MODULE 4: SECOND LAW & GAS CYCLES

Prepared by: Jose R. Francisco, PME, CEM

Instructor
STATEMENTS OF THE SECOND LAW
1. Whenever energy is transferred, the level of energy cannot be conserved and some energy must be permanently
reduced to a lower level
2. Whenever energy is transferred, energy must be conserved, but the level of energy cannot be conserved and
some energy must be permanently reduced to a lower level

SECOND LAW FOR A CYCLE

 The first law gives techniques for energy analysis, but it does not describe how the energy will flow. The second
law of thermodynamics gives direction to the energy flow.

Kelvin-Planck Statement:
 “No cyclic process is possible whose sole result is the flow of heat from a single heat reservoir and the
performance of an equivalent amount of work.”

DEFINITIONS
 Thermal Reservoir is a body with large heat capacity such that when heat is removed or added to the reservoir,
the temperature of the reservoir does not change.
 Heat Engine is a device that operates in a cycle in which the main function is to convert heat input into positive
network output.
 Power Cycles are cycles used to produce work output.
 Refrigeration Cycles are cycles used to pump heat from low to high-temperature regions.
 Heat Pump and Refrigerator are devices that operate in a cycle and transfer heat from a low-temperature region
to a high-temperature region with work input to the system.

Heat Engine
 Engine Thermal Efficiency
o Engine thermal efficiency is the ratio of the work output to that of the heat added:
High Temperature
 W  Heat Reservoir, TH
    100 %
QH
 QH 
Heat W
Where, from the first law of thermodynamics, QH = QL + W; W = QH - QL Engine

 QH  QL   Q  QL
Therefore,     100 %   1  L  100 % 
Low Temperature
 QH   QH 
Heat Reservoir, TL
o For maximum efficiency of heat engine, all processes in the cycle must be reversible.

CARNOT CYCLE/ENGINE
 Carnot Engine/cycle is the most efficient engine/cycle that operates between two temperature levels.

Schematic Diagram and Tv Diagram of Carnot Engine/Cycle

High Temperature T
1 2
Heat Reservoir, TH
QH

Heat W
Engine

QL 3
Low Temperature 4
Heat Reservoir, TL
v
 Carnot Cycle Processes
 Process 1 – 2: Working fluid receives heat, QH, from the high temperature reservoir at temperature, TH;
during this process, the temperature of the working fluid must remain at T H to allow for reversible heat
transfer.

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  Process 2 – 3: Temperature of working fluid is decreased to TL; during this process, heat transfer is not
allowed, since heat transfer through a finite temperature is irreversible.
 Process 3 – 4: Heat, QL, is rejected from the working fluid to the low temperature reservoir; during the
process, temperature, TL, of fluid is constant.
 Process 4 – 1: The working fluid temperature is raised to temperature TH in an adiabatic reversible process.

 Carnot Engine Thermal Efficiency

 Carnot Engine/Cycle thermal efficiency is the ratio of the work output to that of the heat added, or the ratio of
the difference of the temperatures of the heat reservoirs to that of the temperature of the high-temperature
heat reservoir.

carnot 
W
100 %  QH  QL 100 %  TH  TL 100 %
QH QH TH

 T   T 
carnot  1  L  100 %  1  L !00 %
 TH   TH 

CLAUSIUS STATEMENT
 It is impossible to construct a cyclic device that will cause heat to be transferred from a low-temperature reservoir
to a high-temperature reservoir without the input of work.

Reversed Carnot Engine

 Carnot Heat Pump or Refrigerator is the only ideal machine with a highest coefficient of performance, COP.

 Coefficient of Performance, COP, is a parameter that measures the performance of the reversed engine or
Carnot engine. For Carnot heat pump, Coefficient of Performance is the ratio of the heat rejected to the high-
temperature heat reservoir tot that of the work input. For Carnot Refrigerator, Coefficient of performance is the
ratio of the heat input from the low-temperature heat reservoir to that of the work input to the engine.

 Coefficient of Performance, Carnot Refrigerator

High-temperature
Q Q Heat reservoir, TH
COP  in  L
Win W
QH
Q L TL
Where, W = QH – QL and, from  Reversed Carnot Engine or
W
Q H TH Carnot Heat pump
or Refrigerator
QL TL
COP  
Q H  Q L TH  TL QL
Low-temperature
 Coefficient of Performance, Carnot Heat Pump Heat Reservoir, TL

QH QH TH
COP   
W Q H  Q L TH  TL

DEFINITION
 Power cycle is a cycle that operates for the purpose of producing work or power.
 Gas cycles are power cycles in which the working substance is a gas.

CONSIDERATIONS IN THE GAS CYCLE ANALYSIS

 The following items are important parameters in the analysis of power cycles:
a) The heat supplied to the cycle
b) The heat rejected
c) The net work
d) The efficiency
e) The mean effective pressure

CARNOT POWER CYCLE

 Carnot Cycle/engine is the most efficient cycle/engine that operates between two temperature levels.
 Carnot Cycle is called as the TsTs cycle

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pV and Ts Diagrams

p 1
pV = C

2
pVk = C T

pVk = C
W  pdV  1 TH 2

4
3
pV = C
TL
pm W net 4 3

v
s
VD
cVD

Processes of the Cycle

Process 1-2: Isothermal heat addition process
Process 2-3: Adiabatic or isentropic turbine expansion process
Process 3-4: Isothermal heat rejection process
Process 4-1: Adiabatic or isentropic compression process

CARNOT CYCLE ANALYSIS

V2
Q A  Q H  TdS  T dS  TH S 2  S1   mRT H ln
2 2
Heat added:
1 1 V1

V3
Q A  Q L  TdS  T dS  TL S 4  S 3   TL S 3  S 4   mRT L ln
4 4
Heat Rejected: 
3 
3 V4

V2 V
Net Work of the cycle: Wnet  Q net  Q H  Q L  mRT H ln  mRT L ln 3
V1 V4

V2 V3 V2
But,  . Therefore, Wnet  Q Net  TH  TL  m R ln  TH  TL S
V1 V4 V1

V2 V3
Derivation of: 
V1 V4
k 1
k 1
T2  p 2  k V  TH
    1  
T1  p 1 
Consider process 2-3, eq. 1
 V2  TL

k 1
k 1
T1  p 1  k V  TH
    4  
T4  p 4
Consider process 4-1, eq. 2
  V1  TL

k 1 k 1
V  V  V3 V4
Equating 1 and 2 in terms of volume,  3    4   
 V2   V1  V2 V1

V2 V3
Therefore, 
V1 V4

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 Cycle Thermal Efficiency:
 
TH  TL mR ln  V2 
W   V1  100 % 
e th   net 100 %  
 QA  V 
mR ln  3 
 V4 

 T  TL   T 
e th   H 100 %  1  L  100 %
 TH   TH 

Mean Effective Pressure of the Cycle:

pm 
Work per Cycle W
 net 
pdV 
Displaceme nt Volume VD VD

Where, VD = displacement volume = Vmax - Vmin = V3 – V1

V 
mR TH  TL ln  2 
Then, p m 
Wnet
  V1 
V3  V1 V3  V1

AIR-STANDARD STIRLING CYCLE

 Stirling Cycle is a regenerative thermodynamic power cycle using two isothermal and two constant volume
processes; it is also known as a constant-volume regenerative cycle. It is a TvTv cycle
 Stirling Engine is an engine in which work is performed by the expansion of a gas at high temperature; heat for
the expansion is supplied through the wall of the piston cylinder.
 The heat stored in the regenerator during one part of the cycle is reused in the other part of the cycle.
 The thermal efficiency of Stirling cycle is the same as the efficiency of a Carnot cycle.
 There are two major problems in the Stirling hot-air engine, namely: the regenerator design and the constant-
volume regeneration.
 Developing the Ericson constant-pressure regenerative cycle solved the problem of constant-volume
regeneration.
 Stirling cycle has been used in solar-power system in which solar energy acting as heat source.
 The reversed Stirling cycle is used for gas liquefaction and cryogenics work because advances in heat transfer
make better regenerator designs possible.

pV and Ts Diagrams of Stirling Cycle

p
1

T Heat Added
TH 1 2
V=C pV = C
Heat from
Regenerator Heat to
Regenerator
4 
Wnet  pdV 2

V=C TL 3
pV = C
3 4

V s
VD
Processes of the Cycle
o Process 1-2: Isothermal heat addition process, causing the volume to increase
o Process 2-3: A constant volume cooling of air at the regenerator. The energy transferred from the air is
stored in the regenerator.

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 o Process 3-4: Isothermal heat rejection process, causing the volume to decrease
o Process 4-1: A constant volume heating of air from the regenerator

CYCLE ANALYSIS

Heat Added, consider process 1-2,

2 V  V  V 
1
Q A  p dV  p1 V1 ln  2
 V1
  m R T1 ln  2
  V1
  m R TH ln  2 
  V1 

Heat Rejected, consider process 3-4,

2 V  V  V  V 
1
Q R  p dV  p 3 V3 ln  4
 V3
  m R T3 ln  4
  V3
  m R TL ln  4
  V3
  m R TL ln  3
  V4



Net Heat Added:

V  V  V 
Q net  dQ  Q A  Q R  m R TH ln  2   m R TL ln  3   TH  TL  m R ln  2
 
 V1   V4   V1 

V2 V3
Where, V2  V3 and V1  V3  
V1 V4

V 
Net Work of the Cycle: Wnet  Q net  TH  TL  m R ln  2 
 V1 

  V2 
 TH  TL  m R ln   
W   V1   100 % 
Cycle Thermal Efficiency: e th   net  100 %  
 V  
 QA   m R TH ln  2  
  V1  

 T  TL   T 
e th   H  100 %  1  l  100 %
 TH   TH 

 V2 
TH  TL  m R ln  
Wnet  V1 
Cycle Mean Effective Pressure: pm  
VD V2  V1

ERICSON CYCLE
 Ericson cycle is a power cycle that consists of two isothermal and two isobaric processes, with the regeneration
occurring during constant pressure.
 Ericson cycle is also known as a constant-pressure regenerative cycle. It is a TpTp cycle.

THREE-PROCESS CYCLE
 Three-process cycle is a power or reversed cycle composed of three processes. Three is the minimum number
of processes to construct a practical cycle.

AIR-STANDARD OTTO CYCLE

 Air-standard Otto cycle is a theoretical prototype of a spark-ignition engine and was developed by Nicholas A.
Otto (1832-1891).
 Otto cycle is an ideal cycle, which is the basis of an actual gasoline engine.
 The cycle is composed two constant volume and two isentropic processes. It is called as the sVsV cycle

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Schematic, pV, and Ts Diagrams of Otto Cycle
p 3
Spark Plug pVk = C
Intake Valve Exhaust Valve

VC 2
Wnet  pdV 
TDC
4

VT VD Stroke
pVk = C
1
BDC V
cVD VD
Connecting Rod
T T3 3
TDC
Crank pin

Crank 4
2

Crankshaft
Qnet  dQ 
BDC T1
1
Processes of Otto Cycle s
a. Starting with the piston dead center, compression proceeds isentropically from 1 to 2.
b. Heat is added at constant volume from 2 to 3
c. Expansion occurs isentropically from 3 to 4
d. Heat is rejected to constant volume from 4 to 1.

