SENG I SEIS (32 3s6s55 Secacdcscucses rororsrsrors: SYLLABUS The Harappan Civilisation Sources: Great Bath, man, dancing girl, do Citadel, seals, bearded) yard, script. Origin, extent, urban planning, trade, art & leraft, and its decline. CIVILISATION Civilisation is said to be ar human cultural development. It of superior technology Some advanced stage of implies the use nd complex economic which mark a relationships. of traits fi) Surplus food (ii) Division of labour {v) Public buildings: (vi) Development of technology nd 3000 BC greater forces of The period between 4000 progress. Man acquired ill in mastering thi ure and mad: ng a settled life on efficient t s and started li a number of dispersed volved first into towns and then river valleys had the agricultura suppor population and surplus food. The surplus food freed le from the task of producing their the banks o! farming villages nto Tr potential to own food. These individuals gradually became ‘The Harappan Civilisation FP developed a substantial range specialists and of new skills such as writing, using metals and making their alloys, seal-making and large scale construction. Such knowledge and skills enabled people to advance to a new stage in the progress of civilisation Bronze Ace C1vitisations n gradually cam Metals were m From using stone tools, ma to know the use of metals. durable than stone and could be used for mak a variety of tools, implements and weapons. The first metal pps nued to t 10 be discov ents con used along with copper. This pe n used both stone and copper tool: the Chalcolithic is known ai man learnt the art of mixir in or zinc to produce the alloy called Bronze. Bronze is harder and more ductile thar copper and is, therefore, more suitable for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because the importance of bronze in the growth of th first civilisations, these civilisation: as the Bronze Age Civilisations. with By abo emerged. TI 00 BC, four bronze « (i) the Harappan Civilisation in northern ar western parts of India and Pakistan: (ii) the Mesop. of river Euphrates ai amian Civilisation on the banks ad Tigris in the valley of fii) the Chinese Civilisation Hwang Ho and Yangtze rive ad (iv) the Egyptian Civilisation on the banks of Nile tiver in Bgypt @THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION ne discovery of Indus Valley Civili Oth century was an important event ir e history of India. Upto this time it was believed that the history of India began with the Harappan Civilisation st stretched back the 1 of the Indian history so as to put it at par with the other oldest civilisations of the world amely Mesopotamian and Egyptian Civilisations. Indus Valley Civilisation is best known 2s the Harappan Culture or the Harapp. vilisation. The term ‘culture’ is use ne archaeologists for a group of objects — distincti in styl hat ar ually found era ngether within a specific geographical area upper Some scholars believe th nd if time. in the case of Harappan rooms were provided for the members of hese distinctive objects are seals, kind of priesthood, whereas others think that s, stone blades and bake s. It is the rooms were provided for changing clothes. called the Harappan ation becau uniqueness of the structure with se the Harappan site was the first to be discovered distinctive features, has led scholars to sugee we modern site of Harappa situa hat it was meant for some kind of a ritual bs province of West Punjab in Pakistan sana a ee ne Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922. Both lie information that throws light on the life of t people and culture of the Harappan Civilisation: Sources The construction of the Great Bath indicates « ledge of the Harappan civilisation is hat the art of building had reached >ased entirely on the archaeological rema nigh degree of perfection at that time ach a: dings, potter ure, seals and (ii) The massive structure points out that ther meteries. This is so because no adequat might have existed a ruling class that wr ords are available. A number of seals ‘ould mobilise labour, collect taxes and wer vered with a few lette raved on build such a huge structure for the public ‘ he accipt has not been deciphered 41 Most of the scholars agree that the Great nerefore, the major sources of our informati pen eee ie he Harappan Civilisation are the following: eas Bava indice dou the tanortal The Great Bath: The Great Batt to ceremonial bathing in sacre¢ of the largest public buildings at anks, pools and rivers since tim njo-daro. It has a large rectangular tank ‘anemone in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all (iv) The he Great Bath por the efficient planning in the struct id re are two flights of steps one in rth and the other in the south lea fea elating to water supp nto the tank, To make the pool wate arnt bricks and mortar lined with bitumen ar wage disposal, sum were used for construction. The wa ‘The Citadel: The raised area of each ci t ded by a well in an adjacent was called the Citadel. It owed its height to the m, Surrounding the bath, were porticos and buildings constructed on mud brick platform: f rooms, and a stairway w ed to an ‘The citadel had the houses of the ruling class Total History and Civics-IXand important buildings like the Great Bath, th granary, the assembly hall and the workshop: The Citadel points to the elaborate plannin; hat went into the development of cities and justifies that th appan civilisation w an urban civilisation. The presence of specific buildings and houses of the ruling class, indicate Some sort of social classificatio 3. Seals: The seals used by the Harappans bout 2000 seals hav show their artistic skills been discovered. Of these a gre ity comprise bull, buffalo, tiger, goat, eleph: Material 1 makingthe seals comprise Bearded Man = a a ce Mate oF ntt Mohenjo-daro. The statye a shawl wc are rectangular or square but some of pe teak rade, religion and beliefs of the Harappans, this is the statue of a yogi. This sculpture is of Seale of Pash enema ba high artistic value and points to the exister Shiva It shows a three faces deity wearing 4 of Skilled artisans in the Har Civilisatior buffalo-horned head dre ed cross-legged 5. Dancing Girl: The bronze stat on a throne and surrounded by an elephant, a a dancing girl, found at