially over Southeast Asia.

Monsoon

• A seasonal prevailing wind in the region of South

and South-East Asia.
• It arises due to a difference in temperatures between
a land mass and the adjacent ocean.
• It blows from the south-west between May and
September and bringing rain (the wet monsoon), or
from the north-east between October and April (the
dry monsoon).
• The rainy season in SE Asia accompanying the wet
monsoon.
• The winds reverse again at the end of the monsoon
season.
AIR MASSES

• Ideal Source Regions = High pressure areas with

Air mass little pressure difference (pressure gradient)
o sub tropics (the source for tropical
• It is a large mass of air that has air masses)
o poles (the source for polar air
similar characteristics of temperature and humidity
within it along with little horizontal variations. masses)
• Mid-latitudes have no major source regions due to
• It forms an integral part of the global planetary wind
system. the dominance of cyclonic and other disturbance.

Source Region Geographical Classification of Air Masses

• They are classified based on the source region and

• The area (land or water) above which air mass lies
and acquire its characteristics. air mass modification.
• Types of air masses are recognized:
• Air mass picks up the distinct temperature and
1. Maritime tropical (mT) = Warm tropical
humidity characteristics of the region over which
it sits for several days. and subtropical oceans
▪ Warm, humid and unstable
▪ Weather
 ▪ Winter = Mild temperatures, • A cold air mass moving over a warm surface
overcast skies with fog creates convectional currents. This leads to
▪ Summer = High temperatures and formation of vertical clouds (cumulus) and
humidity, cumulous clouds, and air turbulence.
convectional rainfall. • Addition or loss of latent heat also is an
2. Continental tropical (cT) = The subtropical example of thermodynamic modification.
hot deserts
▪ Dry, hot and stable Dynamic Modification in Air Mass
▪ Do not extend beyond the source
▪ Dry throughout the year • These modifications are independent of surface
3. Maritime polar (mP) = The relatively cold heating or cooling.
high latitude oceans • Examples are subsidence caused by anti-cyclones or
▪ Cool, moist and unstable cyclones.
▪ These are the regions which cannot • Surface friction adds to the turbulence of air flow
lie stagnant for long. aiding the upward transfer of the effect of
▪ Weather thermodynamic modifications.
▪ Winters = High humidity,
overcast skies, and occasional
fog and precipitation. Fronts and Frontogenesis
▪ Summer = Clear and stable
4. Continental polar (cP) = The very cold • Front is that slopping boundary which separates two
snow covered continents in high latitudes opposing air masses having contrasting
▪ Dry, cold and stable conditions characteristics.
▪ Weather • The frontal activities are invariably associated
▪ Winter = Frigid, clear, and stable with cloudiness and precipitation due to the ascent
▪ Summer = less stable of warm air which cools down adiabatically,
5. Continental arctic (cA) = Permanently ice condenses and causes rainfall.
covered continents in the Arctic and • Frontal zone is neither parallel nor vertical to ground
Antarctica surface, rather it is inclined at low angle.
• Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses • The intensity of precipitation depends on the slope
are cold. of ascent and amount of water vapor present in
ascending air.
• Frontogenesis: The process associated with creation
of new fronts or the regeneration of decaying fronts
already in existence.
o Requires certain necessary conditions:
1. Temperature Difference
2. Opposite directions of Air Masses
• Frontolysis: The process of destruction or dying of
existing fronts.

Cold Front

• When the cold air moves towards the warm air mass,
Thermodynamic Modification in Air Mass its contact zone is called the cold front.
• As the cold front nears your region, the barometer
• When the air mass is heated or cooled from the falls.
surface below, it is a thermodynamic change. • The cold air behind the front wedges under the warm
• A warm air moves over a cold surface leads air and lifts it sharply off the ground.
temperature inversion. It inhibits further • Large cumulonimbus clouds appear (often bring
vertical cooling. thunderstorms and rain showers).
• As the cold front passes, the wind changes direction.
• The weather becomes clear and colder and the • The occluded front causes complex weather - a mix
barometer rises again. of cold and warm front type weather. These fronts
• Cold front moves up at about double speed than are common in west Europe.
warm fronts. • A combination of clouds formed at cold front and
warm front.
• The formation Mid-latitude cyclones involve the
formation of occluded front.