Otto Cycle Analysis

Heat Added, process 2-3: Q A  mc v T3  T2 

Heat Rejected, process 4-1: Q R   mc v T4  T1 

 mR 
Net work of the Cycle: Wnet   Q  mc T  T   mc T  T1    T3  T2   T4  T1 
 k 1
v 3 2 v 4

Cycle Thermal Efficiency:

mc v T3  T2   T4  T1 
100 %  1  T4  T1  100 %
W   
e   net 100 % 
 QA  mc v T3  T2   T3  T2 
k 1
k 1
T p  V 
 rk 
k
k 1
Consider Process 1-2 (s = C), 2   2    1 
T1  p1   V2 

T2 V1 V4
Then, T1  Where, rk = compression ratio, rk  
rk  k 1
V2 V3
k 1
k 1 k 1
T p  V  V 
 rk 
k
k 1
Consider Process 3-4 (s = C), 3   3    4    1 
T4  p 4   V3   V2 
T3
Then, T4 
rk k 1
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  1 
Substituting T1 and T4 to the equation of e: e  1  k 1 
100 %
 rk  

V   V3  V 
Percent Clearance, c   3  100 %     100 %   2  100 % 
 VD   V1  V2   VD 

V1 VD  c VD 1  c 1
rk    c
V2 c VD c rk  1

Wnet m c v T3  T2   T4  T1 

Mean Effective Pressure: pm  
VD V1  V2

STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE

 Developed by Rudolf Diesel
 Characterized by constant-pressure heat addition, constant-volume heat rejection, and isentropic
compression and expansion
 Engine is a compression-ignition type
 Air is compressed to a high temperature
 Fuel is injected to compressed air
 Ignition is due to the high air temperature
 Combustion occurs at constant pressure
 Piston expands isentropically to bottom dead center, where heat is rejected at constant volume.

AIR-STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE

 The theoretical prototype of an actual Diesel engine cycle
 The TpTv cycle
T 3
Schematic, pV and Ts Diagrams

Fuel Injector p=C

Intake Valve Exhaust Valve 4
2
VC
TDC
1 V=C

VT VD Stroke
s
p
BDC p=C
3
Connecting Rod 2
pVk = C
TDC
Crank pin
4
pVk = C V=C
Crank
1

Crankshaft V
cVD VD
BDC
 Processes
a) Starting with the piston at bottom dead center, compression occurs isentropically from state 1 to state 2.
b) Heat is added at constant pressure from state 2 to state 3.
c) Expansion occurs isentropically from state 3 to state 4.
d) Heat reaction occurs at constant volume at constant volume from state 4 to state 1.

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CYCLE ANALYSIS
Heat Added (Heat addition process occurs from state 2 to state 3 at constant pressure:

 kR 
Q A  Q 23  H  m c p T3  T2   m   T3  T2 
 k  1
 kR 
Unit Mass: q A    T3  T2 
 k 1 

Heat Rejected (Heat rejection process occurs from state 4 to state 1 at constant volume:

 R 
Q R  Q 41  U  m c v T1  T4    m c v T4  T1    m  T4  T1 
 k  1
 R 
Unit Mass: q R     T4  T1 
 k 1 
Net Work of the cycle:

 kR   R 
Wnet  Q net  Q A  Q R  m  T3  T2   m   T4  T1 
 k 1  k 1

 mR 
Wnet    k T3  T2   T4  T1 
 k 1

 R 
Unit Mass: w net    k T3  T2   T4  T1 
 k 1 
Thermal Efficiency of the Cycle:

W   T  T1   
  rc k  1  
 100 %  1  4  100 %  1    100 %
1
e   net 
 QA   k T3  T 
2   rk 

k 1
 c
k r  1  

Derivation of e in terms of rk and rc:

V1 V3
Let, rk   Compressio n Ratio rc   Cutoff Ratio
V2 V2

V4 V1
re    Expansion Ratio
V3 V3

Consider process 1 to 2 (s = C):

k 1
k 1
T2  p 2  V 
 rk   T2  T1 rk 
k
k 1 k 1
    1 
T1  p1   V1 

Consider process 2 to 3 (p = C):

V 
T3  T2  3   T2 rc  T1 rk k 1 rc
 V2 

35
 Consider process 3 to 4 (s = C):

k 1
k 1
T4  p 4  k V 
    3   Where V3  rc V2 and V1  V4
T3  p 3   V4 
k 1
 
k 1 k 1 k 1  
V  r V  r V 
 T3  c 
r
T4  T3  3   T3  c 2   T3  c 2 
 V 
 V4   V4   V1    1  
  V2  

k 1 k 1
r  r 
 T1 rk   T1 rc 
k 1
T4  T3  c  rc  c  k

 rk   rk 

Substituting the values of T2, T3, & T4 to the equation of e:

W  
  rc k  1  
 100 %  1    100 %
1
e   net 
 rk   k rc  1 
k 1
 QA   

V2  V3   V1 
rk       rc re
V1  V2
For rk in terms of rc and re:
  V3 

Wnet m c p T3  T2   m c v T4  T1 

Mean Effective Pressure, pm  
VD V1  V2

Other Equations:

Cycle Work or Power Output:

 R 
W  m
 k  1 

 T1 k rk  rc  1  rc  1
k 1 k
 
Volume, VD, in terms of rk:

V1  1  r  1   m R T1   rk  1 
VD  V1  V2  V1   V1 1    V1  k      
rk  rk   rk   p1   rk 

Mean Effective Pressure, Mep, in terms of rk and rc:

pm 

p1 rk k rk  rc  1  rck  1
k 1
 
k  1rk  1
AIR-STANDARD DUAL CYCLE OR LIMITED-PRESSURE CYCLE
 Actual indicator cards from both Otto and Diesel engines show a rounded top, with a shape that suggests that
some combustion at constant volume and some at constant pressure would give an ideal cycle more closely
resembling the actual events.
 Heat addition occurs during constant pressure and constant volume processes
 Dual cycle is a constant volume and constant pressure combustion (heat addition) cycle
 This cycle is also called as limited-pressure cycle
 It is a sVpsV cycle
 This cycle has no particular standard application.

36
pV and Ts Diagrams
p
3 4
T
4
pVk =C QA34
2 = =
QA23 3 5
= Q  dQ

5 2
W  p dV
pVk = C QR
= 1 =
1
V s

Processes
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression Process 2 – 3: Isometric Heat Addition process
Process 3 – 4: Isobaric heat Addition Processes Process 4 – 5: Isentropic Expansion Process
Process 5 – 1: Isometric Heat rejection Process

Cycle Analysis

Heat added (Processes 23 and 34),


Q A  Q 23  Q 34  m c v T3  T2   c p T4  T3  
Heat Rejected (Process 5 – 1),

Q R  m c v T1  T5    m c v T5  T1 

Net Work of the Cycle,


Wnet  Q A  Q R  m c v T3  T2   c p T5  T1  
Thermal Efficiency of the Cycle,

  1 rp rc   1  
k 1
W   k

e  net 100 %   1       100 % 

QA   rk   
 rp  1  k rp rc  1  


p3 V1
Where: rp   pressure Ratio rk   Compressio n Ratio
p2 V2

V4
rc   Cutoff Ratio
V3

SAMPLE AND PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Carnot Cycle
1. A Carnot cycle heat engine operates between 840 oC and 5 oC and rejects 580 kJ/kg of heat to the low
temperature reservoir or heat sink. Determine the work produced by the cycle.
a) 1742 kJ/kg b) 1724 kJ/kg c) 1472 kJ/kg d) 1427 kJ/kg
2. A Carnot engine receives 130 Btu of heat from a hot reservoir at 700 oF and rejects 49 Btu of heat. Determine
the temperature of the cold reservoir, in oF. (4/97)
a) – 27.72 b) – 27.27 c) – 22.77 d) – 22.27

3. A Carnot engine produces 50 MW of power while operating between temperature limits of 727 oC and 27 oC.
Determine the heat rejected.
a) 21.43 MW b) 24.31 MW c) 23.41 MW d) 24.13 MW

37
4. A reversed Carnot cycle requires 3 Hp and extracts energy from a lake to heat a house. If the house is kept at 70
oF and requires 2000 Btu/min, what is the temperature of the lake?

a) 33.6 oF b) 36.3 oF c) 63.3 oF d) 39.3 oF

5. A 2.5-kW refrigeration or heat pump operates between – 18 C and 38 C. Determine the maximum heat that can
o

be transferred from the cold reservoir.

a) 11.38 kW b) 13.18 kW c) 18.31 kW d) 13.81 kW

6. A reversed Carnot engine receives 316 kJ of heat. The reversible adiabatic compression process increases by
50 % the absolute temperature of heat addition. Determine the COP.
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 3.5
7. What is the maximum thermal efficiency possible for a power cycle operating between 1200 oF and 225 oF?
a) 57.83 % b) 58.73 % c) 53.78 % d) 58.37 %

8. A Carnot engine requires 35 kW from the hot source. The engine produces 15 kW of power and the temperature
of the sink is 26 oC. What is the temperature of the hot source in oC. (4/97)
a) 250.25 oC b) 255.02 oC c) 252.05 oC d) 255.50 oC
9. A 6-cylinder engine with a 10 x 10 cm bore and stroke operates on the Carnot cycle. It receives 54 kJ/cycle of
heat at 833 oK and rejects heat at 555 oK while running at 300 rpm. Determine the mean effective pressure in
MPaa, and the power of the engine, in kW.
a) 3.82 MPaa, 90.1 kW b) 2.83 MPaa, 91.0 kW c) 8.32 MPaa, 80.1 kW d) 3.82 MPaa, 100.1 kW

10. A Carnot engine operates between temperature limits of 1200 oK and 400 oK using 0.4 kg of air running at 500
rpm. The pressure at the beginning of heat addition is 1500 kPaa and at the end of the heat addition is 750 kPaa.
Find: a) the heat added, in kJ/cycle [95.488]; b) the heat rejected, in kJ/cycle.[- 31.829]; c) the power produced,
in kW [530.49]; c) the volume at the end of heat addition process [0.18368 m 3/cycle; d) the mean effective
pressure. [22.97 kPa]; e) the thermal efficiency. [66.67 %]
11. Helium is used in a Carnot engine where the volumes beginning with the constant temperature heat addition are
V1 = 0.3565 m3, V2 = 0.5130 m3, V3 = 8.0 m3, and V4 = 5.57 m3. Determine the thermal efficiency if k = 1.666.
a) 83.95 % b) 89.35 % c) 85.93 % d) 85.39 %

12. A Carnot engine is operating between temperature limits of 1200 oK and 300 oK while producing 30-kW power.
Determine a) the heat supplied; and b) the heat rejected. [Ans. a) 40 kW, b) 10 kW]