Mohenjo-daro, is tiger, a buffalo and a rhinoceros, with two de nasterpiece of art and it shows a high degrec f development in the art of sculpture. Th rine shows vigou : inger ne right arm of the dancing girl rests on th hip and the left arm is heavily bangled. It holds tt his feet. This deity has bee Pash their mythical beliefs. The of script which has not yet been deciphered identified as T Is were used by trad: stamp their go er with goods was tied, f wet cli applied ne kni rade, these seals were found in differer penne ot regions. They indicate that the Harappan trade 6;~Duckyard:-“A-rectarigular dockyard had spread over a vast area. was discovered at Lothal in Gujarat. It was Bearded Man: The stone sculpture _ surrounded by a massive brick wall, probabl of a man with a beard was discovered from a protection against floods. The yard madeof baked bricks, was connected by channels to the Gulf of Cambay. Lothal was an important ading and manufacturing centre of the Indus Valley civilisation and was used for carrying jut overseas trade. Lothal—Dockyard Script: The Harappans used a script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish and varieties of the human form. The number of signs of Harappan (@TP400AG02| Letts on an Ancient Signboard showing Harappan Script script is known to be between 375 and 400. The script is found inscribed on a number of seals copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terracotta ablets, jewellery and on an ancient signboard Discovery of Harappan Sites Site Pererys peta Daya Ram Sahni _| R.D. Banerjee Porat peed Harappa 1921 Mohenjo 1922 daro Chanhudaro] 1931 | N.G. Mazumdar BB. Lal and A.N Ghosh Fazal Ahmad Khan 1957 __[S.R. Rao 1972 |J.P. Joshi 1990-91 _[ RS. Bisht Kabibangan | 1953 Kot Diji 1955 Lothal ‘Surkotada Dholavira ORIGIN OF THE CIVILISATION There are several theories about the origin of the Harappan Civilisation, These can be categoris into two groups: Foreign Origin: Some scholars believe that this civilisation came into existence as a result of a sudden migration of people with an urban civilisation to the Indus basin, According to these scholars, the Harappan Civilisation w an offshoot of the Mesopotamian Civilisation However, excavations at various Harappan sites have indicated striking differences between the Harappan and the Mesopotamian Civilisetion Some scholars also held the view that trade with Mesopotamia played an important rote in the transformation of the Harappan Civilisation from the early stage to the mature phase. But this theory has been rejected on the ground that no evidence of trade with Mesopotamia during the early Harappan period has been found, Indigenous Origin: The recent researches show that roots of the Harappan Civilisation lie deep in the Indian soil historians, the urban Harappan culture was only an gutgrowth of the extensive loca According to some village cultures and not of foreign origin These cultures probably contributed to the growth of the Harappan with the external stimulus provided by trade contacts with Mesopotamia. These historians found some marked similarities between the pre-Harappan and proto-Harappan cultures at Kot Diji, Amri and Kalibangan of granary, defensive walls and long distance trade in these settlements. From this historians concluded that the Harappan Civilisation evolved Civilisation, together in terms from these agricultural communities. EXTENT OF THE CIVILISATION The entire area of the civilisation is triangular in shape a: or about 1.3 million sq.km and was the largest area amongst the ancient civilisations. It extended from Sutkagendor (on the sea-coast of South Baluchistan) in the west, to Alamgirpur (in the Harappan d accounts Total History and Civics-IX‘The Harappan Civilisation 1. Both are locatedon river banks— Mohenjo-dar on the nk of the Indus, and Harap on the left bank of the Ravi Both measured around 5.0 km in circu 3. Ground plans including layout of streets, block of houses were common the cities Water supply, drainage, granaries were com 5. Indoor plumbing, paved bathrooms, brick Arainpipes, twork ' channel (something unique to the Harappan Civilisation) is seen in both the cities foher rkana of Sindh (now oth in Pakistan). These © river Indus and hence the name ne nird bout 130 kn EXTENT OF THE HARAPPAN CULTUREnorthern Rajasthan and the sixth called Banawali is situated in Hissar district in Haryana The Harappan culture has been found in its mature and flourishing stage notonly in these six cities but also in the cities of Sutkagendor and Surkotada, each of which hasa citadel The later Harappan phase has also been discovered in Rangpur in Khathiawar in Gujarat. Features oF URBAN PLANNING The most striking feature of the Harappan civilisation is its urban planning. The Indus cities differed the Sumerian cities in Mesopotamian civilisation, in modern Iraq. While ies developed around the temple and followed a circular pattern, the Indus citi rid pattern of the the planning of the houses and public thoroughfares, from the Sumerian ci followed a This is indicated by the re of building zularity div ions, the alignment with the provision f The main characteristics of town planning were the following: 1. Each city was divided into two parts — the raised area, called the ‘Citadel’ and the lower town.’ The citadel owed its height to the buildings which were constructe on mud brick platforms. Th separated from the lower town by a w: citadel was portant buildings like the Great Bath, the granary, the assembly hall and the workshops were located on the citadel The lowe town had the residential buildings where the people lived and worked. 