GGGP

BASIC GEOLOGY
 CONTENT

❖INTRODUCTION
❖STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY-DEFINITIONS &
APPLICATIONS & EARTH COMPOSITION
❖ PALTE TECTONICS THEORY.
❖GEOLGIC TIME & SCALE.
❖ STUDY FIELDS –GEOLOGY
❖ DERVIED GEOLOGY SCIENCE
❖GEOLOGICAL ORGANIZATIONS.
 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY-
DEFINITIONS & APPLICATIONS &
EARTH COMPOSITION
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY:- BRANCH OF GEOLOGY
CONCERNED WITH EARTH CRUST DEFORMATIONS, IN
PARTICULAR, PRESENTATION MODE & ORIGINATING
CAUSES.

• APPLICATIONS
• 1.- PRINCIPAL STRUCTURES IDENTIFICATION & ANALYSIS
• 2.- STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY & PETROLEUM EXPLORATION &
EXPLOITATION
 1. PRINCIPAL STRUCTURES IDENTIFICATION & ANALYSIS

❖DISTINGUISH STRUCTURE TYPES PRESENTED IN ROCKS

❖IDENTIFY STRUCTURE FEATURES & SAFETY ASPECTS
➢DICLASTICS : FRACTURES IN ROCKS WITHOUT DISPLACEMENT
➢FAULTS : FRACTURES IN ROCKS WITH DISPLACEMENT
➢FOLDS: BED ONDULATIONS

2. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY & PETROLEUM EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY TAKES CARE OF:

❖LOCATE FAVROABLE SITE FOR HYDROCARBON ACCUMMLATION

WHERE A WELL CAN BE DRILLED

❖THRU DRILLING, SEARCHING FOR HYDROCARBON PRESENCE

 EARTH COMPOSITION

EARTH INTERNAL STRUCTURE

STUDY METHODS:

• DIRECTE: ONLY THE CREST DOWN OT 15 KMCAN BE

STUDIED
• PHYSICAL: SEISMIC WAVE PROPEGATION VELOCITY (
DENSITYDATA OF EARTH COMPONENTS DATA IS
OBRAINED)
• INDIRECT: STUDIES OF METEROITC ENCLAVES.
 EARTH INTERNAL STRUCTURE

ATMPSPHERE

HYDROSPHERE

CRUS
T
SEISMIC WAVE VELOCITY

PRIMARY WAVES (P)

PARTICULE MOEVMMENT

= SPRING COMPRESSION WAVE

SECONDARY WAVES (S)

= CORD WAVE

DEPTH KM
PLATES & SUBDUCTION ZONES
WAVE MOVEMENTS IN EARTH INTRNAL STRUCTURE
EQUATORIAL SECTION WITH PLATES MARGINES &
EARTH INTERNAL COMPOSITION
 EARTH GENRAL STRUCTURE

• SEISMIC METHODS ( GEOPHYSICS).

• WHEN A GEOPHYSICAL MOVEMENT TAKES PLACE INSIDE
THE EARTH IT GENERATES A SERIES OF WAVES THAT
PROPOGATE IN ALL DIRECTIONS WITH DISTINCT VELOCITIES
FOLLOWIWNG THE WAVE TYPE
• VELOCITY DEPENDS ON MATERIAL TYPE & DENSITY THRU
WHICH THE WAVE TRAVELS.

WAVE TYPES THAT ARE ANALYZED ARE :

- P WAVES.
- S WAVES.
- L WAVES.
PROFOUND OR BODY WAVES ARE THE ONE UTILIZED
FOR STUDYING THE MOST INTERNAL EARTH BEDS.
THIS GROUPOF WAVE ARE COMPOSED OF WAVE
TYPE P &S.
PRIMARY WAVES

SECONDARY
WAVES

SEISMIC WAVE TYPE

P WAVES (PRIMARY) : PARTICULES OSCILATE IN THE
DIRECTION OF WAVE PROPPGATION.

S WAVES (SECUNDARY): PARTICULES OSCILATE IN

TRANSVERSE DIRECTION TO WAVE PROPOGATION las
partículas se mueven en dirección transversa.

RAYLEIGH WAVE: COMPLEX MOVEMENT BUT CLOSE O

SURFACE RESEMBLING AN ELIPSE

LOVE WAVES: MOVEMENTS ARE TRANSVERSAL & HORIZONTAL

• P WAVES .
➢ LONGITUDINAL, PRIMARYOR OR THRUST.
➢ REALIZED AT SURFACE, YET ONLY PRESENT A TRANSMISSION
OF UNIDIRECTIONAL COMPRESSION-DISTENSION VIBRATIONS.
➢ WAVE VELOCITY DEFINED AS:

Vp = √ ((k + 4/3 μ) / ρ)
WHERE:

k = COMPRESSIVE MODULUS
μ = RIGIDNESS OF TRAVERSSED MEDIUM;
ρ = DENSITY OF TRAVERSSED MEDIUM

THEREFORE, WAVE VELOCITY INCREASES WITH RIGIDNESS &

DECRESSES WITH DENSITY.
• S WAVES .
➢ TRANSVERSAL, SECONDARY OR SHAKE WAVES.
TRANSIMITTED BY TRANSVERSAL VIBRATION WHICH
IMPLIES LONG PROPOGATION TIME, THEREFORE ARRIVE
LATER TO SURFACE THAN P WAVES P.
➢ WAVE VELOCITY IS DETERMINED BY:

Vs = √ (μ / ρ) donde:

μ = RIGIDNESS OF TRAVERSSED MEDIUM;

ρ = DESNISTY OF TRAVERSSED MEDIUM.

S WAVE TRANSMIT IN FLUIDS.

• L WAVES.
SUPERFICIAL WAVES & REPRESENT ENERGY TRANSPORT
TO EARTH SURFACE WHICH IS SLOWER.
BIG AMPLITUED & LOW FREQUENCY, ONDULATORY
MOVEMENT PROVOKING A MORE INTENES EARTH QUICK THAN
THE EPICENTER

TWO FUNDIMENTAL TYPES:

1. RAYLEIGHT WAVE: MOVEMENT FLOLLOW AN ELIPTIC ORBIT

ORIENTED VERTICALLLY , FALLING IN WAVE PROPOGATION
DIRECTION. WHEN THE PARTICLE IS IN THE UPPER PART OF
THE WAVE, IT MOVES CONTRARY TO PROPOGATION. SUCH
WAVE DISAPPEAR QUICKLU AS DEPTH IINCREASES.
2. LOVE WAVE: MOVEMENT HORIZONTAL & PERPENDICULAR
TO WAVE MOVEMENT. FORM QUICKER THAN RAYLEIGH
WAVES.
 AS A CONSEQUENCE OF WAVE VELOCITY STUDIES, EXISTS
A DIFFERENCE OF DENSITY & MATERIALS THAT COMPOSE
THE EARTH.

VELOCITY VARIATION PUT IN EVIDENCE BIG

DISCONTINUITEIS:
• MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY (MOHO), SITUATED AT 30 TO
40 KMS, DEPTH.
• GUTENBERG DISCONTINUITY , IDENTIFEIF AT DPETH OF2 900
KMS.
THESE DISCONTINUITEIS SEPARATE THREE ZONES:
• CREST: SURFACE TO MOHO.
• MANTLE: BETWEEN MOHO & GUTENBERG.
• NUCLEAOS: GUTENBERG TO CENTER.
WAVE STUDIES ALSO REFLECTS THE EXISSTENCE OF THESE
ZONES AS A FUNCTION OF OTHER FEATURES:

CREST: 0 - 33 Km.

MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY

· UPPER MANTLE : 33 - 410 Km.

· TRANSITION ZONE: 410 - 1000 Km.
· LOWER MANTLE: 1000 - 2900 Km.