13. A reversed Carnot engine is receiving 350 kJ of heat. The reversible adiabatic compression process increases
by 60 % the absolute temperature of heat addition. Determine a) the COP of Carnot refrigerator and Carnot heat
pump; and b) the work. [Ans. a) 1.67, 2.67; b) 210 kW]
14. A heat pump is used to heat a house in the winter months. When the average outside temperature is 2 oC and
the indoor temperature is 24 oC, the heat loss from the house is 25 kW. What is the minimum power required to
operate the heat pump. [Ans. 1.85 kW]

15. A Carnot Refrigerator is operating between temperature limits of – 6 oC and 30 oC. The heat absorbed is 29
kJ/kg and the power used is 3.5 kW. Find a) the COP; and b) mass flow rate of the refrigerant. [Ans. a) 7.42, b)
53.71 kg/min]
16. A Carnot heat pump is being used for house heating in Baguio City where the temperature is 10 oC. The
expected COP for the heat pump is 2. Determine the temperature that the heat pump could provide heat. [Ans.
586 oK]

17. A Carnot cycle heat engine operates between 840 oC and 5 oC and rejects 580 kJ/kg of heat to the low
temperature reservoir or heat sink. Determine the maximum entropy change, in kJ/kg-oK, of the working fluid for
any process in the cycle. [Ans. 2.08]
18. A reversed Carnot cycle requires 3 Hp and extracts energy from a lake to heat a house. If the house is kept at 70
oF and requires 2000 Btu/min, what is the temperature of the lake? [Ans. 36 oF]

Otto Cycle
19. An engine operates on the air-standard Otto cycle. The conditions at the start of compression are 27 oC and 100
kPaa. The heat added is 1840 kJ/kg. The compression ratio is 8. Determine the thermal efficiency.
a) 54.67 % b) 56.47 % c) 54.76 % d) 57.46 %
20. An Otto engine has a clearance volume of 7 %. It produces 300 kW of power. What is the amount of heat
rejected, in kW? (10/97)
a) 151.8 kW b) 171.8 kW c) 160.8 kW d) 151.8 kW

21. In an air standard Otto cycle, the clearance volume is 18 % of the displacement volume. Find the thermal
efficiency. (10/93)
a) 52 % b) 53 % c) 55 % d) 60 %

38
22. The conditions at the beginning of compression in an Otto engine operating on hot-air standard with k = 1.35 are
101.325 kPaa, 0.05 m3 and 32 oC. The clearance is 8 % and 15 kJ are added per cycle. Determine the mean
effective pressure. [323.97 kPa]
23. An engine operates on the air-standard Otto cycle. The cycle work is 1000 kJ/kg. What is the compression ratio
of the engine if the maximum cycle temperature is 3173 oK and the temperature at the end of isentropic
compression is 773 oK. [8.85]
24. The compression ratio of an Otto cycle is 9. If the initial pressure is 150 kPaa, determine the final pressure.
[3251.10 kPaa
25. The compression ratio of an ideal Otto cycle is 6:1. Initial conditions are 101.k kPaa and 20 oC. Find the pressure
and temperature at the end of adiabatic compression. [Ans. 1244.5 kPaa, 599.6 oK]

Diesel Cycle
26. ME Board April 1998. An air-standard engine has a compression ratio of 20 and a cut-off ratio of 5. If the intake
air pressure and temperature are 100 kPaa and 27 oC, find the work in kJ/kg. [2165]
27. ME Board April 1991. Determine the air-standard efficiency of an engine operating on the Diesel cycle when the
suction pressure is 99.97 kPaa and the fuel is injected to 6 % of the stroke, the clearance volume is 8 % of the
stroke. Assume k = 1.4. [60.07 %]

28. ME Board October 1995. In an air-standard Diesel cycle, compression starts at 100 kPaa and 300 oK. The
compression ratio is 16 to 1. The maximum cycle temperature is 2031 oK. Determine the thermal efficiency.
[60.27 %]
29. An engine operates on the air-standard Diesel cycle. The conditions at the start of compression are 27 oC and
100 kPaa. The heat supplied is 1840 kJ/kg. The compression ratio is 16. Determine a) the thermal efficiency of
the cycle; and b) the mean effective pressure. [a) 56.89 %, b) 1296.46 kPa]

30. The mep of an ideal Diesel cycle is 758.4 kPaa. If p1 = 93 kPaa, rk = 12.5, and the overall value of k is 1.32. Find
the cutoff ratio, rc. [2.77]
31. An ideal Diesel cycle with the overall value of k = 1.33, r k =15, rc = 2.1, p1 = 97.9 kPaa. Find p2 and pm. [601.72
kPa]

32. The charge in a Diesel engine consists of 0.01834 kg of fuel, with a lower heating value of 42571 kJ/kg, and
0.409 kg of air and products of combustion. At the beginning of compression, t 1 = 60 oC. Let rk = 14. For constant
cp = 1.110 kJ/kg-oK, what should be the cut-off ratio in the corresponding ideal cycle? [2.8]
33. There are supplied 317 kJ/cycle to an ideal Diesel engine operating on 227 grams air; p 1 = 97.91 kPaa, t1 = 48.9
oC. At the end of compression, p = 3930 kPaa. Assume that the air and the products within the cycle have air
2
properties. Determine a) the compression ratio, r k; b) the percent clearance; c) the cut-off ratio, rc; d) the work; e)
the thermal efficiency; and f) the mean effective pressure, Mep. [Ans.: a) 14, b) 7.69 %, c) 2.5, d) 180.1 kJ/cycle,
e) 56.81 %, f) 905.25 kPa]

34. In an air-standard Diesel cycle, compression starts at 100 kPaa and 300 oK. The compression ratio is 16:1. The
maximum cycle temperature is 2031 oK. Determine the thermal efficiency. [Ans. 60.3 %]

Dual Combustion Cycle

35. An ideal dual combustion cycle operates on 0.45 kg of air. At the beginning of compression, the air is 97 kPaa,
43 oC. Let rp = 1.5, rc = 1.6, and rk = 11. Determine a) the percent clearance; b) the pressure, volume, and
temperature of each corner of the cycle; c) the QA, QR, and W; d) the thermal efficiency; and e) the mean
effective pressure. [Ans.: a) 10 %, c) 469.26 kJ, - 193.91 kJ, d) 58.68 %, e) 718.68 kPa]
36. An ideal dual combustion cycle operates on 0.60 kg of air. Find the cycle efficiency if the compression ratio is 12,
pressure ratio is 1.6, cut-off ratio is 1.5, and k = 1.3. [50.71 %]

37. What is the pressure ratio in an ideal dual combustion cycle if the pressure at the beginning and end of the
constant volume portion of combustion are 2500 kPaa and 4000 kPaa, respectively? [1.6]
38. An ideal dual combustion cycle operates on 0.65 kg of air. At the beginning of compression, the air is at 100
kPaa, 45 oC. Determine the volume at the end of compression if net work is 300 kJ and the mean effective
pressure is 700 kPa. [0.16 m3]

39. At the beginning of compression in an ideal dual combustion cycle, the working fluid is 2 lb of air at 14.7 psia and
85 oF. The compression ratio is 8.5, the pressure at the end of the constant volume addition of heat is 450 psia,
and there are added 105 Btu during the constant pressure expansion. Find the pressure ratio and the percent
clearance? [1.53, 13.33 %]

THREE-PROCESS CYCLE
40. 1 kg of air at pressure and temperature of 101.325 kPaa and 15 oC initially, undergoes the following process in a
cycle: 1 – 2: isothermal compression to 202.65 kPaa; 2 – 3: polytropic compression from 202.65 kPaa to 405.30
kPaa; and 3 – 1: isentropic expansion from 405.30 kPaa to the initial condition. Calculate the heat transfer for
process 1 to 2. Use R = 0.287 kJ/kg-oK and k = 1.4 for air. [- 57.29 kJ]

39
GAS CYCLES. SOLVED PROBLEMS

Carnot Cycle

1. A Carnot cycle heat engine operates between 840 oC and 5 oC

and rejects 580 kJ/kg of heat to the low temperature reservoir
or heat sink. Determine the work produced by the cycle.
a) 1742 kJ/kg b) 1724 kJ/kg
c) 1472 kJ/kg d) 1427 kJ/kg

Solution:
Q T
From the relation: Q  T and W  Q H  Q L
L L

H H

T   1113 
W  q L  H  1  580  1  1 742.09 kJ / kg
 L
T   278 

2. A Carnot engine receives 130 Btu of heat from a hot reservoir

at 700 oF and rejects 49 Btu of heat. Determine the
temperature of the cold reservoir, in oF. (4/97)
a) – 27.72 b) – 27.27
c) – 22.77 d) – 22.27
Solution:
Q   49 
TL  TH  L   1160    437.23 K  22.77 C
o o

 QH   130 

3. A Carnot engine produces 50 MW of power while operating between

temperature limits of 727 oC and 27 oC. Determine the heat rejected.
a) 21.43 MW b) 24.31 MW
c) 23.41 MW d) 24.13 MW

Solution:
 TH   1000 
Q H  W   50   71.43 MW
 TH  TL   1000  300 

4. A reversed Carnot cycle requires 3 Hp and extracts energy from a lake

to heat a house. If the house is kept at 70 oF and requires 2000 Btu/min,
what is the temperature of the lake?
a) 33.6 oF b) 36.3 oF c) 63.3 oF d) 39.3 oF
260
 Solution:
 0.746 kW  1 Btu  60 sec 
W  3 Hp      127.28 Btu / min
 1 Hp  1.055 kJ  1 min 

QH TH
 Note: 1 Hp = 42.43 Btu/min
W TH  TL

 W   Q H   127.28    2000 
TL    TH   1    530  1  496.21 o R  36.3 o F
 Q H   W   2000    127.28 

5. A 2.5-kW refrigeration or heat pump operates between – 18 C and 38

o
C. Determine the maximum heat that can be transferred from the cold
reservoir.
a) 11.38 kW b) 13.18 kW
c) 18.31 kW d) 13.81 kW

Solution:
WTL  2.5255
QL    11.38 kW
TH  TL 311  255

6. A reversed Carnot engine receives 316 kJ of heat. The reversible

adiabatic compression process increases by 50 % the absolute
temperature of heat addition. Determine the COP.
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 3.5
Solution:
QL TL TL 1
COP     2
W TH  TL 1.5TL  Tl 0.5

7. What is the maximum thermal efficiency possible for a power cycle

operating between 1200 oF and 225 oF?
a) 57.83 % b) 58.73 % c) 53.78 % d) 58.37 %

Solution:
 T   685 
e  1  L 100 %   1  100 %   58.73 %
 TH   1660 

8. A Carnot engine requires 35 kW from the hot source. The engine

produces 15 kW of power and the temperature of the sink is 26 oC. What
is the temperature of the hot source in oC. (4/97)
261
 a) 250.25 oC b) 255.02 oC c) 252.05 oC
d) 255.50 oC