2. The main streets followed a grid pattern running from north to south or from east 3. The houses at street corners were rounded to allow carts to pass easily 4. House drains emptied all waste water into the street drains The streets crossed the main road at right dividing the city into square or rectangular blocks. Houses The main characteristics of houses were the following: 1. The residential buildings were built according to a set plan on a high mound in order to protect them from floods. Their foundations were deep. There were variations in the size of houses from single room tenements to bigger houses with courtyards, upto twelves rooms, private wells and toilets, Each house had covered cr ains connected with street drains. The entrances to the houses were from the narrow lanes which cut the streets at right angles. | The kitchen was placed in a sheltered corner of the courtyard and the ground floor contained storerooms and well chambers. ‘The houses were made of brick and wood h house had doors, windows and ventilators. Doors and windows opened on the side of the streets and not on the main ‘ADrain in Mohenjo-daro MonumentaL ARCHITECTURE The contribution of the Harappans to architectural design bui from the following public ildings. (a) The Great Bath: For details refe urces in this Chapter to the Total History and Civics-IX{b) Granaries: Granaries have been found fat several sites—Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothi fand Kalibangan. However, at Harappa there Were two rows of six granaries each. To the South of the granaries at Harappa working floors fonsisting of rows of circular brick platforms Granaries were discovered. It is believed that these floors because wheat re meant for threshing grair Siisricy. grains were found in.the crevie the floors. Two-roomed ba acks, which possibly accommodated labourers have also been foundat Harappa. The location of Harappa near the rive Ravi suggests that foodgrains were brought to this place by boat. It was built on a raised rom floods. The granary ains from becoming platformto protect had ventilation to prevent mildewed TRADE The elaborate social structure and standard living confirmed by the presence of granaries, numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide area indicat the existence of a highly developed system of trade. There is abundant evidence that the Harappans traded not only with other parts of India but also with many countries of Asia The Harappans carried on considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc., within the Indus es common products indicating some civilisation zone. In some cé ve been found in all the ar kind of trade. They, however, did no’ money but carried on all exchanges through barter ‘The Harappan Civilisation The cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Lothal were important centres for metallurgy producing tools and weapons as well as kitchenware and other objects for wid distribution. Rice seems to have been imported to Punjab from Gujai provided cotton for the expandir at. Lothal and Surkotad townships of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Banawali, etc. Balako and Chanhudaro were centres for bangl making. Lothal and Chanhud nufacturing of bead for the Besides internal trade, the Harappans ¢ had commercial contacts with their westerr Surkotada and Balakot wer neighbours. Lotha some of the important trading coastal towns which carried on trade with Mesopotamia and other West Asian sites. They had also set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which facilitated trade with Central Asia The Mesopotamian records from about 2350BC onwards refer to trade relations with Meluha, which was the ancient name given to the Ind region. The Mesopotamian texts refer to ations call nur o intermediate trading s and Makan, which lay between Mesopotam and Meluha. Dilmun has been identified with Bahrain on the Persian Gulf. Possibly the trade with these countries used to be carried out by sea, Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluha as a land of seaf Besides, the depictions of ships and boats on seals also indicate this, Depicting @ The Harappan merchants were exporting to and importing goods from the West and Central Asian sites, Gold was imported from North Karnataka and Afghanistan; copper from Rajasthan, South India, Baluchistan and Arabia; lead from either East or South India Weights and Measures: A number of stone weights were discovered from the excavations. @The Harappan people used sets of cubic: stone weights. The basic unit was 16 {equal to modern 14grams). The larger weights. were 16 like 32, 48, 64, 128 and so on r ones were alll fractions of 16. T Transport: Several representations of ships we found on seals at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro racotta model of a ship was discovered from Lothal, pointing to the use of ships. Boats entres to cities. For inland travel, there is enougk were also used tocarry goods from produ vidence from te ‘arts. Copper or bronze models of carts with seated drivers were also found from Harappe and Chanhudaro. Carts used in those day resemble the modern Ekka (horse-cart) ART AND CRAFT the works figurines of and terracotta, stone a bronze sculpture, seals and beads, are product of skilled crafts ven cottor was discovered from Mohenjo-daro and textile impressions were found on several objects. an important craf his shows weaving w acotta models of bullock Harappan art, including ne Harappans practised be making and making terracotta articles were important crafts. The figurines were shown wearing heavy orna nd jewellery and elaborate headgear. Amo the inanimate objects the most common were terracotta models of bullock carts and ploughs. he sedls and terracotta figures incl he goldsmiths made jewellery of silver gold and precious stones. The Harappans also knew the art of bead-makir He pottery which was made glossy and shining, Earthen vessels and pottery, crafted on the potter’s wheel, were decorated with b! geometrical designs. The large jars with narrow necks and red po evidence of their artistic ski ans produced their own characteris with black decoration bear Sculpture: The Harappan artists were skill been found. Among these, the statue of a bearde nan found in Mohenjo-daro is well knowr The bronze statue of dancing girl (for de refer urces in this Chapter) found Mohenjo-daro is another masterpiece of a Besides the dancing girl, a number of t figures of animals, buffalo and rams and some models of carts have been unearthed gurines have been found in large Terracotta fi They were perhaps used as toys or cult figures A large number of male and female figurin’ from the Harappan settlemen’ have also been found. = wv ~ meee et Harappan P ‘Seulptur Total History and Civics—IX| h al bj ng famous 7 al head-d the flood plains of Indu his uy : Ze = hint phenjo-d : a h F wal and A | (\ i n declined because of increasir : ) ) in th i the drying up of the river