GUTENBERG DISCONTINUITY

· OUTER NUCLEI: 2900 - 4980 Km.

· TRANSITION ZONE- 4980 - 5120 Km.
· INNER NUCLEI: 5120 - 6370 Km.
SCHEMATIC OF EARTH COMPOSITIONAL & MECHANICAL
LIMITS
 CRUST

a) CONTINENTAL CREST.

b) OCEANIC CREST.

c) TRANSITION FROM CONTINTAL TO OCEANIC

CREST.
 CREST TYPES ( PLATES)
CONTINENTAL CREST OCEANIC
MUD LINE
ERROSION
CREST MARINE
UNDEFORMED SEDIMENTS
STRATA PILLOWED
LAVA
DEFORMED
STRATA

STRATIFIED DYKES
METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
PERIDOTEIS
ERINTRUSIVE
ROCKS ( GRANITE

OCEANIC CREST
LIMIT
a) CONTINENTAL CREST

• THICKNESS: 20 TO 50 Km. BUT CAN BBE OF 60 Km. IN SOME

POINTS.
• COMPONENT ROCK AGE 4000 m.a. SEPARATED FROM THE
MANTLE BY MOHO.
• CREST CAN BE DEVIDED INTO TWO ZONES:

UPPER: VELOCITY OF P WAVES IS OF 5.8 TO 6.4 Km/s &

AVERAGE DESNIRTY 2.7 gr/cc.(SEDEMENTARY BED & GRANTIC
BED).

LOWER: VELOCITY OF P WAVES US OF 6.5 a 7.2 Km/s & AVERAGE

DENSITY 3 gr/cc.( ECLOGITES & GANULITES)
b) OCEANIC CREST:
• THICKNBESS: 0 TO 7 Km, AGE NOT OVER 250 m.a., I.E.,
OCEANIC CREST COMPOSED OF YOUNG ROCKS.
• SEPARATED OF MANTLE BY Moho.

CONSTITUTED OF:

FIRST LAYER: THICKNESS 0.45 Km.. VELOCITY OF P WAVES

1.6 TO 2.5 Km/s. (SEDIMENTES).

SECOND LAYER: AVERAGE THICKNESS 1.5 Km.; VELOCITY

OF P WAVES P, OSCILATE BETWEEN 4.0 & los 6.0
Km/s,(BASALTES)
THIRD LAYER: THICKNESS 5 Km, VELOCITY OF P WAVES
OSCILATE BETWEEN 6.4 &7.0 Km/s, (PERIDOTITES,
SERPENTINITES)
c) TRANSITION FROM CONTINETAL TO OCEANIC CREST.
CHANGE OF CONTINENTAL CREST TO OCEANIC CREST
PRODUCES TRANSITION CREST. DISTINGUISHING TWO
CLASSES IN AS A FUNCTION OF TECTONIC STRUCTURE:

• ACTIVE CONTINENTAL MARGINE:

BIG SEISMIC ACTIVITY- EXAMPLE AREAS SURRONDDING
THE PACIFIC OCEAN.

• PASSIVE margine:.
TECTONIC ACTIVITIES ALMOST ABSENT- AREAS
SURROUNDING THE ATLANTIC & INDIAN OCEANS.
 STUDY OF EARTH ROCKS
MANTEL

•MOST IMPORTANT DIIVISION, REPRESENTING 84% BY

VOLUME & 64% BY WEIGHT OF THE TOTAL EARTH.

•DELIMITED AT TOP BY MOHOROVICIC DISCONTIUITY,

SEPARATING IT FROM CREST BY ABOUT 2900 Km, & AT
BOTTOM SEPARATED FROM THE NUCLEI BY
GUTENBERG DISCONTINUITY

•CREST-MANTEL LIMTE DEFINED BY INCREASE OF

PROPOGATION VELOCITY OF P WAVES FROM 7 Km/s
IN CREST TO 8 Km./s IN UPPER MANTEL.
BASED O WAVE VELOCITY THE MANTLE IS SUBDEVIDED INTO
THREE ZONES:

• a) UPPER MANTLE: WAVES SUFFER DECREASE IN VELOCITY

OF PROPOGATION. IT EXTENDS FROM 100 TO 200 Km.

• b) TRANSITION ZONE. EXTENDS 200-400Km. UP TO ABOUT

1000 Km. NO FAST INCREASE WAVE P & S VELOCITEIS ( BY
JEFFREYS, STARTING FROM 400 Km & BY GUTENBERG
STARTING FROM 200 Km.

• c) LOWER ZONE: BETWEEN 1000 Km. & 2900 Km., WHERE

WAVE P & s VELOCITIES EXPERIENCE MILD INCREASE WITH
DEPTH. IN BOTTOM INTERVAL BETWEEN 2700 Km & 2900
Km. VELOCITY GRADIENT DECREASES
 NUCLEI

• UPPER LIMTE IS GUTENBERG DISCONTINUITY (2900 Km.)

LOWER LIMIT IS THE CENTER FOF THE EARTH AT 6370 Km.
• REPRESENTS 16% OF EAARTH TOTAL VOLUME & 31% OF
ITS MASS.
• BY P WAVE VALUES , THREE ZONES ARE IDENTIFIED:

- OUTER NUCLEI.
- TRANSITION ZONE (LEHMAN DISCONTINUITY).
- INTERNAL NUCLEI.
a) OUTER NUCLEI: P WAVE TRANSIMISSION VELOCITY VAREIS
FROM 8 Km/s HAS UP TO 10 Km/s. DENSSITY FROM 10 gr/cc
TO 12.3 gr/cc.

b) TRANSITION ZONE: P WAVE VELOCITY VAREIS FROM 19.4

Km/s & 9.5 Km/s.

c) INTERNAL NUCLEI: P WAVES PRESENT A VELOCITY OF 11.1

Km/s. DENSITY VAREIS FROM13.3 gr/cc TO 13.6 gr/cc.

EXTERNAL NUCLEI IS FORMED OF LIQUID, S WAVES ARE NOT

TRANSMITTED
THRU IT, WHILE THE INTERNAL NUCLEI IS SLOID
SUMMARY OF EARTH STRUCTURE
ZONE & LIMIT P WAVE VOL DENSITY PRESSURE COMPOSITION LIMITE
DISCONTIUITY (KM) KM/SEC (%) GR/CC KBAR COMPOSITION

CONTINENTAL HETEROGENIOUS
MEDIUM : 33 SOLID
OCEANIC: BASALTIC
CREST ( SIAL) 6.5 2.7 CONTINETAL: GRANITIC

1.55

MOUNTAIN
CONRAD RANGE :65 2.8
DISCONTNUITY

CREST ( SIMA) 6.9 2.9 CHEMICAL CAHNGE OF BASALTS

30 IN CREST TO PERODITES IN ANTLE
MOHOROVICIC
DISCONTINUITY
UPPER 30 VARIOUS TYOE OF
8.1 3.3 PERIDOTITES
MANTL
LOW ELOCITY APPROX. 50 PERIDOTITE PARTIALLY
7.8 FUSED
LAYER
APPROX. 250 PERODITES WIHT HIGH PHASE CHANGES TO HIGH
UPPER 82.25 DENSITY MINERALS DENSITY MINERALS
8.1
MANTLE