Solution:
TH 
Q H TL

35299  523.25 o R  250.25 o F
QH  W 35  15

9. A 6-cylinder engine with a 10 x 10 cm bore and stroke operates on the Carnot cycle. It receives 54 kJ/cycle of heat at 833 oK
and rejects heat at 555 oK while running at 300 rpm. Determine the mean effective pressure in MPaa, and the power of the
engine, in kW.
a) 3.82 MPaa, 90.1 kW b) 2.83 MPaa, 91.0 kW c) 8.32 MPaa, 80.1 kW d) 3.82 MPaa, 100.1 kW

Solution:
T   555 
Q L  Q H  L   54   35.98 kJ / cycle
 TH   833 
N  300 
W  Q H  Q L    54  35.98   90.10 kW
 
60  60 
 2   300 
VD  D LNn c   0.10 2 0.10  6   0.02356 m / s
3
4  
4  60 
W 90.10
pm    3 823.96 kPa  3.82 MPa
VD 0.02356

10. A Carnot engine operates between temperature limits of 1200 oK and 400 oK using 0.4 kg of air running at 500 rpm. The
pressure at the beginning of heat addition is 1500 kPaa and at the end of the heat addition is 750 kPaa. Find:
a) The heat added, in kJ/cycle [95.51]
b) The heat rejected, in kJ/cycle.[- 31.829]
c) The power produced, in kW [530.49]
d) The volume at the end of heat addition process [0.18368 m 3/cycle.
e) The mean effective pressure. [22.97 kPa]
f) The thermal efficiency. [66.67 %]

Solution:
V2 p   1500 
a) Q H  mRTH ln  mRTH ln  1   0.400.287081200 ln    95.51 kJ / cycle
V1  p2   750 
V  p   1500 
b) Q L  mRTL ln  2   mRTL ln  1   0.400.28798400 ln    31.84 kJ / cycle
 1
V  H
p  750 

N  500 
c) W  Q H  Q L    95.51  31.84    530.58 kW
 60   60 
p  mRT2 0.400.287081200
d) V2  V1  1     0.184 m 3 / cycle
 p2  p2 750

mRT1  N  0.40 0.287081200   500 

e) V1       0.7655 m / s
3
p 1  60  1500  60 
1 1
T  k 1  1200  0.40
V3  V2  2   0.184   2.868 m 3 / s
 T1   400 
W 530.58
pm    252.36 kPa
V3  V1 2.868  0.7655

 T   400 
f) e  1  L 100 %   1  100 %   66.67 %
 TH   1200 

262
11. Helium is used in a Carnot engine where the volumes beginning with the constant temperature heat addition are V 1 = 0.3565
m3, V2 = 0.5130 m3, V3 = 8.0 m3, and V4 = 5.57 m3. Determine the thermal efficiency if k = 1.666.
a) 83.95 % b) 89.35 % c) 85.93 % d) 85.39 %

Solution:

 T   V 
k 1 
 0.666 
e th  1  L 100 %  1   2  100 %  1   0.5130  100 %  83.95 %
  V3    
 TH     
 8 
Otto Cycle

12. An engine operates on the air-standard Otto cycle. The conditions at the start of compression are 27 oC and 100 kPaa. The
heat added is 1840 kJ/kg. The compression ratio is 8. Determine the thermal efficiency.
a) 54.67 % b) 56.47 % c) 54.76 % d) 57.46 %

Solution:
 1   1 
e th  1  100 %  1  0.4  100 %   56.47 %
 rk    8 
k 1

13. An Otto engine has a clearance volume of 7 %. It produces 300 kW of power. What is the amount of heat rejected, in kW?
(10/97)
a) 151.8 kW b) 171.8 kW c) 160.8 kW d) 151.8 kW

V1 c  1 1.07
Solution: rk     15.286
V2 c 0.7
 1   
 100 %  1  100 %  66.40 %
1
e th  1  0.4 
 rk    15.286 
k 1

W 300
QH    451.81 kW Q L  Q H  W  451.81  300  151.81 kW
e th 0.6640

14. In an air standard Otto cycle, the clearance volume is 18 % of the displacement volume. Find the thermal efficiency.
a) 52 % b) 53 % c) 55 % d) 60 %

Solution: V2  0.18VD
V1 V2  VD 0.18VD  VD 1.18
rk      6.56
V2 V2 0.18VD 0.18
 1   
100 %  1  100 %  52.86 %
1
e th  1  0.4 
 rk    6.56 
k 1

15. The conditions at the beginning of compression in an Otto engine operating on hot-air standard with k = 1.35 are 101.325 kPaa,
0.05 m3 and 32 oC. The clearance is 8 % and 15 kJ are added per cycle. Determine the mean effective pressure. [323.97 kPa]

c  1 1.08
Solution: rk    13.5
c 0.08
 1   
100 %  1  100 %  59.785 %
1
e th  1  0.35 
 rk    13.5 
k 1

W  e th Q H   0.5978515  8.968 kJ
V1 0.05
V2    0.0037 m 3
rk 13.5
W W 8.968
pm     193.69 kPa
VD V1  V2 0.05  0.0037

16. An engine operates on the air-standard Otto cycle. The cycle work is 1000 kJ/kg. What is the compression ratio of the engine if
the maximum cycle temperature is 3173 oK and the temperature at the end of isentropic compression is 773 oK. [8.85]

 
 100 %   57.98 %
W W 1000
e th   
Q A c v T3  T2   0.71863173  773 
Solution:

263
  1 
e th  1   100 % 
 rk  
k 1

1 1
 1  k 1  1  0.4
rk   
    8.74
 1  e th   1  0.5798 

17. The compression ratio of an Otto cycle is 9. If the initial pressure is 150 kPaa, determine the final pressure. [3251.10 kPaa]

Solution: p 2  p1 rk k  15091.4  3251.10 kPaa

Diesel Cycle

18. ME Board April 1998. An air-standard engine has a compression ratio of 20 and a cut-off ratio of 5. If the intake air pressure
and temperature are 100 kPaa and 27 oC, find the work in kJ/kg. [2165]

Solution:
 mRT1 
W 
 k rk  rc  1  rck  1
 k 1 
k 1
   total value

 RT1 
w   
 k rk  rc  1  rck  1
 k 1
k 1
  unit mass

 0.28708300
w
 0.4 

  
1.4200.40 4  51.4  1  2162.3 kJ / kg
19. ME Board April 1991. Determine the air-standard efficiency of an engine operating on the Diesel cycle when the suction
pressure is 99.97 kPaa and the fuel is injected to 6 % of the stroke, the clearance volume is 8 % of the stroke. Assume k = 1.4.
[60.07 %]

Solution: V3  V2  0.06VD V2  0.06VD

V1 1.08VD 1.08
rk     13.5
V2 0.08VD 0.08
V3 V2  0.06VD 0.08VD  0.06VD 0.14
rc      1.75
V2 0.08VD 0.08VD 0.08

  rc k  1   
  1.751.4  1 
 100 %  1    100 %  60.02 %
1 1
e th  1   
 rk 

k 1
 c
k r  1  
  13.5 

0.4 1 .40.75   


20. ME Board October 1995. In an air-standard Diesel cycle, compression starts at 100 kPaa and 300 oK. The compression ratio is
16 to 1. The maximum cycle temperature is 2031 oK. Determine the thermal efficiency. [60.27 %]

T2  T1 rk k 1  300160.4  909.43 o K

V3 T3 2031
Solution: rc     2.23
V2 T2 909.43

  rc k  1   
  2.231.4  1 

 100 %  1    100 %  60.28 %
1 1
e th  1   
 rk   krc  1    16  1.41.23  
k 1

0.4
  

21. An engine operates on the air-standard Diesel cycle. The conditions at the start of compression are 27 oC and 100 kPaa. The
heat supplied is 1840 kJ/kg. The compression ratio is 16. Determine a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle; and b) the mean
effective pressure. [a) 56.89 %, b) 1296.46 kPa]

Solution: T2  T1 rk k 1  300160.4  909.43 o K

qA 1840
T3   T2   909.43  2738.09 o K
cp 1.0062
RT1 0.28798300
v1    0.86124 m 3 / kg
p1 100

264
 1 1
 T  k 1  300  0.4
v 2  v1  1   0.86124   0.05383 m / kg
3

 T2   909.43 
v T 2738.09
rc  3  3   3.011
v 2 T2 909.43

  rc k  1   
  3.0111.4  1 

 100 %  1   100 %  56.89 %
1 1
e th  1   
 k rc  1    1.42.011  
a)
 rk   16
k 1 0.4
   

W  e th q A   0.56891840  1046.776 kJ / kg

W 1046.776
b) pm    1296.46 kPa
VD 0.86124  0.0383

22. The mep of an ideal Diesel cycle is 758.4 kPaa. If p1 = 93 kPaa, rk = 12.5, and the overall value of k is 1.32. Find the cutoff
ratio, rc. [2.77]

Solution:

pm  
 
p1rk
  

 k

 k rk  rc  1  rc  1
k 1

 k 1 rk 1 

Substituting the values, then solve for the value of rc using trial and error and interpolation, then rc = 2.77.
Note: The same answer will be obtained using calculator, say, Casio Fx 991ES.

23. An ideal Diesel cycle with the overall value of k = 1.33, rk =15, rc = 2.1, p1 = 97.9 kPaa. Find p2 and pm. [601.72 kPa]

Solution:
p 2  p1 rk k  97.9151.33  3589.09 kPaa

pm  
 
p1rk
  
 k 1

 k rk  rc  1  rc  1
k

 k 1 rk 1 

pm  
 97.915 
 
 0.33 1.33

 1.3315 1.1  2.1  1  601.73 kPa
 0 . 33 14 

24. The charge in a Diesel engine consists of 0.01834 kg of fuel, with a lower heating value of 42571 kJ/kg, and 0.409 kg of air and
products of combustion. At the beginning of compression, t 1 = 60 oC. Let rk = 14. For constant cp = 1.110 kJ/kg-oK, what should
be the cut-off ratio in the corresponding ideal cycle? [2.8]

Solution:
mF  0.01834 
T2  T1 rk k 1  333140.4  956.96 o K qA 
qh   42571  1908.93 kJ / kg
ma  0.409 
qA  1908.93  T 2854.13
T3   T2     956.96  2854.13 K
o
rc  3   2.98
cp  1 .0062  T2 456.96

25. There are supplied 317 kJ/cycle to an ideal Diesel engine operating on 227 grams air; p1 = 97.91 kPaa, t1 = 48.9 oC. At the end
of compression, p2 = 3930 kPaa. Assume that the air and the products within the cycle have air properties. Determine a) the
compression ratio, rk; b) the percent clearance; c) the cut-off ratio, rc; d) the work; e) the thermal efficiency; and f) the mean
effective pressure, Mep. [Ans.: a) 14, b) 7.69 %, c) 2.5, d) 180.1 kJ/cycle, e) 56.81 %, f) 905.25 kPa]