G! o the + Ghaggar and b of sé ° he Gange hange le he Ghagg, . = nimal: nee Indus 1 nd - 7 made ivilisatic a’ Bronze Age cult er 4: The Harappan Civilisationachievements of the Harappan people was th cultivation of cotton, which was adopted by the Jecline of the physical aspects of the iat hot lead to the E&¥Ptians after soveral centuries. In the religiou to 7 all tk ae sphere, the worship of Pashupati Shiva, : found in. female deity as Mother Goddess, sacred trees, " ats appan animals, serpents, religious symbols, etc., which 2 ng baked potte beads, Were prevalent during the Harappan period lery, textiles, etc. was adopted by the were adopted in later Hinduism and some o a isations, One of the most remarkable them have nued to this day f Answer Questions at nt by the term, ‘Civilisation fention an res that led to the emergence of civilisation. What are known as Bronze Age Civilisations? > important sources of information on the Harappan Civilisation Why did ancient man start using bronze for making tools and weapons? 6. Why Harappan civilisatior is What types of weights and measures did the Indus people use? N ne important public building of Indus Valley Civilisation and its importance Nan proce h sculpture in metal was done (0. What do you know about the Indus Script? 1. Mention the ess worn by the Indus Valley people. ate two features of th Je in the Indus Valley Civilisation: Nar hree s that led to the decline of the Harappan Civilisation. what two respects is Harappan Civilisation our greatest herita Structured Questions 1. With reference to the emergence of civilisation, answer the following questions: 2) Wt by Civilisation? to Bronze Age civilisation. ) Explain briefly man's progress Total History and Civies-IXnd Epics (bri ative study of Early and Later Vedic society and economy BC), Between 10 0 500 BC when followed the along thi iron had come to be u se of the rivers and y of the Yamuna and the C helped them to fed in the eastwa settled ne fore and the south-ea -adually settled in known a jis he culture of the pe ne Vedic culture because wo phases o! ne social, economi 's of the life of th reflected in the Vedic liter became the storehouse of ture was Veda’ has been derived from the Sanskrit word, ‘vid’ which mear Vedic lite ure is divided inte and the Smriti. It that the Shr revealed nd they passed on that knowledge orally from other hand, generation to generation. On the ‘mriti literature was composed by he Vedic literature can be classified into and Atharva Vedas and their Samhitas. (ii) The Brahmanas attached tc (iii) The Ar (iv) The Upanishad da: It is the oldest re in the world and is, therefore, known as ‘the first stament of mankind’. It is divided int ma It is said to have been cor during the Vedic Period. Th ledice y the sages to C ‘om teachers to the passed on orally Total History and Civics-IX‘Sages Performing Yaina The Rig Vedic hymns are the authentic sources of knowledge of the life of people of the time Much of the Indian philosophy is based on the Rig Veda. It also contains the famous a. Although religious in nature, the Vedas a valuable source of information on various subjects, fayatri man (ii) The Sama Veda: The term, ‘Sama’ mean ‘Sweet Song’ or ‘the melody’. In this Veda, some of the hymns are borrowed from the Rig Vede at the These hymns were meant to be sung time of the sacrifice by the priests. (iii) The Yajur Veda: It deals with hymns There hymns in this Veda throw light on the social and religious life of the Aryans. recited during the performance of Yajnas (iv) The Atharva Veda: The hymns contained in this Veda deal with magic and charm. Most of the hymns are taken from the Rig Veda. Besides the powers of ghosts and spirits, the hymns deal with gyan (knowledge), karma (action) and upasana (invocation). Some hym: also deal with medicines for the treatment of various diseases. ‘The Brahmanas Written after the Vedas as their simple commentary, the Brahmanas are in prose. They explain the social and religious importance of s well as the value of sacrifices. The Brahmanas are of great historical value. Each Veda has several Brahmanas. ‘The Vedic Period The Aranyakas They are known as ‘forest books’ written for the guidance of the’hermits and the students living in forests. They form the concluding part of the Brahmanas. Their main themes are mysticism and philosophy The Upanishads They are philosophical commentaries on the Vedas. The doctrines such as Karma, Moksha and Maya are explained in detail. The Upanishads form the basic source of Indian philosophy. Composed by different sages, they are said to form the foundation on which later additions to Vedic Literature rest. Auuiep Vepic LrreRaTure (i) The Vedangas: They deal with the ways in which the Vedas ought to be chanted; and are thus important in the understanding of the Vedas. The six Vedangas deal with pronunciation, grammar, etymology, metrics and astronomy. (ii) The Sutras: They are divided into three groups: the Srautasutras, which deal with yajna and sacrifices; the Grihyasutras or Smartasutras, which deal with the ceremonies connected with family life; and the Dharmasutras, which provide rules of conduct for the various clas: of people and the various stages in their life. (iii) The Upavedas: As the name suggests they are subsidiary Vedas. They are four in number. Ayurveda deals with Indian system of medicine; the Dhanurveda, describes the art of warfare; Gandharvaveda describes the art of music and Shilpaveda deals with art and architecture. (iv) Darshanas: There are six schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshanas. They include — Nyaya Darshana, Vaishesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Uttar Mimamsa. They all propagate the virtues of life and are opposed to external rituals. (v) The Dharmashastras: The law-books called the Dharmasutras and the Smritis together with their commentaries, are calledharmasha They lay down the duties Rama to be sent into exile for fourteen years for different classes of people as wi Rama along with his wife Sita and brother kings and their official: es the Lakshmana went to the forest qpeprietion of Hindu code, of lew inciuaing the In disguise of a sanyasi, Ravana, the demon Vamas (the Castes| and, the Ashram king, abducted Sita and took her to Lanka aalreaAtergadas