Warm front
Stationary Front
• If the warm air mass moves towards the cold air
mass, the contact zone is a warm front.
• A stationary front forms when a cold front or
• The warm air behind the front rises up over the cold
warm front stops moving.
air.
• The surface position of a front does not change.
• The barometer falls leading to a long, steady rain. • This happens when two masses of air are pushing
• The front passes gradually and the sky clears.
against each other but neither is powerful enough to
• As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses
move the other.
and causes precipitation.
• Winds blowing parallel to the front instead of
• Unlike a cold front, the changes in temperature and
perpendicular can help it stay in place.
wind direction are gradual.
• Such fronts bring moderate to gentle
precipitation over a large area for several hours.
• Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm front create a
halo around sun and moon.

JET STREAM
Occluded Front

• It results when a cold air front overtakes a warm

front and lifts the warm air mass completely off the
ground.
• Steady rain falls at an occluded front.
• The Jet Stream is a geostrophic wind which Sub-Tropical Jet (STJ) Stream
meanders with high velocity in the upper layers of
the troposphere and encircles the globe. • They prevail over the lower latitudes of westerlies.
o The meandering or the whirl movement of • It is produced by the rotation of earth and its
the Jet Stream is called ‘Rossby Wave’. (We spherical shape (dynamically induced).
will read about Rossby wave ahead) • The air over equator has the highest velocity.
• Reason that causes high velocity • As it rises and moves towards north, it has a higher
o Low friction at upper troposphere due to less velocity than the air at lower altitude prevailing at
air density. same latitude. So it begins to flow from west to east
o Higher air temperature difference enhances around 30º latitude.
speed (The Jet stream have high velocity in • It flows all-round the year.
winter in comparison of summer). • They flow to conserve the angular momentum in
• These slim strips of strong winds are like rivers of upper atmosphere.
wind high above in the atmosphere. • The sub-tropical westerly jet does not seem to affect
• Generally, blow from west to east near tropopause at surface weather as much as the polar fronts jets do.
very high speeds (120 kmph in winters and 50 kmph
in summers). That is why it is also referred as Mid-latitude or Polar Front Jet (PFJ) Stream
westerlies or upper level westerlies.
o Polar jet streams flows 6-9 km above the • It is more variable and is produced by a temperature
ground. difference (thermally induced).
▪ It flows from temperate region towards • Its position shifts towards poles in summers and
polar region and get deflected right in towards equator in winters.
the northern hemisphere and left in the
southern hemisphere due to the Coriolis Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ)
Effect.
o Sub-tropical jet streams flows 10-16 km • They are seasonal jet streams flowing east to west.
above the grounds. • These are in only found northern hemisphere and
▪ It flows from sub-tropical region generates only in summer season.
towards temperate region and get • These are also thermally induced.
deflected right in the northern • The reason for the establishment and maintenance of
hemisphere and left in the southern the TEJ is still not clear.
hemisphere due to the Coriolis Effect. o It is believed that these jet may be
developing due to uniquely high
temperatures and heights over the Tibetan
Plateau during summer.
• The TEJ is the upper-level venting system for the • Front is stationary initially.
strong southwest monsoon. o Warm air blows northern hemisphere from
the south.
o Cold air blows from the north of the front.
WEATHER SYSTEM OF MID - • Pressure drops along the front leads movement of
LATITUDES AND HIGH LATITUDES the warm air northwards and the cold air southward.
o Results in counter-clockwise cyclonic
• The weather of mid and high latitude regions is more circulation.
complex than the equatorial or tropical regions. • The cyclonic circulation leads to a well-developed
• The heat surplus areas of equatorial or tropical extra tropical cyclone (consisting of a warm front
regions create thermally induced weather system. and a cold front).
• The higher latitudes weather systems are
dynamically induced. They consist of localised and
upper troposphere circulations known as Jet
Streams.
o Jet Stream have a huge influence on climate
as it can push air masses around and affect
weather patterns.
• These differences of thermally and dynamically
induced weather system create convectional and
frontal rainfall system respectively.