APPROX. 1000 PERODITES WIHT HIGH

LOWER 10.7 4.3 270 DENSITY MINERALS
MANTLE 13.6 5.7 1360

2900 SILICATE MANTLE CHANGE TO

GUTENBERG METALIC NUCLEI
DISCONTINUITY

EXTERNAL 2900 8.1 9.7 POSSIBLE Fe + Ni FUSED

3180
NUCLEI 10.3 10.3
5080 LIQUID PHASE CHANGE TO SOILD
TRANSITION OF APPROX. 100KM
LEHMNAN
16.2
DISCONTINUITY

LOWER 5080 Fe+ Ni SOLID

11.2 14
NUCLEI
PLATE TECTONICS - PRINCIPLES & THEORY.
EARTHQUAKE EPICENTER DISTRIBUTION REVEALS
SYSTEMATIIC PATTERN OF TERESTRIAL SEISMISTY &
DEFINES LITHOSPHERICAL PLATE LIMTES
FIRST MOVEMENT RECORD OF SEISMIC WAVES SHOW
THAT MOVEMENTS ALONG PLATE LIMITES CAN BE :
NORMAL, INVERSE, CISALLANT (DEXTRE OR SINESTRE).
LITHOSPHERE
MAIN UNITS

• LITHOSPHERIC & ENDOSPHERIC PLATES , VAREIS

IN SIZE & TIME
• EXISTE:
BIG PLATES
MICRO PLATES
FOUR COMPLEX ZONES
OCEAN BOTTOM MORPHOLOGY
BIG PLATES
· PACIFIC
· AMERICAN
· EURO-ASIATIC
· INDO-AUSTRALIAN
· AFRICAN
· ANTARTIC
MICRO PLATES:
· COCOS
· NAZCA
· CARIBE
· FILIPIN
· ARAB
· SOMALIA
· JUAN DE FUCA
 OCEAN BOTTOM MORPHOLOGY

AREAS:

· OCEANIC DORSALES

· OCEANIC BASINS

· OCEANIC PITS
 OCEANIC DORSALES

• TOPOGRAPHIC EVOLUTIONS IN THE OCEAN , WITH HEIGHTS

VARING BETWEEN 2 Km. & 5 Km. & WIDTH OF 1000 Km. TO 4000
Km, FORMING CORDILLERAS ( RANGES OF MOUNTAINS)OF 60000
Km. LONG.
• CONTINENTS POSITIONS IN RESPECT TO DORSALES IS SMETRIC IN
TH ATLANTIC & ANTRACTICA, TO A CERTAIN DEGREE IN THE
INDIAN OCEAN. BUT ASIMETRIC IN THE PACIFIC.
• INSOME POINTS, DORSALS MERGE GIVING BIRTH TO ISLES ( ICEL&,
OR AZORES ISLES IN THE ATALANTIC)
• TE CENTER OF THE DORSSAL APPEARE IN RIFT VALLY ( ZONE OF
TENS OF KM WIDE & HUNDREDS OF KM LONG. FAULTS THAT
INDICATE TENSION BETWEEN PLATES, AS WELL AS BIG VOLCANIC
ACTIITIES EXIST IN DORSALS.
• DORSALS ARE SEISICALLY ACTIVE ZONES. SURFACE FOCUSED, AT
A DEPTH OF 10-12 KM & ARE CONSEQUENCE OF TENSION FORCES,
OF LOW INTENSITY THAT ORIGINATE IN THE AXIS OF THE DORSAL
OR FEW KM AWAY FROM IT
• FRACTURES PRODCUED CUT PERPENDUCULARLY TO THE
DORSAL AXIS, & GET FEW TRANSFORMATIONAL FAULTS.
OCEANIC DORSAL
 TRANSFORMATIONAL FAULTS

FRACTURES PRODCUED CUT PERPENDUCULARLY TO THE

DORSAL AXIS, & GET FEW TRANSFORMATIONAL FAULTS.
 OCEANIC BASINS
• FORMS FROM THE OCEANIC DORSAL UNTIL THE CLOSEST
CONTENTAL SHELF
• AVERAGE DEPTH OF 2600 m. IN UPPER PART
SEDEMENTARY LAYER, INCREASING AS APPROACHING THE
CONTINENTAL SHELF, CONTAINING THE OLDEST
SEDIMENTS AS APPROACHING THE CONTIENTAL SHELF
•

PCEANIC BASIN
SEDIMENTS CONTINENTAL
SHELF
 OCEANIC PITS

• STRETCHED & DEEP ZONES, LOCALIZED TO THE SIDE OF THE

CONTINETAL MARGINE OR AROUND ISL& ARCHES (CHAIN OF
ISL&S IN A CURVED FROM IN SEISMIC OR VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
ZONES).

• SITUATED IN DESTRUCTIVE MARGINES OF PLATES FLANKED BY A

DEEP PIT LOCATED IN THE CONVEX SIDE , WHICH IS NORMALLY
THE OCEANIC SIDE.

• VARIABLE DEPTH. DEEPEST IN JAVA, FOLLOWED BY SOUTH

SÁNDWICH ISLES & IN THE MIDDLE IS CRETE.

• HAVING ASIMETRIC PROFILE, BIG SEISMIC ACTIVITIES & BIG

MAGNETIC & GRAVITATIONAL ANOMALIES AS WELL AS VULCANIC,
& ARE FRFILLED BY SEDIMENTS
 SEISMIC, A CONSEQUENCE OF MOVMENTS OR PLATE
BREAKING & AS A FUNCTION OF SEISMIC FOCUS DEPTH ,
THREE TYPES ARE DESTINGUISHED:

1. SUPERFICIAL.

2. INTERMEDIATE.

3. DEEP FOCUS OR BATISEISME.

 PLATES LIMITES

1. SUPERFICIAL: AT LEAST 70 Km. DEEP. PRESENT IN DORSALES ,

TENSIONAL TYPE OR ORIGINE, OCCURANCES IN
TRANFORMATIONAL SLIP FAULTS, PRODUCED BY A PAIRE OF
FORCES

2. -INTERMEDIATE: OF 70 TO 400 Km. IN HIMALAYA-ALPES CHAINS,

ALSO CAN BE DEEP.

3. - DEEP FOCUS (BATISEISM):OF 400 Km TO 700 Km. PRESENT IN

OCEANIC PITS. DURING STRONG VOLCANIC ACTIVITES, DEEP
SEISMES TAKE PLACE. EARTHQUACKS ARE VILONTE SEISMIC
ACTIVITIES & ARE DISTRIBUTED ALONG THE STRETCHED ZONE,
INCLINED TOWARDS CONTINENTAL ZONE.
IN THE SIDE OF BENIOFF, WIT AN INCLINATION OF 45 °. ALOS,
SUPERFICIAL SEISMES TAKE PALCE (TENSIONALE),
INTERMEDIATE (COMPRESSIVE OR TENSIONALE) & BATISEISMES
(COMPRESSIVE). THE FOCUS WAS LOCATED OUTOF BENIOFF
PLAIN
 PLATE BORDERS

RELATIVE TO SEISMES, IT IS POSSIBLE TO DEFFERENTIATE

YJR LIMITRD OG THE PLATES. THREE TYPES OF BORDERS
ARE GIVEN:

• DIVERGENT OR CONSTRUCTIVE BORDER. COINCIDE

WITHTHE DORSALES THE PARTS THAT ARE SITUATED TO
THE SIDE OF THE DORSALE DISPLACE & IN THE DORSALE
AN OCEANIC CRUST IS GENERATED

• PASSIVE: COIICDE WITH TRANFORMATIONAL FAULTS &

ONLY HORIZONTAL MOVEMENTE EXISTES

• CONVERGENT OR DISTRUCTIVE: LOCOLIZE OVER OCEIANIC

PITS, FOLLWOING PLATES BIRTH , MOREOVER, IS A POINT
FROM WHICH THE OCEANIC CREST IS DESTROYED, YET ONE
PLATE SUBMERGES UNDER OTHER PLATE UNTIL THE
LOWER RACHES THE MANTLE FUSING IN IT. THIS IS KNOWN
AS SUBDUCTION
PLATE BORDER TYPES
 PLATE BORDER/LIMITES TYPES

PLATE BORDER/LIMITES TYPES

CONSERVATIVE LIMITES

CONTENTAL
OCEANIC CREST
CREST
CONVERGENT LIMITS ( CREST DISTRCTION)