icrumcteratire O90 Rama took the help of Sugriva and Hanuman. Sanskrit grammar by Panini. Information is given They crossed the ocean and defeated Ravana aes gro the words and the context Rama then, along with Sita and Lakshmana in which they used in Vedic literature proceeded home having completed the fourteen exile. He was crowned the king The Epics—the Ramayana andthe Mahabharata Mahabharata: Believed to be the work of sage . : language. Originally, it was called Jaya or the Ramayana: The Ramayana was originally collection dealing with victory. Subsequently - 7 came te known Bharata, bec it i torbe the ~warkroh Mahar contains the stories of the d ndants of one he story of Ramayana revolves around Rama of ‘the earliest Vedic tribes called Bharata nd the abduction of his wife Sita by king, Ravana. The battle between Rama and Mahabharat Ravana; duty, devotion and love shown by the ie BRagwad Gita, which forma a part. of the brothers is told in detail. Rama was the eldest Mahabharata, is one of the most popular religious of the four sons of Dashratha, the ruler of texts considered sacred by many pe } rindia. Ayodhya, who had three queens. Rama was the t conflict with The interests of the self m en, Kaushalya and was the a duty and such a conflict the heir-apparent to the throne. After Rama was Bhagwad Gita gives the answer. That is the married to Sita, he was to be installed as the secret of the undying popularity of this religious king. At this juncture, King Dashratha’s other text. It teaches that the Soul is immortal queen Kaikeyi reminded him of the promise he had made earlier to grant her a wish. Kaikeyi The Importance of the Epi wanted her son Bharata to be the king and ( The Epics serve as the main source of information on the political institutions and the social and cultural organisation of the Epic Age (i) They provide information on vario Aryan Kingdoms, their armies and the weapons they used. The Kshatriyas were entrusted wit the defence of their kingdoms and they believec id was the nobles! that death on the battle act in the life of a warrior (ii) The Epics are considered as the fines literary works of the ancient period and are acclaimed for their literary and philosophical value (i) They reveal the high ideals of family life of the Aryans.jabiarata: The king of Hastinapur ashtra had 100 sons known as Kauravas. rashtra’s brother Pandu who had died had five sons, known as Pandavas. course of time, Dhritarashtra named eldest va — Yudhisthira his successor. This ered Duryodhayana, the eldest of the avas. It became the cause of enemity and jlousy between the cousins. ee during 2 game of dice, Yudhisthira, the Pandava lost his kingdom as well as padi to Duryodhana. In accordance with ‘terms of agreement, the Pandavas had to into exile. a the completion of the exile, the Pandavas d the Kauravas to return their kingdom Duryodhana refused to give anything. So far, known as the Mahabharata, followed. 2a, & Pandava was reluctant to fight, Krishna ltimately gave him a discourse and prevailed n him to do his duty. This discourse at the itefeld is compiled in the form of Bhagwad ita It forms a part of the Mahabharata. ie Mahabharata war lasted for 18 days. In the iy all the Kaurava brothers were killed and isthira became the ruler of Hastinapur. (H The great heroes, depicted in the Epics fe the embodiment of high moral principles, and made a great impact on successive generations, {v) The Bhagwad Gita elaborates the Karma Philosophy and the immortality of the soul. IB; Arcuarotocicat Sources The available archaeological sources of the Period include iron implements and tools and remains of pottery. 1, Iron Artifacts: The discovery of iron marks an important stage in the march of hilisation in the world In India, the Iron Age began in 1000BC. The village farming communities gradually dispersed in large parts of India from the Gangetic plains to the peninsular south. ‘The Vedic Period ‘A scene from the Mahabharata, Lord Krishna gave Arjuna a discourse which is compiled in the Bhagwad Gita, Iron was a harder metal than copper and bronze. It was cheap and available in plenty. Iron deposits were found over large areas; so man could use iron to make a livelihood. It was used in the following areas: (Agriculture: Discovery of iron gave the Aryans new implements like axes to clear the forest and cultivate the land. Thus, agriculture became their important occupation, With the use of iron plough-heads, sickles and hoes, they could bring vast tracts of land under cultivation. The production of more rice, wheat, barley, vegetables and fruits improved their standard of living.ion: (ii) Occ w trades by providing durable implements the use of iron gave rise to like saws, chisels, hammers, nails and tongs. ave rise to occupations such as weaving spinning, carpentr. i) Defe easy availability tanning and tool-making. Because of its durability and iron was extensively used in aking weapons of war like swords, armours and shield 2. Pottery: ource of information. the Painted Grey Wa: ferent d he important Pottery forms an important The Grey Ware (GW) and (PGW) pottery d Punjab and Haryana is Rig Vedic include Bhagwanpura (Kurukshetra), Dadheri (Ludhiana), (Jalandhar). These ‘egarded as Rig Vedic because they belong to the sites in 0 belong to the Aryans, Katpalan and Nagar cultures are and same region as mentioned in the doab, he earliest iron objects are generally associated with PGW. Here, a number of sites associated with the prolific use of iron have been discovered, Rig Veda. However, in the Ganga-Yamun ne PGW Culture corresponds to the Late: Vedic period. The PGW is a very fine, smooth and even-coloured pottery. It was made out of well-worked, high quality clay with geometric patterns painted on it in black. Floral patterns nd Sun symbols are outhe bowls and The pottery includes dishes open PGW Pottery The PGW phase was followed by the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) phase, the sinning of which goes back to 700 BC. This ssy and shining. It is believed that the use of this pottery was made by the bey pottery was gle people who dominated the economic and social life of the period ORIGIN OF THE ARYANS as the India is full of controversies. Some historians believe that Ar like Bal Gangadhar Rig Veda and Zend A original