Solution:
1 1
V  p  k  3930  1.4
a) rk  1   2      13.98
V2  p1   97.91 
 1   1 
b) c   100 %    100 %   7.7 %
 rk  1   12.98 

c) T2  T1 rk k 1  321.913.980.4  924.54 o K

265
 QA 317
T3   T2   924.54  2312.41 o K
mc p 0.2271.0062

T3 2312.41
rc    2.5
T2 924.54


  2.51.4  1 
d) e th  1 
1
0.4  1.41.5  
100 %  56.78 %
 13.98 
  


W  e th Q A   0.5678317  179.999  180 kJ / cycle


  2.51.4  1 

 100 %  56.78 %
1
e th  1  
 1.41.5  
e)
 13.98
0.4
 

mRT1 0.2270.28708321.9
f) V1    0.2143 m 3
p1 97.91
V1 0.2143
V2    0.0153 m 3
rk 13.98
W 180
pm    904.52 kPa
VD 0.2143  0.0153

Dual Combustion Cycle

26. An ideal dual combustion cycle operates on 0.45 kg of air. At the beginning of compression, the air is 97 kPaa, 43 oC. Let rp =
1.5, rc = 1.6, and rk = 11. Determine a) the percent clearance; b) the pressure, volume, and temperature of each corner of the
cycle; c) the QA, QR, and W; d) the thermal efficiency; and e) the mean effective pressure.
[Ans.: a) 10 %, c) 469.26 kJ, - 193.91 kJ, d) 58.68 %, e) 718.68 kPa]

Solution:
 1  1
a) c   100 %    100 %   10 %
 rk  1   10 

mRT1 0.450.28708316
b) V1    0.421 m 3
p1 97

T2  T1 rk k 1  316110.4  824.6 o K

p 2  p1 rk k  97111.4  2784.34 o K
V1 0.421
V2    0.0383 m 3
rk 11
V3  V2  0.0383 m3
 
p 3  p 2 rp  2784.341.5  4176.51 o K
T3  T2 rp   824.61.5  1236.9 o K

p 4  p 4  4176.51 kPaa
T4  T3 rc   1236.91.6  1979.04 o K
V4  rc V3  1.60.0383  0.06128 m 3

V5  V1  0.421 m 3
k
V  1.4
  4176.51
0.06128 
p 5  p 4  4    261.23 kPaa
 V5   0.421 

266
 p   281.23 
T5  T1  5   316   916.17 K
o

 p1   97 

c) Q A  Q 23  Q34  mc v T3  T2   mc p T4  T3 

Q A  0.450.71861236.9  824.6  0.451.00621979.04  1236.9  469.36 kJ

Q R   mc v T5  T1   0.450.7186916.17  316  194.08 kJ

W  Q A  Q R  469.36  194.08  275.28 kJ


1  rp rc k  1 

e th  1  k 1  100 % 
W
100 %   275.28  100 %  58.65 %
  
d)
 rk  rp  1  krp rc  1  QA  469.36 
  
W W 275.28
e) pm     719.31 kPa
VD V1  V2 0.421  0.0383

Brayton Cycle

27. In an air-standard Brayton cycle, air enters compressor at 1 bar and 15 oC. The pressure leaving the compressor is 0.6 MPaa
and maximum temperature of the cycle is 1000 oC. Calculate the cycle thermal efficiency.
a) 35 % b) 32 % c) 37.5 % d) 40 %
p 2 0.6
Solution: rp   6
p1 0.1
   
 1 
e th  1  k 1 
100 %   1  1

100 %  40.07 %

 
0.4
 rp k   61.4 

28. Air enters the combustion chamber in a gas turbine power plant at 400 kPaa, 200 oC and leaves at 400 kPaa, 1000 oC. Fuel
with a heating value of 45 MJ/kg enters with a fuel ratio of 0.025. Determine the combustor efficiency.
a) 65 % b) 71.5 % c) 69 % d) 75 %

Solution:
m 2 c p T2  m 3c p T3  Q A QA

q A  c p T2  1  m fa c p T3  1  m fa T3  c p T2
2 3
Combustor
q A  1.0251.00621273  1.0062473  836.98 kJ / kg

q F  q h m fa  450000.025  1125 kJ / kg

e
qA
100 %   836.98 100 %  74.4 %
qF  1125 

29. In an air-standard Brayton cycle, air enters compressor at 20 oC, 100 kPaa and enters the turbine at 485 kPaa. The maximum
temperature in the cycle is 1000 oC. Assuming a compressor isentropic efficiency of 80 %, and turbine isentropic efficiency of
85 %, what is the thermal efficiency of the cycle?
a) 21.28 % b) 25.28 % c) 22.95 % d) 23.5 %

k 1 0.4
 p2   485  1.4
 20  273
k
Solution: T2  T1     460.04 K
o
p
 1   100 
 T  T1  460.04  20  273 
T2 '  T1   2   20  273     501.75 K
o
   
 c  0.80
T1T3 20  2731273
T4    810.775 o K
T2 460.04
T4 '  T3  T3  T4  t  1273  1273  810.7750.85  880.11 o K
267
 W   T  T4 '  T2 'T1    1273  880.11  501.75  293 
e th   net  100 %    3  100 %     100 % 
 QA   T3  T 2 '   1273  501.75 

eth = 21.28 %

Cycles
1. A Carnot cycle heat engine operates between 840 oC and 5 oC and rejects 580 kJ/kg of heat to the low
temperature reservoir or heat sink. Determine the maximum entropy change, in kJ/kg-oK, of the working fluid for
any process in the cycle. [Ans. 2.08]

qL 580
Solution: s    2.086 kJ / kg  o K
TL 5  273

2. In an air-standard Otto cycle the clearance volume is 18 % of the displacement volume. Determine the thermal
efficiency. [Ans. 53 %]

 c  1   1.18   1   
 100 %  1   100 %  52.88 %
1
Solution: rk       6.56 e th  1 
 rk    6.56 
k 1
 c   0.18  0.4

3. A reversed Carnot cycle requires 3 Hp and extracts energy from a lake to heat a house. If the house is kept at 70
oF and requires 2000 Btu/min, what is the temperature of the lake? [Ans. 36 oF]

 QL  Q W  2000  342.42 

Solution: TL  TH    TH  H   70  460   496.28 R  36.28 F
o o

 QH   QH   2000 

4. The compression ratio of an ideal Otto cycle is 6:1. Initial conditions are 101.3 kPaa and 20 oC. Find the pressure
and temperature at the end of adiabatic compression. [Ans. 1244.5 kPaa, 599.6 oK]

k
 V1 
Solution: p 2  p1    p1 rk k  101.361.4  1244.57 kPaa
 2
V
T2  T1 rk k 1  20  27360.4  599.97 o K

5. The enthalpy of air, in the compressor, increased by 139.586 kJ/kg. The rate of air is 16.42 kg/min. The power
input is 48.2 kW, determine the heat loss from the compressor. [Ans. – 10 kW]

 16.42 
Solution: Q  H  KE  PE  W  mh   W   139.586   48.2  9.9999  10 kW
 60 

6. In an air-standard Diesel cycle, compression starts at 100 kPaa and 300 oK. The compression ratio is 16:1. The
maximum cycle temperature is 2031 oK. Determine the thermal efficiency. [Ans. 60.3 %]

k 1 0.4 T3
Solution: T2  T1 rk   300161.4  662.45 o K
2031
k rc    3.07
T2 662.45

  1   rc   1 
   1   3.07   1 

k 1.4
 
e th  1       100 %   1       100 %  56.65 %
  rk    c

k 1 k r  1  
   16  

0.4 1.42.07   


7. If a coal having a heat combustion of 14 000 Btu/lb is used in a heating plant of 50 % efficiency, how many
pounds of steam of 50 % quality and 212 oF temperature can be made per pound of this coal from water whose
initial temperature is 70 oF? Note: At 70 oF, hf = 38 Btu/lb; and at 212 oF, hf = 180 Btu/lb and hfg = 970 Btu/lb.
[11.2 lb steam /lb coal]

Solution: h1 = hf at 70 oF = 38 Btu/lb h2 = hf2 + x2(hfg2) = 180 + (0.50)(970) = 665 Btu/lb

268
 Q A  m Fq h 
m s h 2  h 1  ms qh ep  14 0000.50  11.16 kg / kg
 
ep m F h 2  h1 665  38

8. A single cylinder, double-acting, reciprocating steam engine has a 6 inches bore, and 8 inches stroke, and a
piston rod diameter of 1.25 inches. The average mean effective pressure found from the indicator card is 62 psi
for each end of the cylinder. The engine operates at 300 rpm and with a mechanical efficiency of 83 %. If the
engine is directly coupled to a generator having an efficiency of 92 %, find the generator output in kW. [11.85]

Solution:
  6  2  1.25  2 
 
 
    8 

VD   D 2 Ln    D 2  d 2 Ln    L n 2D 2  d 2    3002        76.835 cfm
4 4 4  4  12    12   12  

WI  p I VD  
  

 62 psi 144 in 2 / ft 2 76.835 cfm   0.746 kW 
  15.51 kW
 33 000 ft  lb / Hp   1 Hp 
Wk  WI  m g  15.510.830.92  11.84 kW

9. Steam is admitted to the cylinder of an engine in such manner that the average pressure is 120 psi. The
diameter of the piston is 10 inches and the length of stroke is 12 inches. How much work can be done during one
revolution, assuming that the steam is admitted to each side of the piston in succession? [18 850 ft-lb]

2
 2     10   12 
Solution: VD    D L 2n        2  1.091 Ft / cycle
3
 
4     
4 12 12
  
W  p m VD  120 psi 144 in 2 / ft 2 1.091 ft 3 / cycle  18 849.56 ft  lb / cycle

10. One kilogram of liquid having a density of 1200 kg/m3 is mixed with a 2 kg of another liquid having a density of
2000 kg/m3. If the volume of the mixture is the sum of the initial volumes, determine the de4nsity of the mixture.
a) 1636.4 kg/m3 b) 1664.3 kg/m3 c) 1463.6 kg/m3 d) 1364.6 kg/m3

m T m1  m1 m  m2 1 2
Solution:     1   1636 .36 kg / m 3
VT V1  V2 m1 m 2 1 2
 
1 2 1200 2000

11. If the density of a gas is 0.003 slugs per cubic foot, what is the specific weight of the gas in N/m 3.
a) 12.5 b) 21.5 c) 15.2 d) 25.1

 
3
 32.2 lb m  3.28 ft   1 kg 
Solution:   0.003 slugs/ ft 3       1.546 kg / m 3
 slug  1 m   2.205 lb 

 
 
g 1.546 kg / m 3 9.8066 N / kg f 
 15.16 N / m 3
k kg  m
9.8066 2
s  kg f

12. A pump discharges 280 kg/min of water whose specific weight is 920 kg/m 3 (g = 9.765 m/s2). Determine the total
time required to fill a spherical tank 3 meters in diameter.
a) 46.5 minutes b) 45.6 minutes c) 54.5 minutes d) 64.5 minutes

4 4
VT   R 3   33  14.14 m 3
m 280 kg / min
Solution: V    0.3043 m 3 / min
 930 kg / m 3 3 3

VT 14.14
t   46.46 min
V 0.3043

269
 MODULE 5: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE and PROCESSES

Prepared by: Jose R. Francisco, PME, CEM

Instructor

DEFINITIONS AND USEFULL INFORMATION

 Pure substance is a substance that is homogeneous in composition and homogeneous and invariable in
chemical aggregation.
 A substance is said to be pure substance if its chemical compositions do not change even in solid, liquid, or
gaseous phase. Example of which is water that has two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen as it is in
solid, liquid or gaseous state.
 State of pure substance or system refers to its condition as quantified or identified through the thermodynamic
properties of the substance.
 Phase is a quantity of substance that is homogeneous throughout.
 Relevant Reversible Work Modes refers only to the important work modes for the system in question and
irreversible work modes are not considered.
 Reversible work mode refers to the amount of energy added in a forward process that can be removed by the
reversed process.