CONTENTAL CREST OCEANIC CREST

DIVERGENT LIMITS( = CREST CONSTRUCTION)

OCEANIC CREST OCEANIC CREST
GEOTECHNICAL MAP WITH PLATES LIMITES
 ACTIVE CONTINETAL MARGINES: SUBDUCTION

COLLISION OF AN OCEANIC PLATE ( HIGHER SPECIFIC WEIGHT) & A

CONTINENTAL PLATE (LOWER SPECIFIC WEIGHT), OCEANIC PLATE SINKS
 METMORPHISM PROCESS & PATIAL FUSION
BENIOFF ZONE

• OCEANIC PLATE MOVMENTS & CONTENTAL ROCKS

EPRODUCE HIGH TECTONIC TENSIONS
• SUCH TECNTONIC ACTIVITIES DISCHARGE TREMORES &
EARTHQUACKES IN ZONES ABOVE THE SUBDUCTION ZONE.
• GEOPHYSISISTS CAN MEASURE SEISMIC ACTIVITY DEPTH:
SEISMS NEAR SHORES HAVE A FOCUS AT SHALLOW
DEPTHS & GRADUALLY TOWWARDS THE INSIDE OF THE
CONTINENT THIS DEPTH IONCREASES
 SUBDUCTION TYPES
GENERALLY HTERE ARE TWO TYPES FO SUVDUCTIONS:

a) &INO TYPE
SUBDUCTIONANGLE IS BETWEEN 20-30° & PRODUCE A
MORPHOLOGY SIMILAR TO THAT OF THE &ES.
b) BACK-ARC TYPE
SUBDUCTION ANGLE IS AROUND 70° & PRODUCES ISLES
CHAINES & VULCANOS, AS SEA ( WITH OCEANIC CREST)
BETWEEN VULCANOS & THE CONTINENT
PLACES WHERE DUBDUCTIONS OCCUR

• BELWO CONTINETAL CRET: ACTIVE

CONTINETALL MARGINE.

• BELOW OCEANIC CREST : ISLES ARCH.

RELATIVE MOVEMENTS OF LITHOSPHERIC PLATES

AXIS ROTATION IN A LATHTE PVER A SPHERICAL SURFACE

OF A RIGIDF PLATE PRODCUES CONVECTION HEATS IN THE
MANTLE
 ROTATION POLE OF TECTONIC PLATES

RECIPROCAL MOVEMENTS OF
PLATE A & B TO THE SOUTH
OF ONE SHPHERE CAN BE
REPRESENTED BY ROTATION
AROUND POLE AB (EULER
POLE). GIVING THIS SYSTEM OF
COORDINATESM A STRAI GHT
LINE IS TRANSFORMED IN A
SMALL CIRCLE ARCH SOUTH
OF THE SPHERE SURFACE,
LINEAR MOVEMENT IS
TRANSFORMED QUICKLY IN
ANGULAR MOVEMENT. THIS
MOVEMENT IS ASSSOCIATED
WITH CONVECTION MOVEMENT
OF THE MANTEL, WHERE
TERESTRIAL CREST FLOATES
 CONTINENTAL DRIFT

• PLATES MOVEMENTES GENERATED THE

CONCEPT OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT, THIS SHOW
HOW CONTINENTS HAVE MOVED THROUGHOUT
GEOLOGICAL TIME UNTIL NOW

CONTINENT, THERFORE , HAVE HAD VARIOUS

LOCATIONS AS SHOWN BELOW:
CONTINENTAL
DRIFT

CONTENT
LOCATION FROM
JURASSIC UNTIL
NOW
 CONTINENTAL
DRIFT
CONTINETS
LOCATIONS
FROM
ORDOVICIAN
UNTIL PERMIAN:
GEOLOGICAL DISCIPLINES AFFECTED
BY CONTINENTAL DRIFT

GEOLOGICAL DISCIPLINES AFFECTED BY CONTINENTAL DRIFT

PALEONTOLOGY

EARTHQUAKES SEA CURRURENTS

GEOPHYSICSY

CLIMATE

MINERAL
DEPOSITS

STRATIGRAPHIC REGIONAL
GEOLOGY
MOUNTAINS
FORMATION
PSTRUCTURAL
GEO;OGY
 CONTENTAL MARGINE CALSSIFICATIONS &
SYNTHESIS OF CONDENSED TECTONIC.

CONTINETAL MARGINES CANBE CALSSIFIED IN :

• DIVERGENT MARGINES: ASSOCIATED WIT OCEANIC DORSALE ,

TO ZONES CREATED IN LITHOSPHERE.
• CONVERGINT MARGINES: ASSOCIATED WITH SUBDUCTION ZONES,
WHERE PLATES DISAPPEARE , INEXORABLY, INTO THE MANTLE
• TRANSFORMANT MARGINES: ASSOCIATEED WITH IR DYUE
TO HE PRESENCE OF TRANSFORMATIONAL FAULTS AS A
PROOF OF SLIDING OF THE SPHERICAL CASC OF THE
LITHOSPHERE
 CONTENTAL MARGINE CALSSIFICATIONS &
SYNTHESIS OF CONDENSED TECTONIC.

BASED ON MOVEMENTS & EARTHQUAKES, PLATE

LIMITES TYPE ARE:

• RIFT ZONE SUBJECTED TO EXTENSION

• TRANSFORMATIONAL FAULT ZONE
(TRANSCURRENCIAL).
• COMPRESSION ZONE.
EARTHQUAKE DISTRIBUTION, INCOMBINATION WITH CREST
FEATURES. FORM THE BSIS FOR SUBDIVISION OF
CONTINENTAL MARGINES:

• PASSIVE MARGINE: DIVERGENT MARGINE WITH CONTINENTAL

MARGINE WITH A LIMIT OR TOTAL ABSENCE OF SEISMIC 7
VOLCANIC ACTIVITEIS

• CRATONIC MARGINE & CRATONIC BASIN: REST OVER

COTINENTAL CREST

• ACTIVE MARGINE (OR CONVERGENT MARGINE ):

ASSOCIATED WITH INTENS SEISMIC OR VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES.
SUCH MARGINES FORM THE CONVERGENT LIMITES OF PLATES
WHERE THE LITHOSPHERE,COLD & RIGID, SUBDUCTS OR SINKS
IN DEPTH INTO THE HOTTER & LESS VISCOS ATENOSPHERE.
TECTONIC PLATES & CONTINENTAL MARGINES
CONTINENTAL MARGINES
 MEGASUTURE

• THE TERM “MEGASUTURE” INCLUDES A GLOBAL INTENSE

FOLDINGA IN WHICH INCLUDES ALL OROGENIC PRODUCTS
ORIGINATED BY THE FOLLWOING PROCESSES: FOLDING,
RIDING & IGNITION ACTIVITIES.