home of the region. A.C. Das, a historian tried to prove that the original home of the Aryan India. According to him, they lived in the Sapta Sindhu (Punjab) and migrated to other parts of India. yanand Saraswati believed that Tibet was the home of the Aryans. origin of the Aryans a tled in background of the people who s« the natives of India. Others Tilak study of sta, concluded that the after the Aryans was the etic Swami Di Professor Max Mueller, the German scholat Aryans came to India from Central ons in support of this believed that thi Asia. He gave two ri theory. The first wave of migrations from the Steppes, Central Asia had started around 1500BC. The Aryans bore stronj resemblance to bands of warlike people of Central Asia. As Indians, Gre The Central ans, Celts, ks and Persians from the same stock. n theory holds the origin of Ro Central Their reasons Many historians agree with the Asian Theory of Max Mueller for accepting the theory are 1. In ancient times, the land in Asia Minor was fertile which made it suitable for agriculture and domestication of animals. 2. The stone inscriptions discovered in Asia Minor prove that the Aryan gods like Indra and Varuna, were worshipped in ancient times, 3. The flora and fauna and objects referred to in the Rig Veda were found in Asia Minor, 4. Asia Minor is equidistance from Burope and India. Total History and Civies-IXS EARLY AND LATER y A VEDIC CIILISATIONS MALWA iced the genetic traits (DNA) _ of animals ceased to have the pre-eminer had enjoyed in early days. This fact to nsible for the ¢ n of a new culture Vhen the Aryans entered India, they came inte aflict with the local inhabitant etc. It is believed Y appear in the ancient Ir literature, they may have been ich ans. The Rig V of Sambara by an Aryan chic of the Bharata clan. Here the te | ne name Di a. The Aryan chief whe overpowered them was called Trasadasyu, | error of the D: Saraswati. This region c the present areas SOCIETY aster Afghanistan, Punjab, and parts a = r 4 Go ne Early Vedic Period ne composition of Rig Veda took place The family was th in the banks of river Sarasw nich ciety wa red most sac Idest mal Tr ded the wandering Aryan ts head. He was called bs nditions for stable agriculture. The a he death of fi f moving from place to place with herds the responsibility shifted to his eldest son. The Vedic PeriodSeveral families lived in a grama o1 ral villages formed a Visha, Many V jana. The head of the village w ne head of a Jand governed with the help of ministers important officers included the Gramini, the a and the Senani. The Senani was the mmander of the army and the Purohita performed religious ceremonies. The administration of the ages was carried out by the Gramin The king did not maintain any regular army Howe n times of war, he used to organise groups to perform military functions. ing the Rig Vedic time, the tribe elected Later Vedic Period he Rig Vedic Period, three popular and the ha advised the king Tr tha was the earliest assembly which religious and social. Women actively participated in the deliberations in the Vidatha The Samiti was the assembly of the people and the Sabha was the council of elders. The Sabha performed advisory and judicial functions. The Samiti was called to session on special occasions, in the Later Vedic Age, kingship became nereditary and divine elements came to be ssociated with the king. This period marked the ‘ginning of a taxation system and administrative achinery. During the Later Vedic Age, the popular assemblies lost their earlier importance. abha and Samiti came to be dominated by iefs and rich nobles. Women were no longer oermitted to attend these assemblies. During the Rig Vedic Period women we respected. The institution o} The dai become sacred. ghters were given freedom to choose their husbands. The system of remarriage of widows was prevalent. There are no examples of child-marriage. The marriage age in the Rig Veda 0 ha 16 to 17. In the Later Vedic Period, there was signi decline in the status of women. Their partic in Yajnas was not considered necessary. The did not enjoy the right to property. The freedom to choose husbands by women was curtailed. zh the caste system is not mentioned in th Rig Veda but th kind o act remains that there was some class division in the society. The early Aryans called the local inhabitants Dasyus and did not mix with them, Itis said that during this period, the tribal chiefs and the priests acquired a large share of the booty and grew at the costof their kinsmen. This resulted in social inequalities and the tribal society got divided into three warriors, priests and the people, The arth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic period, because word ‘shudra’ is mentioned for the first ime in the Tenth Mandala of the Rig Veda, hich is lly considered a later addition. However, since the economy was mainly pastoral and not food producing, there was no scope for collecting regular tributes or taxes from ne people In the Early Vedic Period, the society was divided into different classes based on their Total History and Civics-IXBrahmin Kshatriya ‘Shudra Vaishya The Vamas profession. A person could adopt any profession of his choice as is evident from an excerpt of the Rig Veda “Iam a poet, my father is a physician and my ther grinds corn on stone. Being ofthe same family, we are engaged in different professions.” People followed different professions which became hereditary in course of time. This resulted in the division of society into occupational classes. Gradually, this took the form of caste and the present caste system emerged. In the Later Vedic Period, Brah ame four ns, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras bec distinct cast or Varnas. The Brahmins or the priests performed religious r uals. The Kshatriyas participated in wars. The Vaishyas engaged in business and joked after agriculture as well as industry ‘The Shudras served the upper classes. As stated earlier, during the Later Vedic Age the caste system became rigid, The Brahmins and Kshatriyas ei The priests on earth an their power and came to be joyed privileges. came to be considered as gods the Kshatriyas also increased regarded as the All the three higher varnas were ruling class entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread according to the vedic mantr Inter-caste marriage was not prevalent. The Vedic Period Tur Four Asuramas In the Barly Vedic Period, inan grew up according to the family traditions, However, in the Later Vedie Period, the whole lifespan of an Aryan came to be divided into four periods. The four stages of life are known « of 25 Bra Sanyasa four ashramas, each years duration. The four ashram acharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and The Brahmacharya Ashrama lasted upto the age of 25 years. During this period, the pupil was expected to acquire knowledge in the gurukul and observe strict discipline During the period of the Grihastha Ashrama, was supposed to marry and raise a family As a householder, he was to take responsibility of maintaining his family. This period lasted from the age of 25 to 50 years The third stage was Vanaprastha Ashrama. It lasted from the age of 50 to 75 years. During this period man was expected to retire from worldly life and acquire spiritual and philosophical knowledge. ‘The last stage lasting from the age of 75 to 100 years was the Sanyasa Ashrama. This Man was the period of renunciation. had to leave everything forever and go into meditation @ in order to attain moksha or salvation.The Vanaprastha The Four Ashramas Education was imparted through private gurukuls. The residence of the guru called the gurukul, meaning the family of the guru, had become the most sacred institution. The gurukuls were often located on the outskirts of the city and even in forests. The students lived there. The guru treated his st The student was required to do household chores foi eacher. He had > get up early in the mornir ake and chant the Vedic mantra Host 6 teaching was done orally. At 24 } the completion of the education, a student used to give guru dakshina — a gift to his teacher. ‘The gurus were greatly respected and revered. ‘The main object of education was to bring about physical, mental and spiritual development of the pupils. The subjects of study included the Vedas, Puranas, Grammar, Mathematics, Ethics, Logic and Military Science. Two women Gargi were coi respected eachers named Maitreyi and sidered gifted and were greatly The main cereal produced by the Rig Vedic people was barley. Wheat and rice were not known to them. However, in Later Vedic times, there is evidence of using rice (vrihi) Aryans domesticated cows and used milk and Ik products like curd, butter, ghee, etc They consumed Soma, a kind of intoxicating drink, during festivals and religious ceremonies, The Aryans wore simple clothes. They of an undergarment, called Nivi or dhoti, an upper piece called Vasa or shirt. An overgarment was known as Adhivasa, a loose piece of cloth. consisted Total History and Civies-IX‘Amusement — Chariot-racing Men wore turbans. There were customs of wearing animal skins. Some of the sadhus (hermits) Wore deer skin known as Mrigchal. Men kept long hair. Ornaments were worn by both men ‘and women. The ornaments were made of gold, silver, ivory and precious stones. Some of the ‘common items of jewellery were earrings, rings, anklets, bracelets, necklaces, ete. The main means of amusement in both the Vedic periods were chariot-races, horse-races, dancing, singing and hunting. The chief musical instruments were the drum, flute, mridang and lute. People participated in competitive sports, festivals and gambling Reuciovs Beers ‘The people in the Vedic age worshipped forces ofnature. They personified these natural forces and looked upon them as living beings to whom they gave human or animal attributes. A large number of gods are mentioned in the Rig Veda The most important among these gods was Indra, fo whom 250 hymns are devoted in the Rig Vetla. He is also known as the Purandara (or breaker of forts) and Jitendra (a winner). He isconsidered as the Rain God, who is responsible for bringing rainfall. The second position is held by Agni, the Fire God (Agni). He is regarded as an intermediary between gods and men, for he consumes the The Vedic Period sacrificial offerings and carries them ‘to the Sods in the form of smoke. The third position is occupied by Varuna, the god of waters, clouds, oceans and rivers. #e determines the path for all stars in heaven. Varuna is regarded as the upholder of natural or cosmic order. There were many other Vedic gods like Vayu (the god of wind), Surya (Sun god), Yama (lord of the dead), Rudra (god of storms); etc. The Vedic Aryans also worshipped some goddesses. The most important female goddess was Usha, the goddess of dawn. Other important female deities were: Prithvi, a personification of the earth; Aditi, the great mother of gods; Ratri, the spirit of the night; Aranyani, the Lady of the forest; Dishana, the goddess of vegetation However, in the Later Vedic age, Prajapati, the creator or Brahma became the supreme god and Indra and Agni lost their former significance. Vishnu came to be regarded as the preserver and protector of the people and Shiva as destroyer of the universe. Sacrifices and Rituals: With religious evolution simplicity of nature worship was lost. Ritualsand sacrifices (yajnas) became a daily routine. Besides, the yajnas performed by kings, the common people performed small yajnas, during which milk, ghee, grains, and fruits were offered to the deities. The rich people and businessmen conducted bigger sacrifices. During such yajnas purohits received gold, expensive clothes and large number of cows as gifts (Dakshina). Giving dakshina was also a ritual and a pious duty Ritualism had gained so strong roots that even a small deviation while performing certain worship was considered a sin. New Doctrines: The Brahmins were responsible for bringing about many innovations and evolving new doctrines. More emphasis was laid on penance called tapasya which became ritualistic. The new doctrines included the doctrine of karma (action), dharma (duty) and moksha (salvation). The belief in rebirth gained roots. Consequently, all these innovations strengthened the position of Brahmins. The Brahmins were said to have divine powers. No ritual or religious celebration would commence without the presence of the Brahmins.Brahma ECONOMY ne Rig Vedic economy was primarily pastoral For Aryans cattle was synonymous with wealth; a wealthy person was called