EXTRA-TROPICAL / MIDDLE-
LATITUDE / TEMPERATE CYCLONES • There are pockets of warm air or warm sector
wedged between the forward and the rear cold air or
cold sector.
• The system develops in the mid and high latitude
o The warm air glides over the cold air. A
(beyond the tropics).
sequence of clouds appears over the sky
• The passage of front causes abrupt changes in the
ahead of the warm front and cause
weather conditions over the area in the middle and
precipitation.
high latitudes.
o The cold front approaches the warm air from
behind and pushes the warm air up. As a
Stages of formation and disappearance result, cumulus clouds develop along the
cold front.
• The cold front moves faster than the warm front
ultimately overtaking the warm front.
• The warm air is completely lifted up and the front is
occluded. Ultimately the cyclone gets dissipates.
Path of Extra-Tropical Cyclones

Distribution of Extra-Tropical Cyclones

TROPICAL CYCLONE

• Violent storms that originate and intensify over 1. Large sea surface with temperature higher
warm tropical oceans. than 27° C.
• It moves towards the coastal areas and causes large 2. Presence of the Coriolis force.
scale destruction due to violent winds, very heavy 3. Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
rainfall and storm surges. 4. A pre-existing weak-low-pressure area or
• This is one of the most devastating natural low-level-cyclonic circulation.
calamities. 5. Upper divergence above the sea level
• Favorable conditions for the formation and system.
intensification tropical cyclone are:
• The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast • The new “cool” air becomes warm and moist and
is called the landfall of the cyclone. rises too and the cycle continues.
• Cyclones that cross 20° N latitude generally recurve • The condensation of the rising warmed, moist air
and they are more destructive. leads to the formation of clouds.
• A mature tropical cyclone is characterized by the • Heat is emitted during this process and a reaction
strong spirally circulating wind around the centre. between the moisture from the evaporation of water
This centre is called the eye. takes place that produces Thunderstorms.
• The diameter of the circulating system can vary • The whole system of clouds as well as wind spins
between 150 and 250 km. and grows, fed by the ocean’s heat and water
evaporating from the ocean surface.

Eye and Eye-wall

Cyclone formation
• The air in the vortex is forced to form a region of
calmness called an eye at the center of the cyclone
due to the centripetal acceleration.
• Higher pressure air from above flows down into the
eye.
• The inner surface of the vortex forms the eye wall. It
is the most violent region of the cyclone.

Regional names of Tropical Cyclone

• Warm, moist air over the ocean rises upward leaving

less air near the surface. This causes low air pressure
area below.
• Air from surrounding areas with higher air pressure
pushes in to the low pressure area and undergoes
deflection due to Coriolis force creating a cyclonic
vortex (spiraling air column).
Path of Tropical Cyclones destruction than
winds)
• Start with a westward movement because of All the sectors of the
o Earth rotation from west to east The temperature at
Temperature cyclone have
o Zone of cyclone formation is under the the centre is almost
distribution different
influence of easterlies equally distributed
temperatures
• Turn northwards around 20° latitude and further
north-eastwards around 25° latitude (Deflection The centre (Eye) No single place
towards right due to the Coriolis force). Calm region that have no where winds and rain
• Eastwards turn around 30° latitude because of rainfall is inactive
westerly winds. Latent heat of Densities of air
• Loss of energy and subsidence because of Driving force
condensation masses
o Ocean water at 30° latitude is not warm
Bring rain to North-
enough to sustain a cyclone.
West India
o Increasing wind shear due to westerlies Both coasts are
Influence on (Associated
doesn’t facilitate the formation of cyclonic affected but eastern
India instability is called
vortex. is more vulnerable
'Western
Disturbance')
Differences between Tropical and Extra-Tropical
Cyclone
THUNDERSTORMS
Dimension Tropical Extra-Tropical
Dynamic (Air masses
Origin Thermal movement and
Coriolis Force)
Confined to 10°-
Confined to 35°-65°
Latitude 30° N&S of
N&S of Equator
Equator
Only on seas
having temperature
more than 26°-27°
C (On reaching the
Formation Land as well as seas
land the moisture
supply is cut off
and the storm
dissipates)
Irregular (Few in
Late summers
Season summers and more in
(August-October) • It is a well-grown cumulonimbus cloud which
winters)
produces thunder and lightning.
Shape Elliptical Inverted 'V' • It is caused by intense convection on moist hot days.
Slow and continues • Since thunder comes from lightning, all
Heavy but does not thunderstorms have lightning.
for many days,
Rainfall last beyond a few • When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero
sometimes even
hours temperature prevails, hails are formed and they come
weeks
down as hailstorm.
Limited to small
Size Cover a large area • If there is insufficient moisture, a thunderstorm can
area
generate duststorms.
Path East → West West → East
Wind velocity Comparatively low Three basic ingredients required to form a
Much greater thunderstorm
and destruction (Flood causes more
1. Moisture • Lots of these collisions build up big regions of
2. Rising unstable air (air that keeps rising when given electric charges to cause a bolt of lightning, which
a nudge) creates the sound waves we hear as thunder.
3. Lifting mechanism to provide the “nudge”