• LINEARILTY OF MANY SUTURES IN WORLD MAP ARE DUE TO

SUPERPOSITION OF FAILURE , WHICH IS MUCH LONGER
THAN THE PROCESS OF THE SUTURING
• THE TERM SUTURE, GENERALLY IMPLY A JUXTAPOSITION
OF DIFFERENT PLAEOGEOGRAPHICAL CONTENTES & THE
CONSEQUENCE IS MORE RESTRICTED BY THE TERM
MEGASUTURE
 SUBDUCTION TYPES

• TYPE A:
PRODUCED BY COLLISION BETWEEN AN OCEANIC
PLATEOR CREST & CONTINENTAL PLATE OR
CONTINENTAL CREST

• TYPE B:
PRODUCED BY COLLISION BETWEEN TWO CREST
PLATES.
SUBDUCTION
TYPES
 THIS CLASSIIFICATION DEFFERNTIATE THREE
TYPES OF FAMILIES OF SEDEMENTATY BASINS:

FAMILIES OF SEDEMENTARY BASINS:

• BASINS LOCATED OVER RIGID LITHOSPHERE &

NO ARE ASSOCIATED TO MEGASUTURE
FORMATION.
• PERISUTURALES BASINS OVER RIGID
LITOSPHERE ASSOCIATED WITH MEGASUTURE
COMPRESSIVE FLANKS
• EPISUTURALE BASINS: LOCALIZED ABOVE &
MAINLY INTO THE MEGASTURE.
MEGASUTURES & CENOZOIC – MESOZOIC
VOLCANISM.
 DIFFERENT
MARGINES OF A
MEGASUTURE
WHERE
SUBDUCTION
TYPE A & B ,
TRANSFORMATIO
NAL MARGINES &
INTRUSIVE
MARGINES
SHOWN
BASINS OF RIGID LITHOSPHERE OF CENOZOIC-MESOZOIC, SHOWN ARE
ATLANTIC BASINS & CRATONIC BASINS ..
MESOZOICO-CENOZOIC MEGASUTURES.
 PLATE TECTONIC LAWS

• EXTERNAL CRST AT EARTH SURFACE ( LITHOSPHERE), IS FORMED OF A MOSAIC OF

TECTOINIC PLATES THAT SLIDE ONE RELATIVE TO OTHER

• PLATES BORN ON OCEANIC DORSALS WHICH ARE FLOATING ABOVE ON HOT PLASTIC LAYER
OF THE MANTEL KNOWN AS ASTENOSPHERE.

• PLATE DEOFRM : THEIR MOVEMENT IS DIRECTLY & INDIRECTLY VOLCANIC WITH OCEANIC
EXTENSTION IN WHICH HOT MATERIAL SINING FROM THE ASTENSOSPHERE RISE THRU THE
LITHOSPHERE TO A SUMMITE OF OCEANIC ( DORSALE CLOUMN) & AT COOLING , FORM
OCEANIC CREST.

• NEW GENERTATED OCEANIC CREST IN THE COLUMN OR DORSAL CREST ADVANCES

TGROWING WHICH GENERATE MORE OCEANIC CREST TOWARDS THE CONTINENTS WHERE
PLATES ARE DISTRUCTED AGAIN BY B TYPE SUBDUCTION & ARE FED BY THE MANTLE.
• GENERALLY, THE CONTINENTS ARE CONSIDERED AS PASSIVE TECTONIC OBJECTS WHICH
ARE BURREID BY OCEANIC EXPANSION , NOTWITHT&ING, THEY APPERE AS COMPIMENTE TO
THE MECHANISIM OF PLATE TECTONICS.

• CONTINENTS OR BLOCKS OF CONTINETAL CREST CAN ENTER IN A COLLISION & CONSTITUTE

CONTINENTAL MASSES OF BIG DIMENSIONS.

• BOUNDRIES OF THE PLATES ARE MADE BY OCEANIC DORSAL COLUMNS, SUBDUCTION ZONES
& TRANSFORMATIONAL FAULTS
• INTERNAL ENERGY OF GLOB DISIPELS THRU PLATES
BOUNDRIES IN A MANNER WHICH SEISMIC MECHANISIM ,
MOUNTAINS FORMATIONS, PLUTONISME ARE
EXPRESSIONS OF SUCH LIBERATION OF ENERGY

• RELATIVE MOVEMENTS OF THE RIGID PLATES ARE

RECORDED BY MATHMATICS & KINEMATICS OVER THE
SPHERE
 CONDENSED TECTONIC SYNTHESIS

• OCEANS: PRODUCT OF MESOZOICO-CENOZOIC

EXTENTION & EXPANSION OF OCEANIC PEAK.

• MEGASUTURES: MESOZOIC. CENOZOIC.

• MEGASUTURES: PALEOZOIC & PRE-CÁMBRIAN.

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

• RADIOACTIVE DISCOVERY CHANGED THE BASIS OF

RADIOMETRIC DATING

• THESE TEQUNIQUES HAVE MADE IT POSSIBLE TO TALK

ABOUT ‘ABSOLUTE” AGE OF A ROCK MINERAL, WITH WHICH
IT IS POSSIBLE TO CLCULATE ,WITH UNPRESDENTED
PRECISION, EARTH AGE OR ANTIQUITY OF REMOTE
GEOLOGIC EVENTS .

• GEOLOGICAL CRONOLOGY COVER ALL EARTG HISTORY,

STARTING FROM 4,600 MM YEARS
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
HOW TO MEASURE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

• GEOLOGISTS HAVE DEVIDED THE TOTAL

GEOPLGICAL HISTORY IN VARIABLE UNITS OF
MAGNITUDE. TOGETHER, UNDERST&ING THE
GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE OF EARTH HISTORY.

• GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE SUBDEIVIDES THE

4.600 MM YEARS OF EARTH HISTORY IN MANY
DIFFERENT UNITS:

1. EON.
2. ERAS.
3. PERIODES.
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
ERA PERIOD EPOOC SINCE MM
YEARS

EON ERA SINCE MM

YEARS

ABSOLUTE DATES
WERE ADDED MUCH
LATER AFTER
HAVING
ESTABLISHED THE
GEOLOGICAL TIME
SCALE BY USING
TECHNIQUES OF
RELATIVE DATING.
(DATA OF AMERICAN
SOCIETY OF
GEOLOGISTS)
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

ABSOLUTE AGE DETERMINATION OR

STRATA RELATIVES.

1. STENO PRINCIPE

2. RELATIVE AGE DETERMINATION METHODS

3. ABSOLUT AGE METHODS

 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

1. STENO PRINCIPLE:
LOWEST STRATA (BOTTOM) ARE OLDER
THAN UPPER STRATA ( IF NOT INVERTED
OR STRONGLY TECTONICALLY
DEFORMED).
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

2. METHODS OF RELATIVE AGE

DETERMINATION
➢ BY FOSSILES (PALEONTOLOGY,
BIOESTRATIGRAFY, FOSSILES GUIDES).
➢ BY MONDIAL PHENOMENA (GOLOBAL LAYERS ,
FOR EXAMPLE, IMPACT OF BIG METEORITE).
➢ BY SEA REGRESSION & TRANSGRESSION.
➢ BY TECTONIC STRUCTURES.
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

3. ABSOLUTE AGE METHODS

3.1.- RADIOMETRIC DATINGS

3.2.- Varvas

3.3.- TREE RINGS.

 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

ABSOLUTE AGE:
• RADIOMETRIC DATING BY INSTABIL ISOTOPS:

• RADIOMETRIC DATING
RADIOMETRIC DATING
POTASIUM -ARGON

DURATION DURATION
1300MM 1300MM
YEARS YEARS

YEAR 0 1300MM 2600MM

YEARS YEARS
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

PERIODES OF SOME RADIOACTOVE ISOTOPS APPLIED

FREQUENTLY IN ROCKS ABSOLUTE AGE

Isótopo
RADIOACTIV Período
SEMIde semidesintegración ProductoDISINTGRATION
DESINTEGRATION de desintegración
E
radioactivo enPERIODS YEARS-AVERAGE radioactiva
años (mediavida) PRODUCT=RADIOGENE
= isótopo radiógeno
ISOTOP ISOTOP
87
Rb 48,6 x 109 87
Sr
232
Th 14,0 x109 208
Pb
40
K 1,3 x109 40
Ar
238
U 4,5 x109 206
Pb
235
U 0,7 x109 207
Pb
14 14
C 5730 N
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
THE THREE COMMON TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE
DISINTGRATION
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
EXAMPLE OF RADIOACTIVE DESINTEGRATION. START
FROM U-238 ARRIVING AT Pb 206.
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