gomat. Gopa and gopati were epithets given to the king. In the Rig Veda, Godhuli is used as a term for a sure of time, Distance is called gavyuti and a daughter is called duhitr or the one who milks the cows Compared to the linguistic evidence for cattle rearing in the Rig Veda, agricultural activities find very few references. Apart from 'yava’ or barley, no other grains are mentioned. There are references to fire being used for burning the forest cover and the practice of shifting cultivation. Further, the area received low rainfall and the major rivers mentioned in the Rig Veda, were known to change their courses frequently. In these conditions, the alluvial lands near the rivers could not be cultivated on a permanent basis. Major changes in the economy took place during the Later Vedic phase. Importance of agriculture grew during this phase. The growth of agriculture in the Later Vedic period was made possible by the availability of vast tracts of fertile alluvial lands of the Ganga-Yamuna doab and the middle Ganga valley. Both archaeological Vishnu Shiva and literary sources depict the introduction of rice as the staple diet of the people. The Vedic texts mention Vrihi, Tandul denoting rice. The Later Vedic texts also refer to oxen yoked to the plough, suggesting the prevalence of plough cultivation. Towards the end of this period iron ploughshares and metal tools were used and a variety of crops were cultivated. The craftsmen mentioned in the Vedic texts include leather workers (charmakaras), wheelwrights (rathakaras), smiths and potters (kulala), and carpenters (taksan). However, none of these groups were considered as of low status. Weaving seems to have been a domestic craft. Wool, obtained from sheep, was st common raw material. Cotton is not mentioned. ‘Trade: During the Later Vedic phase agricultural surplus led to trade, giving rise to markets from which developed towns and cities. Thus trade became the pivot around which the whole town and city life moved. Although the Aryans had introduced coins, barter system was still dominant in trade with other countries. Occupations: Besides agriculture and trade, other important occupations included domestication of animals, crafts in various metals, carpentry pottery Women were engaged in spinning, weaving, knitting and dyein fishery, etc Total History and Civies-IXA Comparison: Early Vedic Age and Later Vedic Age Paneer ty Pree eee Tes Parry rd Family was the basic unit. Joint Family System prevailed. Women enjoyed equal rights. Significant decline in status of women. Rigid caste system did not prevail Gurukul system of education. The caste system was becoming rigid. Gurukul system was further enlarged Food included milk, barley, fruits, vegetables and meat. Consumption of meat was reduced. Rice became staple cereal Worship of nature and natural phenomena prevailed. ‘There were 33 Vedic gods like Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Surya, ete. Religion became more complex. New Gods like Brahma; Ramaand Krishna as incarnations of Vishnu and Shiva came to be worshipped. Brahmins introduced many rituals and made their position secure. Faith in Superstitions and spells. New principles like penance, doctrines of Karma, Dharma and Moksha developed. Absence of temples and idols. Hymns were chanted in the open. Worship of forefathers and belief in life after death prevailed. In the beginning the main occupation was domestication of animals and agriculture was secondary. Agriculture became the chief occupation while domestication of animals also continued. Cattle was the important source of wealth, Land was the important source of wealth. ‘Many engaged in trade and commerce, Dyeing, embroidery; carpentry, weaving, pottery, crafts in gold and iron were important occupations. ‘Traders guilds had come up and trade had become very important. Besides ‘occupations of earlier period, many new ‘occupations like physicians, musicians, and many other professions emerged { EXERCISE I. Short Answer Questions 1. What is meant by Vedic culture? 2. Why was the Barly Vedic Literature known as Shruti? 3, Name the four Vedas and state what th ns in each Veda deal with’ 4. What are the Upanishads? 5. What are the Dharmashastras? 6. What is known as Bhagwad Gita? 7. Mention the importance of the Epics as a source of information about the Aryans 8. Which battle is known as the Mahabharat ‘The Vedic Period Cae)9. Name the period during which the Aryans began to settle in India, 10. What are known as the Varnashramas? Name them. 11, What was known as the ‘Sapta Sindhu’? 3 12. How did trade become a pivot around which the life of the people revolved? State the difference in the position of women between the Early Vedic and Later Vedic Age 14, Name the four ashramas into which the human life span was divided, indicating the time yan for each, 5. State briefly the change that occurred in the position of the Brahmins in the Later Vedic Age. I. Structured Questions 1, With reference to the sources of information about the Vedic Age, write short notes on the following: (a) The Epics (b) Role of Iron Implements 2. With reference to Vedie Literature, answer the following questions: (a) Give a brief account of the four Vedas. (b) What are known as Brahmanas and Aranyakas? the following questions: 3. With reference to Vedic Period, answer Mention the periods of the Early and Later Vedic Periods. (a) (b) State three important changes that took place in the society in the process of its transition from the Early Vedic Period to the Later Vedic Period. With reference to the Society during the Vedic Age, answer the following questions: (a) Explain briefly the class divisions that existed in the society. (b) Explain the four stages in the life of an Aryan, (c) State the position of women in the Vedic period. 5, With reference to economic organisation of the people in the Vedic Period, answer the following questions: (a) State the methods used by the Aryans in agriculture important to the (b) Why was domestication of animals Aryans? (c) How was trade managed during this period? answer the following With reference to the picture given, questions: (a) Describe briefly the life in a Gurukul. (b) What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages dying in a GurukuP Total History and Civies-IK s UM