Formation of thunderstorm
Three stages of Thunderstorm Life Cycle
Developing stage
• Marked by a cumulus cloud that is being pushed
• The sun heats the surface of the earth, which warms
upward by a rising column of air (updraft).
the air above it.
• The cumulus cloud soon looks like a tower (called
• This warm surface air is forced to rise—
towering cumulus) as the updraft continues to
1. Hills or mountains (Orographic
develop.
thunderstorm)
• There is little to no rain during this stage but
2. Areas where warm/cold or wet/dry air bump
occasional lightning.
together can cause rising motion (Frontal
Mature stage
thunderstorm)
• The updraft continues to feed the storm, but
• It will continue to rise as long as it weighs less and
precipitation begins to fall out of the storm, creating
stays warmer than the air around it.
a downdraft (a column of air pushing downward).
• The rising air transfers heat from the surface of the
• The downdraft and rain-cooled air spreads out along
earth to the upper levels of the atmosphere (the
the ground and forms a gust front, or a line of gusty
process of convection).
winds.
• The water vapor it contains begins to cool, releases
• The mature stage is the most likely time for hail,
the heat, condenses and forms a cloud.
heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong winds, and
• The cloud eventually grows upward into areas where
tornadoes.
the temperature is below freezing.
Dissipating stage
• As a storm rises into freezing air, different types of
• Eventually, a large amount of precipitation is
ice particles can be created from freezing liquid
produced and the updraft is overcome by the
drops.
downdraft beginning the dissipating stage.
• The ice particles can grow by condensing vapor (like
• At the ground, the gust front moves out a long
frost) and by collecting smaller liquid drops that
distance from the storm and cuts off the warm moist
haven't frozen yet (a state called "supercooled").
air that was feeding the thunderstorm.
• When two ice particles collide, they usually bounce
• Rainfall decreases in intensity, but lightning remains
off each other. During this the particle can rip off a
a danger.
little bit of ice from each other and grab some
electric charge.

Types of thunderstorm o Pulse storms can produce severe weather

1. Single Cell Storms elements such as downbursts, hail, some
o Typically last 20-30 minutes. heavy rainfall and occasionally weak
tornadoes.
2. Multicell Cluster Storms • Because wind is invisible, it is hard to see a tornado
o A group of cells moving as a single unit, unless it forms a condensation funnel made up of
with each cell in a different stage of the water droplets, dust and debris.
thunderstorm life cycle. • Tornadoes can be among the most violent
o Multicell storms can produce moderate size phenomena of all atmospheric storms we experience.
hail, flash floods and weak tornadoes. • The U.S. typically has more tornadoes than
3. Multicell Line Storms anywhere else in the world, though they can occur
o Multicell line storms consist of a line of almost anywhere.
storms with a continuous, well developed • Most tornadoes come from rotating thunderstorms,
gust front at the leading edge of the line. called supercells.
o Also known as squall lines. • Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes.
o These storms can produce small to moderate • The tornado over the sea is called Water Sprouts.
size hail, occasional flash floods and weak
tornadoes.
4. Supercells
o Defined as a thunderstorm with a rotating Gyanbazi
updraft.
o These storms can produce strong
Rossby Waves
downbursts, large hail, occasional flash
floods and weak to violent tornadoes.
• Rossby waves are naturally occurring planetary
waves in rotating fluids.
TORNADOES/TWISTERS • They are of two types – Oceanic and Atmospheric
Rossby waves
• These waves affect the planet's weather and climate.

Atmospheric Rossby waves

• It forms primarily as a result of the Earth's

geography.
• Rossby waves help transfer heat from the tropics
toward the poles and cold air toward the tropics in an
attempt to return atmosphere to balance.
• They also help locate the jet stream and mark out the
track of surface low pressure systems.
• The slow motion of these waves often results in
fairly long, persistent weather patterns.

POLAR VORTEX
• The term "vortex" refers to the counter-clockwise
flow of air that helps keep the colder air near the
Poles.
• The polar vortex is a large area of low pressure and
• Much about tornadoes remains a mystery. They are cold air surrounding both of the Earth’s poles.
rare, unpredictable and deadly. • It develops at upper troposphere or stratosphere.
• Tornado is a narrow, violently rotating column of air • It always exists near the poles, but weakens in
that extends from a thunderstorm to the ground. summer and strengthens in winter.