Additional Thermodynamic Properties

1. Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property with the following definitions:
 For a closed system, it means the sum of internal energy and the product of pressure and specific volume,
and given by the relation:

h  u  pv

Where, h = enthalpy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb p = pressure, kPaa, psia

v = specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb

 For an open system, enthalpy means the sum of internal energy and the flow energy or flow work, and given
by the relation:

H  U  Ef

Where, H = total enthalpy, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min

U = total internal energy, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min
Ef = flow energy or work, kJ. KW, Btu, Btu/min

2. Entropy is a thermodynamic property first introduced by Clausius in 1865 and could be defined as follows:
 Entropy is the measure of the microscopic disorder of the molecules of a substance; It is a thermodynamic
property that remains constant in an adiabatic reversible process; The change of entropy in an irreversible
process is the measure of the unavailable energy; Entropy is also defined as the measure of the
irreversibility of the system or substance; and The change of entropy for a reversible process is given by the
following relation:
 dQ 

s  s 2  s1   
 T rev

Where, s = change of entropy, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR s1 = initial entropy, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR

s2 = final entropy, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR Q = heat transfer during the process, kJ, Btu
T = absolute temperature, oK, oR

Three Phases of Matter or Pure substance

1) Solid phase
2) Liquid phase
3) Vapor or gaseous phase

PHASE DIAGRAMS
 Diagrams hereto are graphical representation of the relation of thermodynamic properties for the change of
phase at constant pressure such as pV, TV, Ts, pT, and ph diagrams.
 Consider the following parameters:
Point sc is subcooled liquid condition Point f is saturated liquid condition
Point x is wet vapor condition Point g is saturated vapor condition
Point sh is superheated vapor condition Point cp is critical point condition
oSH = t – t
sat – tsc
oSC = t
sh sat

1
 tmp = melting point temperature ttp = triple point temperature
tsb = sublimation temperature ptp = triple point pressure
psb = sublimation pressure pc = critical point pressure
tc = triple point temperature p = existing or applied pressure
f – stands for saturated liquid g – stands for saturated vapor
fg – stands for evaporation or process from f to g

 Evaporation (fg) – the process of boiling, liquid to vapor phase

 Condensation (gf) – the process of opposite direction, from vapor to liquid
 Saturated liquid curve – is the locus of all states of saturated liquid.
 Saturated vapor curve – is the locus of all states of saturated vapor.
 Triple point is the state in which three phases may all be present in equilibrium.
 Enthalpy of sublimation, hig,- is the heat of sublimation or the amount of heat required to sublimate the
substance

OTHER DEFINITIONS
 Existing pressure or applied pressure refers to the pressure of the system in which change of phase at
constant pressure is considered.
 Solid water is a condition of water in which the temperature is below the freezing temperature corresponding
to an existing pressure.
 Subcooled liquid is a liquid condition in which the given temperature is higher than the melting temperature
and lower than the saturation or boiling temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.
 Compressed liquid is a liquid condition in which the pressure is higher than saturation pressure
corresponding to the given temperature.
 Saturated liquid is a liquid condition in which boiling or evaporation is about to begin and with the
temperature is equal to the saturation or boiling temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.
 Wet vapor or wet steam is the mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor with the temperature equal to
the saturation temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.
 Saturated vapor/steam or dry and saturated vapor/steam is vapor condition in which evaporation is ended
and condensation is about to begin with the temperature equal to the saturation temperature equal to the
saturation temperature corresponding to an existing pressures.
 Superheated vapor or steam is a vapor in which the temperature is higher than the saturation temperature
corresponding to an existing pressure.
 Heat of fusion is the amount of heat required to change the phase from solid to liquid or vice versa.
 Latent heat or enthalpy of evaporation is the amount of heat required to convert saturated liquid to saturated
vapor; it is the amount of heat required to change saturated liquid to saturated vapor at constant
temperature without changing the pressure.
 Sensible heat is the amount of heat required to change the temperature without changing the pressure.
 Critical point is a point in which liquid and vapor are coexisted in equilibrium.
 Critical pressure is the existing pressure at the critical point. Critical temperature is the temperature at the
critical point corresponding to an existing critical pressure.

o For water, critical pressure, pc = 22.09 MPaa, and critical temperature, tc = 374.14 oC.

 Triple point is a point in which the melting and boiling or saturation temperature are the same corresponding
to the existing pressure.

o For water, at triple point: p = 0.6113 kPaa and t = 0.01 oC

 Sublimation is the process in which solid will directly change from solid to vapor at a temperature
corresponding to an existing pressure.

o For water, sublimation process will occur at p = 0.260 kPaa and t = - 10 oC.

 Super critical condition is a condition above the critical point (p > 22.09 kPaa for water). This is a condition
where there is no liquid or vapor phase of pure substance existing in equilibrium.
 The thermodynamic properties considered in the study of pure substance are:
o Pressure, Mpaa, psia
o Temperature, oC, oF
o Specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb
o Internal energy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
o Enthalpy, kJ/kg/ Btu/lb
o Entropy, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR

2
Figure 1. Tv Diagram
T cp

Superheated temperature, tsh sh

Existing
Pressure, p, line
oSH

f x g Saturated temperature, tsat

oSC

sc Subcooled temperature, tsc

Saturated Vapor
Saturated Liquid Curve
Curve

vf vg
v
Figure 2. pv Diagram

p
cp
Existing pressure or
Saturation pressure, p, line
Superheated
Temperature, tsh
x sh
sc f g
Saturation
Temperature, tsat
Subcooled liquid
Temperature, tsc

v
Figure 3. hs Diagram

h p
cp sh
tsh

g
tsat

f
sc

tsct
s

3
Figure 4. Ts Diagram Saturated Liquid
T Saturated Vapor
curve pc Curve
tc cp p
tsh sh

L-V oSH

tsat x
f g oSC
tsc sc
S-L
tmp ptp

ttp Triple Point psb

tsb
Sublimation
s

Figure 5. pT Diagram
p Critical
Point
Liquid
Melting
Fusion
Curve Evaporation

Vapor
Solid
Evaporation
Curve
Sublimation
Triple Point

Sublimation Curve

T
THERMODYNAMIC SURFACES
 Figure 6 below illustrates the 3-dimensional surface of a substance in the pVT diagram.
 From the p-V-T diagram below
 Line a to b represents a melting process
 Line f to g represents an evaporation process

Figure 6. p-V-T Diagram

a al
Pressure

itic t G
b Cr as
in
Po
iquid

Liq
lid
Va uid-
-L

So
Solid

f po
r
Va
Tri g p or
p le
Lin
e u re
So e ra t
lid mp
-Va Te
p or

Vo
lu me

4
Quality of Vapor/Steam
o Quality of vapor/steam or dryness factor is the ratio of the mass of vapor content in the mixture to that of the
mass of the mixture of vapor and liquid.

mg
x 100%
mf  m g

Moisture Content
o Moisture content is amount of saturated liquid in the mixture of saturated vapor and saturated liquid; it is the
ratio of the mass of saturated liquid to that of the mass of the mixture of saturated liquid and saturated
vapor.
Figure 7. Quality of vapor
mf
y 100 % x  y  100 %
mf  mg

Where, mf = mass of saturated liquid content, kg, lb. mg

mg = mass of saturated vapor content, kg, lb. Liquid Vapor
x = quality of vapor or steam, or dryness factor, % mf
y = moisture content, %
Q
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF EACH STATE

For Subcooled or Compressed Liquid

 To obtain the properties v, u, h, & s, p and t must be given.
 Properties are obtained from steam tables if the given substance is water.
 Values of properties for subcooled liquid must be lower than the properties of saturated liquid as indicated in
the following relations:

v  v f 
   
u   u f 
h  h f 
   
s  s f 

 Subcooled temprature, t, is lower than the saturation temperature corresponding to the existing pressure, p.
 t sc  t sat .
 Quality, x, if computed is negative.
 Subcooled liquid condition is indicated by point sc in the Ts diagram.

For Saturated Liquid

 To obtain the properties, the given property is either pressure or temperature.
 Properties to be obtained are indicated as follows: vf, uf, hf, and sf.
 Temperature is equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.
 The quality of vapor, x = 0
 Moisture content, y = 100 %
 Values of properties of saturated liquid are lower than the properties of wet vapor, and are higher than the
properties of subcooled liquid,

v  v f  v 
     
u   u f   u 
h  h f  h 
     
s  sc s f  s  wet

 Properties for water are obtained from steam tables.

 Saturated liquid condition is indicated by f in the Ts diagram.

For Wet Vapor or Wet Steam

 To obtain the properties, there may have given properties of either pressure & quality of vapor, or
temperature & quality of vapor.

5
  Properties to be obtained are v, u, h, and s.
 Temperature of wet vapor must be equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to an existing
pressure.
 The quality is within the range: 0 % < x < 100 %.
 Moisture content is within the range: 100 % > y > 0 %.
 Values of properties are in accordance with the following relations:

v f  v  v g 
     
u f  u  u g 
   
h f  h 
    h g 
s f  s  wet s 
 g 

 Properties of wet vapor may be computed using the following equations:

     
v  vf  x vfg ; u  u f  x u fg ; h  h f  x h fg ; s  sf  x sfg  
vfg  vg  vf ; u fg  u g  u f ; h fg  h g  h f ; sfg  sg  sf

Where, fg = refers to the properties of evaporation

 Values of fg properties for water are to be obtained directly from steam tables except for v fg.

 Quality of vapor may also be obtained in terms of properties as indicated in the following relations:

 v  vf       
x 100 %   u  u f 100 %   h  h f 100 %   s  sf 100 %
 vfg   u fg   h fg   sfg 
       
Where, the properties v, u, h, and s are of wet vapor.