RADIOACTIVE
DESINTEGRATION
CURVE SHOW AN
EXPONENTIAL
CHANGE.
AFTER A PERIOD OF
SEMIDESINTEGRATIO
N HAPPEN AT THE
MIDDLE OF
READIOACTVE
PRECURSOR.
AFTER A SCEOND
PERIOD OF, HAPPEN
A FORTH PART OF
PROGENITOR , & SO
ON
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
ISOTOPS FREQUENTLY USED IN RADIOMETRIC
DATING

PARENT ISOTOP SON PRODUCT VALUE OF SEMIDESESINTEGRATION

STABLE RADIOACTIVE PERIOD ACTUALLY AFFECTED
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

DETERMINATION OF DATE BY CARBON-14

• HAPPENS CONTINUOUSALLY IN UPPER ATMOSPHERE AS A
CONSEQUENCE OF COSMIC RAYS BOMBARDMENT. COSMIC
RAYS (ESPACIALLY NUCLEAR OF HIGH ENERGY) DISPERSE
THE NUCLEIS OF GASIOUS ATOMS, FREEING NEUTRONS
• SOME NEUTRONS ARE ABSORBED BY NITROGEN ATOMS (
ATOMIC NUMBER 7, MASS NUMBER 14) MAKING THAT EVERY
NUCLEI EMITS A PROTON . AS A CONSEQUENCE , ATOMIC
NUMBER DECREASES BY 1 TO 6 & CREAATES & DIFFERENT
ELEMENT CARBON -14
• THIS CARBON ISOTOP IS INCORPORATED QUICKLY IN
CARBON DIOXIDE WHICH CIRCULATE INTHE ATMOSPHERE
& IS ABSORBED BY LIVE MATERIAL. AS A CONSEQUENCE,
ALL ORGANISMS, INCLUDING HUMANS,
• CONTAIN A SMALL QUANTITY OF CARBON-14.
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
DETERMINATION OF DATE BY CARBON-14

• WHILE AN ORGANISM IS ALIE THE RADIOACTIVE CARBON IN

DESCOMPOSITION IS SUBSTITUTED CONTINUOUSLY & THE
PROPORTION OF CARBON -14 & CARBON-12 REMAIN
CONSTANTS.
• CARBON -12 IS THE STABLE ISOTOP & IS MORE COMMON.
HOEVERE, WHEN AN ORGANISM DIES THE QUANTITY OF
CARBONE -14 DECREASES GRADUALLY IN ONFORMANCE
WITH NITROGEN-14 DESINTEGRATION,.
• COMPARING CARBON -14 & CARBON-12 PROPORTIONES IN
A SAMPLE, THE E DATE OF THE RADIOCARBON CAN BE
DETERMINED
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
EPOCS
➢ PRECAMBRICAN/PALEOZOIC
• PRECAMBRIAN
➢ PRECAMBRIAN LIMITE / PALEOZOIC
• CAMBRIAN
• ORDOVICIAN
• SILURIAN
• DEVONIAN
• CARBONIFERE
• PERMIAN
➢ PALEOZOIC LIMITE / MESOZOIC
• TRIASIC
• JURASIC
• CRETACEOUS
➢ MESOZOIC LIMITE / CENOZOIC
• TERTIART = PALEOCENE, EOCENE, OLIGOCENE,
MIOCENOE & PLIOCENOE
• CUATERNARY
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

PRECAMBRIAN/PALEOZOIC

PRECAMBRIAN

GENERAL: PRECAMBRIAN
AGE UPPER: 570 M.A SUBDIVISION
DURATION KEY WORD: FIRST LIVINGS PROTEROZOIC
AGE LOWER 4500 MA ARCAICH

FIRST FOSSILES APPEARE:

GEOTECTONICSS:
MOUNTAIN STRUCTURES OF 2100-1800 M.A. ARE
KNOWN- CANADA- WOPMAY MOUNTAINS
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
CAMBRIAN
GENERALITIES: CAMBRIAN
AGE UPPER: 510 M.A SUBDIVISION UPPER
DURATION:600 MA KEY WORD: MIDDLE
AGE LOWER 5700 MA LOWER

TRILOBITES
BRAQUIÓPODOS (TODAVÍA EXISTENT) LIKE
LINGULA
MOLUSCOS
CONODONTES
OSTRACODOS: CRUSTACEOS WITH ONE
SHELL
COMPOSED OF TWO VALVES
ARTRÓPODOS
NAUTILOIDEOS (END CAMBRIAN)
ALSO APPEARANCE OF POLIPLACOFOROS
THINGS CURRENTLY KNOWN AS
GEOTECT0NIC:
APRETADORES .
SOUTH CONTEINETS WERE CONNECTED S
(GONDWANA), SIBERIA, LAURENTIA (USA),
CHINA & BALTICA WERE SMALL CONTINENTS.

POLIPLACOFOROS
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
ORDOVICIAN
GENERALITIES: ORDOVICIAN
AGE UPPER: 438 M.A SUBDIVISION UPPER
DURATION:72 MA KEY WORD: LOWER
AGE LOWER 510 MA

BRAQUIÓPODOS (AS WATER

FOSSIL)
CONODONTES (AS WATER
FOSSILUÍA)
GRAPTOLITES (AS WATER
FOSSIL)
TRILOBITES
CORALINOS (RUGOSA)
NAUTILOIDEOS: SUBGRUP OF
CEFALÓPODOS: ALCANZARON
LENGTH 4,5 M (ENDOCERAS) .
LAMELIBRANQUIOS
FIRST FISH AGNATOS
(=VERTEBRATES, FISH
WITHOUT M&IBULA) APPEARE
IN USA DEPOSITS. GEOTECT0NICS:
ALSO EQUINODERMOS IAPETUS: OCEAN BETWEEN ENTRE
(ERIZOS, SEA FISH) CHANGED LAURENTIA & BALTIC (SCOTIA) ALSO
TO PENTAGONL SYMETRY WITH SUBDUCTION
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

SILURIAN AGE UPPER: 438 M.A

GENERALITIES: SILURIAN
SUBDIVISION UPPER
DURATION:28 MA KEY WORD: LIFE ON RIGID EARTH LOWER
AGE LOWER 410 MA

FIRST ANIMALES & PLANTS

CHANGE TOWARDS RIGID
EARTH
ALACRANES (SCORPIONES)

CIEMPIES (MIRIÁPODOS)

CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS:

GRAPTOLITES
CONODONTES GEOTECT0NICS:
IAPETUS (= OCEAN BET WEEN EUORIP & USA /=
ALSO:
LAURENTIA) FREE CLOSING POINT. MARINE LEVEL
FISH GENERALLY WAS VERY HIGH. SHORES SUNK
BRAQUIOPODOS ELOW WATER.
TRILOBITES END OF ORDOVICIAN SEA RETREATED DUE TO
TECTONICS OR CLIMTE.
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

GENERALITIES: DEVOINIAN
AGE UPPER:345 M.A SUBDIVISION UPPER
DEVONIAN DURATION:
AGE LOWER 410 MA
KEY WORD: REEF MIDDDILE
LOWER

CHARACTERISTIC
FOSSILS:
GRAPTOLITES
GONIATITES ( FORMA DE
AMMONOIDEOS)
OSTRACODOS
(=MICROFÓSIL,
ARTROPODOS)
BRAQUIOPODOS GEOTECT0NICS:
FISH: SOME GRUPES EUROPE COLLIDED COMPLETELY
CHANGE TO RIGID EARTH. WITH NORTH AMERICA & FORMED
APPEARANCECE OF FIRST LAURUSSIA CONTINENT. START OF
TIBURONES. DEVONIAN PRESENTED BY LAST
TECTONIC ACTIVITES OF
CALEDONIANO OROGENESIS.
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

CARBONIFERE AGE UPPER:290 M.A

GENERALITIES: CARBONOFERE
SUBDIVISION UPPER
DURATION: KEY WORD: CARBON EPOC
AGE LOWER 345 MA LOWER
CHARACTERISTIC
FOSSILES:

PLANTES
GONIATITES

DEPOSITES:

CARBON IN EUROPA
GEOTECT0NICS:
TILITES (=LITHFIED
MORRENES) IN AFRICA BIG CONTINENT "GONDWANA" OF
SOUTH AFRICA HEMISPHERE ,
& ARGENTINA SOUTH AMERICA, AUSTRELIA &
ANTRACTICA WERE JOINED TO
FORM A "SUPERCONTINENT".
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

GENERALITIES: PERMIAN

PERMIAN AGE UPPER:230 M.A

DURATION:
SUBDIVISION
KEY WORD: SALT EPOC
UPPER

AGE LOWER 290 MA LOWER

CHARACTERISTIC
FOSSILES
PLANTES
(GLOSSOPTERIS,
CONÍFERAS)

AMMONITES
END OF OERMIAN
EPOC DISAPPEARED
VARIOUS FORMS OF
OLD ANIMALS GEOTECT0NICS:
STILL EXISTED THE BIG CONTINENT PANGEA
(LAURASIA + GONDWANA). INDICATORES
SHOW A CONTINENTS SEPARATION. ALSO
OROGENESIS HERCIANO ( OR VARISCA) IS IN
ITS LAST STAGE TO BE FINISHED IN
PERMIAN.
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

PALEOZOIC/ MESOZOIC

• EXTINCTION OF ALL TRILOBITES & LARGE NUMBE

OF ANIMALS: LIKE TRILOBITES (TOTAL),
BRAQUIÓPODOS (IN BIG PART) & EQUINODERMOS
(PARTIAL).

• BIRTH OF OTHER TYPE OF ANIMALS, SOGNIFY THAT

THE REPTILES DEVELPED FAST IN DIFFERENT
FORMS 7 BIG SUCCESS.
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

GENERALITIES: TRIASIC
AGE UPPER:195 M.A SUBDIVISION UPPER
TRIASIC DURATION: 35 M.A.
KEY WORD: CLASTIC
SEDIMENTS
MIDDLE

AGE LOWER 290 MA LOWER

CHARACTERISITC
FOSSILES:
PLANTES
- GASTROPODOS

- FISH
IMPORTANT ANIMALES:
-REPTILES

- TORTGAS

- DINOSAURIOS GEOTECT0NICS:
FLORA: THE CONTINENTES AFRICA &
GINKGO SOUTH AMERICA WERE JOINED ,
- ARAUCARIA WITH MAGMATIC ACTIVITY AT THE
LIMITES OF THE TWO CONTINENTS.
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
GENERALITIES: JURASIC
AGE UPPER:141 M.A SUBDIVISION MALM
KEY WORD: AMONITES &

JURASICO DURATION: 45 M.A.

DINASOUR EPOC DOGGER

AGE LOWER 195 MA LIAS

CHARASTERISTIC FOSSILES:

AMMONITES: MANY DIFFERENT

SPECIES USED AS GUID
FOSSILES.
EXAMPLE:: DACTYLIOCERAS,
AMALTEUS, ARIETITES,
STEPHANOCERAS,
PERISPINCTES.
DINOSAURIOS.
FIRST BIRDS: TRANSITION GEOTECT0NICS:
BETWEEN REPTILES & BIRDS : GENERALLY ATLANTIC OCEAN STILL NOT
EXISTENT , BUT IN MEXICO SEPARATION
ARCHAEOPTERYX
BETWEEEN AFRICA & SOUTH AMERICA
IN FIRST STAGE
IN EUORUP ( AS IN M ANY OTHER PARTS
OF THE WWORLD) THIS EPOC IS
REPRESENTED BY BIG QUANTITIES OF
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
JJURASIC
• AMMONITES:
1. DACTYLIOCERAS
2. AMALTEUS

• BRAQUIÓPODOS
• CARACOLES:
GASTERÓPODOS
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
GENERALITIES: CRETACEOUS
AGE UPPER:65 M.A SUBDIVISION UPPER
KEY WORD: LAST EPOC
OF AMONITES &
CRETACEOUS DURATION: 76 M.A.
DINOSORS
LOWER

AGE LOWER 141 MA

• AMMONITES;IRREGULAR
FORMS (EX.: SCAPHITES), IN
UPPER CRETACEOUS IN
EXTINCTION, FOR
COMPLETE DISAPPEARANCE
OF CRETACEOUS/ TERTIARY
LIMITE.
• CEFALOPODOS LIKE
BELEMNITES (LIKE
PULPOS), ALSO FROM
UPPER CRETACEOUS IN
EXTINTION.
• FIRST MAMIFEROS
APPEARE & FIRST GEOTECT0NICS:
ANGIOSPERMAS (PLANTS STLSNTIC OPENS: FIRST IN THE
WITH FLOWER) . SOUTH , BETWEEN AFRICA & SOUTH
AMERICA, THEN BETWEEN EOUROP
& NORTH AMERICA
Thetis SEA BETWEEN AFRICA &
EUROUP CLOSES & PROVOKES THE
FIRST OROGENESIS IN THE ALPS
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

MESOZOICO CENOZOICO LIMITE

COMPLETE EXTINCTION OF
DINASOAURS, BELEMNITES,
AMMONITES.
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

GENERALITIES: TERTIARY

TERTIARY : AGE UPPER:1.8 M.A SUBDIVISION PLEOCENE

MIOCENE
KEY WORD: MAMIFERS OLIGOCENE
PALEOCEN, DURATION: 63.2 M.A. EOCENE
AGE LOWER 65 MA PLALEOCENE
EOCENE,
OLIGOCENE,
MIOCENE & Y
PLIOCENE
•MAMÍFERES:
HOASES,
ELEFANTES, GEOTECTONICSS;
RINOCEROUS OROGENESIS OF &es & Alpes,
•ANTROPOIDES Thetis CLOSED. GRADUAL
DEVELOPMENT OF ATLANTICC
CHANGE TO
OCEAN, SIGNIFY THAT AFRICA &
HUMANS. SOUTH AMERICA DEPART FROM
EACH OTHER.
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

GENERALITIES: QUATERNERY

QUATERNARY AGE UPPER:0 M.A SUBDIVISION

KEY WORD: GLACIAL
HOLOCENE

PLEISTOCENE
EPOC
DURATION:
AGE LOWER1.8 MA
MAMIFERE & HUMAN

GEOTECTONICSS
IN ALL THE WORLD SOFT
SEDIMENTS DEPOSITES, STILL
NOT COMPACTED
IN SOME SPECIAL PLACES (EX.
&ES Cordillera) BIG DEPOSITS
HAVE BEEN EXCAVATED BY
PRESENT VOLCANIC
ACTIVITIES.
 GEOLOGIC STUDIES FIELDS

SOIL HIDRO- AMBIANTE

GEOLOGIICL MECHANICS
SEDIMENTOL OGY
GEOLOGY GEOLOGY

CONCEPTS:
SCIENCE ECONOMIC
REGIONALG
EOLOGY
GEOLOGY
STUDYING THE
EARTH HOW IT EXPLORAT
HISTORIC
GEOLOGY
FORMED, SINCE -
ION
GEOCRONO
L-
ROSOPECT
WHEN , ITS -
OGY
ION PALEONTOL
HISTORY, & GY

CHANGES GEOPHYSI
CS

TAKING PLACE .
PETROGRAPHY CRYSTALO- GEOCHEM EST RY
STRUCTURAL
GRAPHY GEOLOGY
 GEOLOGIC STUDIES FIELDS
CONSTITUTIVE PARTS OF THE EARTH &
RELATION BETWEEN : ATMOSPHERE,
HYDROSPHERE, BIOSPHERE, & LITHOSPHERE.