Disruption of Polar Vortex

• Rossby Waves can disrupt the circulation around the
polar vortex.
• It originated during winters due to sharp temperature Kigali Agreement
differential created between poles and equator.
• Many times during winter in the northern • The Kigali Agreement amends 1987 Montreal
hemisphere, the polar vortex will expand, sending Protocol to phase out Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
cold air southward with the jet stream. a family of potent greenhouse gases by the late
• This occurs fairly regularly during wintertime and is 2040s.
often associated with large outbreaks of Arctic air in o Montreal Protocol conceived only
the United States. to phasing out gases that were destroying the
ozone layer.
o This move will help to prevent a potential
OZONE HOLE 0.5 degree Celsius rise in global temperature
by the end of the century.
• It is an area of depleted layers of ozone above the
Antarctic region.
• Manufactured chemicals deplete the ozone layer. POLAR STRATOSPHERIC CLOUDS
• Atmospheric ozone is destroyed by chemical (PSCS)
processes in each spring over Antarctica.
• This creates the ozone hole, which occurs because of
• Polar stratospheric clouds are clouds that form in the
special meteorological and chemical conditions that
polar regions during the winter.
exist in that region.
• Type-I PSCs
o Form when the stratospheric temperature
Factors responsible for the depletion of ozone
drops below -78°C.
o They are primarily composed of nitric acid,
• Depletion of ozone is due to many factors. The most water, and sulfuric acid.
dominant of which is the release of chlorine from • Type-II PSCs
CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) which destroys the o Form when the stratospheric temperature
ozone. drops below -83°C.
• CFCs are released by products such as hairsprays, o They are composed of crystals of water ice.
old refrigerators etc. • They are referred as nacre clouds or mother-of-pearl
clouds due to their iridescence.
Vienna Convention o Only Type-II clouds are necessarily
nacreous whereas Type-I clouds can be
• A Multilateral Environmental Agreement. iridescent under certain conditions, just as
• It was agreed upon at the 1985 Vienna Conference any other cloud.
and entered into force in 1988. • PSCs play a critical role in facilitating ozone
• It is one of the most successful treaties of all time. depletion during the polar spring and summer.
• It has been ratified by 197 states. o Type I clouds are now known as sites of
• It acts as a framework for the international efforts to harmful destruction of stratospheric ozone
protect the ozone layer. over the Antarctic and Arctic.
• These are laid out in the accompanying Montreal o Their surfaces act as catalysts that convert
Protocol. human-made chlorine into active free
• It is not legally binding. radicals (for example ClO, chlorine
monoxide).
Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances o These radicals destroy many ozone
molecules in a series of chain reactions
• It is a protocol to Vienna Convention for the during the return of spring sunlight.
Protection of Ozone Layer. o Cloud formation is doubly harmful because
• It was the first treaty in history to achieve universal it also removes gaseous nitric acid from the
ratification (i.e. ratified by every member state of the stratosphere that can combine with ClO to
United Nations). form less reactive forms of chlorine.
• It is an international treaty and aims to protect the
ozone layer by phasing out ozone depleting gases.
 • These light shows are the result of interaction
AURORA between sun energy (in the form of solar wind) and
electrically charged particles trapped in Earth’s
magnetic field.
• It is an outcome of collisions between the oxygen
and nitrogen in Earth’s upper atmosphere with the
fast-moving electrons from space.
o The electrons coming from the Earth’s
magnetosphere (region of space controlled
by Earth’s magnetic field) enhances the
energy of oxygen and nitrogen atoms and
makes them “excited”.
• During returning to their normal state, these gases
emit photons and small bursts of energy in the form
of light.
• The color of the aurora depends on
o Which gas - oxygen or nitrogen - is being
excited by the electrons, and on how excited
it becomes and by what extent.
o How fast the electrons are moving, or how
much energy they possess at the time of
their collisions.

• An Aurora is a display of light in the sky which

predominantly seen in the higher latitude of northern
and southern regions (Arctic and Antarctic). Due to
this, it is also known as a Polar Light.
• It is less frequent at mid-latitudes and seldom seen
near the equator.
• 2 Types
o Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights)
o Aurora Australis (Southern Lights)
• It is usually milky greenish in color but can also be
seen in red, blue, violet, pink, and white colors.
• Auroras affect communication lines, radio lines and
power lines.

Cause of occurrence