For the Saturated Vapor

 To obtain the properties of saturated vapor, there may have given properties of either pressure or
temperature.
 The properties to be obtained are indicated by vg, ug, hg, and sg.
 The temperature of saturated vapor must be equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to the
existing pressure; and also equal to the temperature of saturated liquid and wet vapor.
 The quality of saturated vapor is x = 100 %
 The moisture content is y = 0 %.
 The properties of saturated vapor are lower than the properties of superheated vapor and higher than the
properties of wet vapor as indicated in the following relations:

v  v g  v 
     
u  u g  u 
   
h  h 
  h g   
s  wet s  s  sh
 g

For the Properties of Superheated Vapor

 To obtain properties v, u, h, and s, pressure and temperature must be given.
 The given temperature must be higher than the saturation temperature corresponding to the existing
pressure or given pressure
 Values of properties of superheated vapor must always be higher than the properties of saturated vapor as
indicated by the following relations

v g  v
   
u g  u 
  
h 
h g   
s  s  sh
 g

6
  If the given substance is water, values of properties are directly obtained from steam tables.
 If quality x is computed, x > 100 %.
 Superheated vapor condition is indicated by point sh on the Ts diagram

STEAM TABLES
 Steam Tables are tabulations of the values of properties of water for different conditions.
 For the purposes of discussion in this book, values of properties are all obtained from “Steam Tables” (S.I. Units)
by: Keenan, Keyes, Hill, & Moore.
 To obtain the properties of water, the following tables are to be used:
 Table 1. Saturation: Temperatures
o If the given property is temperature, use this table to determine the values saturation pressure,
properties of saturated liquid, properties of wet vapor, properties of saturated vapor, and the properties
of evaporation.
 Table 2. Saturation: Pressures
o If the given property is pressure, use this table to obtain the values of saturation temperature, properties
of saturated liquid, properties of wet vapor, properties of saturated vapor, and properties of evaporation.
 Table 3. Vapor
o Use this table, to determine the properties of superheated steam. With the given p and t, properties v, u,
h, & s are obtained.
 Table 4. Liquid
o Use this table to determine the properties of subcooled and compressed liquid. With the given p & t,
properties v, u, h, & s are obtained.
 Table 5. Critical Region
o Use this table if the given conditions are in the critical region.

PROCESSES OF PURE SUBSTANCE

Isometric Process
 Isometric Process is an internally reversible change of state of a pure substance with the volume remains
the same.

Figure 8. pV & Ts Diagrams (Isometric Process)

p
2 T 2


 Vdp 1

Q
1
V s
Isobaric Process
 Isobaric process is an internally reversible change of state of a pure substance with the pressure remains
the same during the process.

Figure 9. pV & Ts Diagrams (Isobaric Process)

p 2
T

1 2 1


W  pdV Q

s
V
Isothermal Process
 Isothermal Process is an internally reversible constant temperature change of state of a pure substance.

7
Figure 10. pV & Ts Diagrams (Isothermal Process)

p
T

1
1 2
2
Q
W
s
V
Adiabatic Process
 Adiabatic Process is the change of state of a pure substance without heat transfer, either from the system to
the surroundings or from the surroundings to the system.

1. Throttling Process is an adiabatic irreversible process or change of state with no energy leaving the system
as work and the enthalpy does not change during the process.

Example:
a) Throttling Calorimeter is an equipment used in steam power practice to determine the quality of
steam, in which enthalpy does not change during the process.
b) Throttling Valve or Expansion Valve in a vapor-compression refrigeration system is a component
used to reduce the pressure of the system from condenser pressure to evaporator pressure. During
the process, the enthalpy of the refrigerant does not change.

Figure 11. pV & hs Diagrams (Throttling Process)

p h
2

1 1

V s

o As illustrated above, the process in pV diagram is represented by the constant enthalpy curve and
the area under the curve does not represent work because the equipment does no work during the
process. In the hs diagram, the process is represented by a horizontal line which is constant
enthalpy.

2. Isentropic Process is an internally reversible adiabatic process in which entropy does not change during the
process.

Example:
a) Adiabatic turbine expansion process or Adiabatic Nozzle expansion process

Figure 12. pV and Ts Diagrams (Adiabatic Turbine or Nozzle Expansion)

p T
1
1

2 2
V s

o In an adiabatic turbine, during the process enthalpy of the working substance is converted
into mechanical energy while in a nozzle, enthalpy is converted into kinetic energy.
o The same general energy equation for steady flow open system is applied in the analysis
of the process.

8
 b) Adiabatic or isentropic compression process is a process during which the pressure of the
substance is increased without changing the entropy.

Figure 13. pV & Ts Diagrams (Adiabatic or Isentropic Compression)

p T 2
2

1 1
V s

3. Irreversible Adiabatic process is an adiabatic process in which because of irreversibility the entropy during
the process is increased or not constant.

Example:
a) Adiabatic turbine irreversible process

Figure 14. pV & hs Diagrams (Adiabatic Turbine Irreversible Process)

h 1

p
1
2’
2 h = reheat

2 2
’ V s
s

 As illustrated above, process 1 to 2’ represents an adiabatic irreversible turbine expansion process,

which is called as actual turbine process. Process 1 to 2 is the isentropic process.
 The increase in entropy s is due to irreversibility or simply irreversibility and the difference in
enthalpy h = h2’ - h1 is known as reheat.

 Isentropic Efficiency or Turbine efficiency is the ratio of the actual turbine work or the work done during the
irreversible process to that of the isentropic work.

mh  h  h h

W'
100 %  1 2' 100 %  1 2' 100 %
W mh 1  h 2  h1  h 2

b) Adiabatic irreversible compression process is an adiabatic compression process in which because

of irreversibility the entropy during the process is increased.

Figure15. hs Diagram (Adiabatic Irreversible Compression Process)

2’
h 2

s
s

o As shown above, process 1 to 2’, represents the adiabatic irreversible compression process or
actual compression process.
9
  Compression Efficiency is the ratio of the ideal work to that of the actual work during an adiabatic irreversible
compression process.

 mh 2  h 1  h h

W
100 %  100 %  2 1 100 %
W' mh 2'  h 1  h 2'  h 1

Polytropic Process
 Polytropic Process is a process in which compression or expansion does not occur in an efficient machine,
or when heat is absorbed or rejected during the process, and the process is no longer adiabatic and not
reversible.
 Polytropic process differs from the reversible adiabatic process due to the heat flow into or out of the
process or the conversion of mechanical energy into internal (mechanical energy losses in a nonreversible
adiabatic process) or both.
 Polytropic process is an internally reversible process for a vapor by the equation pV n = C, with n as some
constant average value.

Figure 16. pV Diagram (Polytropic Process)

p
1

pVn = C

2
V
dV

SAMPLE AND PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Properties of Pure Substance

1. An 100-liter tank containing a mixture of saturated liquid water and saturated steam at 370 oC. Find the mass of
each phase if their volumes are equal. Given from steam tables at 370 oC: vf = 2.213 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg = 4.925
x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 22.59 kg, 10.15 kg b) 25.29 kg, 10.15 kg c) 22.59 kg, 11.05 kg d) 25.29 kg, 11.05 kg

2. An 100-liter tank containing a mixture of saturated liquid water and saturated steam at 370 oC. Find the volume
occupied by each phase if their masses are equal. Given from steam tables at 370 oC: vf = 2.213 x 10-3 m3/kg
and vg = 4.925 x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 0.690 m3, 0.310 m3 b) 0.069 m3, 0.031 m3 c) 0.069 m3, 0.310 m3 d) 0.690 m3, 0.031 m3

3. Determine the volume occupied by 2.25 kg steam at 8 MPaa and 60 % quality. Given from steam tables at p = 8
MPaa: vf = 1.3842 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg = 23.52 x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 33 liters b) 3.30 liters c) 33 m3 d) 3.3 m3

Isometric Process
4. A rigid container with a volume of 2 000 liters contains 4-kg mixture of saturated water and steam at 120 oC. The
mixture is slowly heated until the liquid content is completely vaporized. Determine the quality of the vapor at the
initial condition. From steam tables, at t1 = 120 oC: vf1 = 1.0603 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg1 = 891.9 x 10-3 m3/kg
a) 56.01 % b) 65.01 % c) 60.15 % d) 51.60 %

5. A closed rigid vessel having a volume of 100 m 3 contains 10 m3 of saturated liquid water and 90 m3 of saturated
water vapor at 1.0 Mpaa. Heat is transferred until the vessel is filled with saturated vapor (with u 2 = 2464.10
kJ/kg). Determine the heat transfer, in kJ. From steam tables: From steam tables at p 1 = 1 MPaa: vf1 = 1.1273 x
10-1 m3/kg, vg1 = 194.44 x 10-1 m3/kg, uf1 = 761.68 kJ/kg, and ufg1 = 1822.0 kJ/kg.
a) 12 046 262.12 kJ b) 15 046 262.12 kJ c) 16 046 262.12 kJ d) 14 046 262.12 kJ

Isobaric Process
6. A piston-cylinder arrangement contains 100 liters of saturated water and 900 liters of saturated steam in
equilibrium at 1 MPaa. Heat is added at constant pressure until the temperature becomes 300 oC. Determine the
total mass. At 1 MPaa, vf1 = 1.1273 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg1 = 194.44 x 10-3 m3/kg; and tt point 2, p2 = 1 MPaa and t2
= 300 oC, v2 = 257.9 x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 94.33 kg b) 93.34 kg c) 49.33 kg d) 39.34 kg

10
7. A piston-cylinder arrangement contains 100 liters of saturated water and 900 liters of saturated steam in
equilibrium at 1 MPaa. Heat is added at constant pressure until the temperature becomes 300 oC. Determine the
quality of vapor at initial condition. At 1 MPaa, v f1 = 1.1273 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg1 = 194.44 x 10-3 m3/kg; and tt
point 2, p2 = 1 MPaa and t2 = 300 oC, v2 = 257.9 x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 4.96 % b) 6.94 % c) 9.46 % d) 6.49 %

8. A piston-cylinder arrangement contains 100 liters of saturated water and 900 liters of saturated steam in
equilibrium at 1 MPaa. Heat is added at constant pressure until the temperature becomes 300 oC. Determine the
final volume. At 1 MPaa, vf1 = 1.1273 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg1 = 194.44 x 10-3 m3/kg; and tt point 2, p2 = 1 MPaa and
t2 = 300 oC, v2 = 257.9 x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 27.04 m3 b) 14.07 m3 c) 24.07 m3 d) 17.04 m3

9. A piston-cylinder arrangement contains 100 liters of saturated water and 900 liters of saturated steam in
equilibrium at 1 MPaa. Heat is added at constant pressure until the temperature becomes 300 oC. Determine the
work done during the process. At 1 MPaa, vf1 = 1.1273 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg1 = 194.44 x 10-3 m3/kg; and tt point 2,
p2 = 1 MPaa and t2 = 300 oC, v2 = 257.9 x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 20 370 kJ b) 23 070 kJ c) 27 030 kJ d) 20 307 kJ

10. Steam at a pressure of 0.9 MPaa (hf = 743 kJ/kg, hfg = 2031 kJ/kg) is generated in an exhaust gas boiler from
feed water at 80 oC (h = 334.9 kJ/kg). If the dryness factor of the steam is 0.96, determine the heat transfer per
kg steam.
a) 2357.86 kJ/kg b) 2573.86 kJ/kg c) 2375.86 kJ/kg d) 2753.86 kJ/kg

11. If a wet steam at 0.8 MPaa (hfg = 2048 kJ/kg) requires 82 kJ of heat per kg of steam to completely dry it, what is
the dryness fraction of the wet steam?
a) 0.96 b) 0.69 c) 0.86 d) 0.68