ATMOSPHERE
HYDROSPHER BIOSPHER
E E

LITHOSPHERE

PALEONTOLOGY-FOSSILES

SUBTERRANIAN WATER,
TRANSPORT, SEDEMIMENTATION
DUE TO WATER
ERROSION, METEORIZATION
 GEOLOGIC STUDIES FIELDS
1).- ATMOSPHERE:
CONSTIUTE D OF GASES SURROUNDING THE
EARTH.

2).- HYDROSPHERE:
WATER IN, ABOVE OR OVER THE SURFACE OF
THE EARTH :OCEANS, RIVERS, LAKES,
SUBTERRANIAN WATER & RAIN.

3).- BIOSPHERE: PARTS OF EARTH THAT ARE

PRESENT FOR LIVE THINGS: THE SURFACE OF THE
EARTH , SOIL, AIR

4).-LITHOSPHERE: EXTERNAL SOLID PART OF THE

EARTH.
 GEOLOGIC STUDIES FIELDS

ATMSPHERE DEVELOPMENT

ATMSPHERE
DEVELOPMENT
OXYGEN INCREASE
TODAY
DURING THE LEVEL

% OXYGEN OF TODAY
HISTORY OF THE
EARTH . FROM 0.1% SOLID EARTH
OF TODAY LEVEL ( LEVEL LEVEL
100%) . THEN 10%
OXYGEN ACTUAL PASTEUR
LEVEL THAT LEVEL
NEEDED PLANTS &
ANIMLAS. UREY LEVEL

YEARS MM
 GEOLOGIC STUDIES FIELDS
HYDROSFERE
WATER CIRCULATION
• WATER CIRCULATING IN THE ATMOSPHERE, BIOSPHER & LITHOSPHERE
DUE TO SOLAR ENERGY
• FACTORS OF THIS CIRCULATION:

a) AVERAGE ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE

b) PRECIPITATIONS & CLAUDES
c) POLE ICE VOLUME
d)LEVEL(VOLUME ) OF OCEANIC WAER
e) SOLAR ENERGY
f) SEA CURRENTTES 9 COL D & HOT WATER DISTRIBUTION)
g) CONTINENTS CONFIGURATION.
 GEOLOGIC STUDIES FIELDS

RELATIVE QUANTITY & TYPE OF WORLD

WATER:

FRESH WATER 2.7%

SEA WATER
SUBTERRANIAN RIVERS & LAKES VEGETATIONS
97/3% ICE 2.1%
WATER 0.6% 0.001% 0.00004%
 GEOLOGIC STUDIES FIELDS

WATER CIRCULATION
WATER
CIRCULATION

EVAPORATION

PRECIPITATION SNOW

ICE
VEGETATIO RIVERS/LAKE
N S

EVAPORATION OCEANS

OCEANS
 GEOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES

• GEOPHYSICS: ESTUDY OF EARTH PHYSICS : GRAVITY

ANOMALIES, DISCONTINUITEIS IN SEISMIC-
SEISMOLOGY WAVE PROPOGATION, EARTH MAGNETIC
FIELD.

• GEOCHEMESTRY: DISTRIBUTION OF CHEMICAL

ELEMENTS IN DISTINCT PARTS OF THE TERRESTIAL
CREST. ROCK & MINERAL CHEMICAL COMPOSTION.

• MINERALOGY: MINERAL STUDY: INTERNAL

STURCTURE, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION,
CLASSIFICATION.

• PETROLOGY: ROCK STUDY , ITS ORIGIN, FORMATION

PROCESSES, COMPOSITION.
 GEOLOGIC STUDIES FIELDS
• PETROGRAPHY: BRANCH OF PETROLOGY DEALING WITH
ROCK DESCRIPTION, ITS MINERAL CONTENT, 7 TEXTURE,
ROCK CLASSIFICATION.
• GGEOCHEMISTY: STUDIES OF THE ABUNDANCE OF
ELENENTS IN DISTINCT PARTS OF EARTH & EXPLAIN
DISTRIBUTION OF ELEMENTS IN ROCK THRU GEOLOGIC
PROCESSES LIKE, FOR EXAMPLE, CRISTALIZATION DE TO
DIFFERENTITATION STARTING FROM MAGMA , FOR
HIDROTHERMAL PROCESSES AFFECTING ROCKS THRU
METAMORPHIC PROCESS & OTHERS

• STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY: ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION OF

TECTONIC STRUCTURES IN EARTH CREST. KNOWLEDGE OF
FORCES IN THE CREST WHICH PRODUCE FRACTURING,
FOLDING, & MOUNTAINES ( FALUT-FOLD-OROGENESIS)
 GEOLOGIC STUDIES FIELDS
• REGIONAL GEOLOGY: DETAIILED STUDY OF GEOLOGY OF
DISTINCT REGIONES LIKE SOTH AMERICA, EUROUPE, CHILE,
ATACAMA REGION, I.E., GEOLOGICAL HISTORY, ROCK
DISTRIBUTION, RESERVOIRS, ROCK DEFORMATION STYLES,
& OTHERS, OF THE REGION IN QUESTION.

• HISTORICAL GEOLOGY: STUDY OF GEOLOGICAL EPOCS

FROM EARTH FORMATION ( CIRCA 4.6 G.A.( 4600 M.A.) UNTIL
NOW, INCLUDING GEOLOGICAL PORCESS THAT HAVE
OCCURED IN THE EARTH, STRUCTURE COMPOSITION &
ATMOSPHERE, POSITION OF POLES & CONTINENTS, WHERE
MOUNTAINES & SEDEMENTARY BASINES HAVE FORMED, THE
DEVELOPMENTE OF LIFE IN EACH EPOC, WHEN DISTINCT
FORM OF LIFE APPEARED

IMPORTANT TOOL OF HISTORICAL GEOLOGY IS

GEOCRONOLOGY.
 GEOLOGIC STUDIES FIELDS
• PALEONTOLOGY: STUDY OF LIFE IN GEOLOGICAL
EPOCS, FOSSILES: CLASSIFICTION, KNOWLEDGE,
IMPROVE EVOLUTION KNOWLEDGE
.
• STRATIGRAPHY: STUDY OF ROCK
STRATIFICATIONS, BY THEIR NATURE, EXISTENCE,
INTERRELATIONSHIP,A ND STRATIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION.
• SEDIMETOLOGY: SEDIMENTS STUDY ( S&,
S&ESTONE, GRAVEL, COGLOMERATE) & THEIR
FORMATION, ANALYSIS OF DEPOSITION
ENVIRONMENTE, LIKE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES IN
RIVERE WATERS ( CURRENT VELOCITY 7 OTHERS)
 Campos del Estudio Geológico
• SOIL MECHANICS: STUDY OF SOIL PROPERTIES TO
DETERMINE APT CONSTRUCTION TERRAINE, TO CALCULATE
& AVOID GEOLOGICAL RISKS SUCH AS SLIPPING.

• HYDROGEOLGY: STUDY OF QUANTITY & QUALITY OF

SUBTERRANIAN WATER , INTERACTION BETWEEN ROCK ,
SOOIL & WATER.

• ECONOMC GEOLOGY: METALIC & NON-METALIC

RESERVOIR EXPLOITATION. ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE
RESERVOIR & ITS PRODUCTION.
 GEOLOGIC STUDIES FIELDS
• EXPLORATION/PROSPECTION: ECONOMIC
SEARCH FOR GEOLOGIC RESERVOIR. THRU
GEOPHYSICS, GEOCHEMISTRY, CARTOGRAPHY,
AREAL PHOTOGRAHY, & SATELLITE IMAGING
• ENVIROMENTAL GEOLOGY: SEARCH FOR
CONTAMINATD SCETORES, FORMS & PROCESSES
OF CONTAMINATIONS. SPECIALLY WATE,
SUBTERRAINIAN WATE. INVESTIGATIONOF WATER
& SOIL QUALITY .