12. The quality of steam that gives up 2000 KJ/kg while condensing to water at constant pressure at 101.235 KPa is
about?
a) 88.6% b) 86.8 % c) 68.8 % d) 66.8 %

13. A steam condenser receives 10kg/s of steam with an enthalpy of 2570kJ/kg. The steam condenses into a liquid
and leaves with an enthalpy of 160kJ/kg. If cooling water passes through the condenser with temperature rise
from 13OC to 24OC, calculate the water flow rate, kg/sec.
a) 325.2 kg/s b) 532.2 kg/s c) 523.2 kg/sec d) 322.5 kg/s

14. In an open feedwater heater for a steam plant, saturated steam at 700kPa is mixed with subcooled liquid at
700kPa and 25OC. Just enough steam is supplied to ensure that the mixed steam leaving the heater will be
saturated liquid at 700 kPa when heater efficiency is 90%. What will be the mass flow rate of the subcooled liquid
if steam flow rate is 0.865kg/sec. Steam properties:@ 700kPa, saturated steam, h = 2763.5 kJ/kg; @ 700 kPa,
25OC, hf = 105.5 kJ/kg; @700kPa, hf = 697.22 kJ/kg.
a) 2.72 kg/s b) 27.2 kg/s c) 7.22 kg/s d) 22.7 kg/

15. Steam enters the super-heaters of a boiler at a pressure of 2 MPaa (h f = 909 kJ/kg, hfg = 1890 kJ/kg, vf = 1.1767
x 10-3 m3/kg, vg = 99.63 x 10-3 m3/kg, and x = 98 %) and leaves at the same pressure at a temperature of 350 oC
(h = 3138 kJ/kg, v = 13.86 x 10-3 m3/kg). Determine the percent increase in volume due to drying and
superheating.
a) 24 % b) 34 % c) 42 % d) 52 %

Isothermal Process
16. Assume 3 kg of steam initially saturated at 320 oC are heated at constant temperature. If during the non-flow
process the heat transferred in kJ is numerically equal to half the initial enthalpy. Determine the heat transfer.
From steam tables at 320 oC, hg = 2 700.1 kJ/kg.
a) 4050.15 kJ b) 4500.15 kJ c) 4005.15 kJ d) 4150.10 kJ

17. Assume 3 kg of steam initially saturated at 320 oC are heated at constant temperature. If during the non-flow
process the heat transferred in kJ is numerically equal to half the initial enthalpy. Determine the change in
entropy. From steam tables at 320 oC, hg = 2 700.1 kJ/kg.
a) 6.8299 kJ/kg-K b) 6.8299 kJ/K c) 2.2766 kJ/kg-K d) 2.2766 kJ/K

18. Four kg of steam at 320 oC contain 20 % moisture. After addition of heat at constant temperature the pressure
becomes 2.5 MPaa. Determine the heat transferred, in kJ. From steam tables at 320 oC, sf = 3.4480 kJ/kg-K and
sfg1 = 2.0882 kJ/kg-K; and at 2.5 MPaa and 320 oC, s = 6.7258 kJ/kg-oK.
a) 3812.37 kJ b) 3182.37 kJ c) 3218.37 kJ d) 3128.37 kJ

11
19. Four kg of steam at 320 oC contain 20 % moisture. After addition of heat at constant temperature the pressure
becomes 2.5 MPaa. Determine the change of entropy. From steam tables at 320 oC, sf = 3.4480 kJ/kg-K and sfg1
= 2.0882 kJ/kg-K; and at 2.5 MPaa and 320 oC, s = 6.7258 kJ/kg-oK.
a) 6.4289 kJ/kg-K b) 6.4289 kJ/K c) 4.6289 kJ/kg-K d) 4.6289 kJ/K

Adiabatic Process
20. Steam leaves an industrial boiler at 0.83 MPaa (h f = 727.25 kJ/kg, hfg = 2043.2 kJ/kg). A portion of the steam is
passed through a throttling calorimeter and exhausted to the atmosphere when the calorimeter pressure is 101.4
kPaa and a temperature of 115.6 oC (h = 2707.52 kJ/kg). How much moisture does the steam leaving the boiler
contain?
a) 3.08 % b) 2.08 % c) 8.03 % d) 1.08 %

21. Steam flows into a turbine at the rate of 10 kg/s and 75 KW of heat are lost from the turbine. Ignoring elevation
and kinetic energy effects, calculate the power output from the turbine if the difference of enthalpy from the
turbine entrance and exhaust is 438.5 KJ/kg.
a) 4130 kW b) 4310 KW c) 3410 kW d) 4130 kW

22. Steam flows steadily through a turbine at a rate of 6.95 kg/sec entering at 8 MPa and 450 °C and leaving at 30
KPa as saturated vapor. If the power generated by the turbine is 4MW, determine the rate of heat loss from the
steam. Steam properties: 8 MPa, 450°C; h = 3272 KJ/kg and 30 KPa, steam saturated; h = 2625.3 KJ/kg.
a) 494 KW b) 449 kW c) 393 kW d) 339 kW

23. Steam enters a turbine with an enthalpy of 3000 KJ/kg and exits at 2400 KJ/kg. When the turbine efficiency is
85%, calculate the steam exhaust enthalpy in KJ/Kg.
a) 2940 b) 2490 c) 2094 d) 2409

Other Problems
24. Steam turbine receives 5000Kg/hr of steam at 5 MPa and 400°C and velocity of 25 m/s. It leaves the turbine at
0.006 MPa and 15% wetness and velocity of 20 m/s, radiation loss is 10,000 kJ/hr. Find the KW power
developed.
a) 1373.29 KW b) 1733.29 kW c) 1337.29 kW d) 1729.33 kW

25. A turbo-generator is supplied with superheated steam at a pressure of 3 MPaa and temperature of 350 oC (h =
3117 kJ/kg). The pressure of the exhaust steam from the turbine is 6 kPaa (h f = 152 kJ/kg, hfg = 2415 kJ/kg) with
a quality of 88 %. If the turbine uses 0.25 kg/s, calculate the power equivalent of the total enthalpy drop in the
turbine. [209.95 kW]

26. Steam enters the super-heaters of a boiler at a pressure of 2 MPaa (h f = 909 kJ/kg, hfg = 1890 kJ/kg, vf = 1.1767
x 10-3 m3/kg, vg = 99.63 x 10-3 m3/kg, and x = 98 %) and leaves at the same pressure at a temperature of 350 oC
(h = 3138 kJ/kg, v = 13.86 x 10-3 m3/kg). Determine the percent increase in volume due to drying and
superheating. [42 %]

12
 MODULE 5: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE and PROCESSES
(Solved Sample Problems)

Prepared by: Jose R. Francisco, PME, CEM

Instructor

Properties of Pure Substance

1. An 100-liter tank containing a mixture of saturated liquid water and saturated steam at 370 oC. Find the mass of
each phase if their volumes are equal. Given from steam tables at 370 oC: vf = 2.213 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg = 4.925
x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 22.59 kg, 10.15 kg b) 25.29 kg, 10.15 kg c) 22.59 kg, 11.05 kg d) 25.29 kg, 11.05 kg

Solution:
vf = 2.213 x 10-3 m3/kg vg = 4.925 x 10-3 m3/kg

VT
For the Volume of each phase: Vf  Vg   0.05 m 3 Vg
2 Vapor mg
oC
t = 370
For the mass of liquid phase: Vf mf
Liquid
3
Vf 0.05 m
mf    22.59 kg
v f 2.213 x 10 3 m 3 / kg

For the mass of vapor phase:

Vg 0.05 m 3
mg    10 .15 kg
vg 4.925 x 10 3 m 3 / kg

2. An 100-liter tank containing a mixture of saturated liquid water and saturated steam at 370 oC. Find the volume
occupied by each phase if their masses are equal. Given from steam tables at 370 oC: vf = 2.213 x 10-3 m3/kg and
vg = 4.925 x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 0.690 m3, 0.310 m3 b) 0.069 m3, 0.031 m3 c) 0.069 m3, 0.310 m3 d) 0.690 m3, 0.031 m3

Solution:
vf = 2.213 x 10-3 m3/kg vg = 4.925 x 10-3 m3/kg

Vf Vg
Considering the mass, mf  mg  
vf vg Vg Vapor mg
 vf   2.213  t = 370 oC
Then, Vf  Vg   V  0.44934 Vg
  4.925  g
Eq. 1
 vg Liquid
  Vf mf

Consider the total volume, Vf  Vg  VT  0.10

Vf  0.10  Vg Eq. 2

Equating eq. 1 and eq. 2, 0.44934 Vg  0.10  Vg

0.10
Vg   0.069 m 3 ans
1.44934

Then, Vf  0.10  Vg  0.10  0.069  0.031 m 3 ans

3. Determine the volume occupied by 2.25 kg steam at 8 MPaa and 60 % quality. Given from steam tables at p = 8
MPaa: vf = 1.3842 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg = 23.52 x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 33 liters b) 3.30 liters c) 33 m3 d) 3.3 m3
 Solution:

From steam tables, at p = 8 MPaa:

vf = 1.3842 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg = 23.52 x 10-3 m3/kg Saturated

Liquid
For the specific volume of wet vapor, Saturated
Vapor
 
v  v f  x v g  v f  1.3842  0.60 23.52  1.3842 10 3
v = 14.66568 x 10-3 m3/kg

Then, for the volume occupied by the 2.25 kg wet vapor,

 
V  m v  2.25 14 .66568 x 10 3  0.033 m 3  33 liters

Isometric Process
4. A rigid container with a volume of 2 000 liters contains 4-kg mixture of saturated water and steam at 120 oC. The
mixture is slowly heated until the liquid content is completely vaporized. Determine the quality of the vapor at the
initial condition. From steam tables, at t1 = 120 oC: vf1 = 1.0603 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg1 = 891.9 x 10-3 m3/kg
a) 56.01 % b) 65.01 % c) 60.15 % d) 51.60 %

Solution:
T
From steam tables, at t1 = 120 oC,
vf1 = 1.0603 x 10-3 m3/kg t2 2
vg1 = 891.9 x 10-3 m3/kg

Solving for the initial specific volume of the mixture,

t1 =120 oC
V 2 m3
v1  1   0.5 m 3 / kg  500 x 10 3 m 3 / kg 1
m 4 kg V1 = V2
V

For the quality of steam at initial condition,

 v  vf 1   
x1   1  100 %    v1  v f 1  100 % 
 v fg 1   v g1  v f 1 
   

 500  1.0603 
x1    100 %  56 .01 %
 891 .9  1.0603 

5. A closed rigid vessel having a volume of 100 m 3 contains 10 m3 of saturated liquid water and 90 m3 of saturated
water vapor at 1.0 Mpaa. Heat is transferred until the vessel is filled with saturated vapor (with u 2 = 2464.10 kJ/kg).
Determine the heat transfer, in kJ. From steam tables: From steam tables at p1 = 1 MPaa: vf1 = 1.1273 x 10-3 m3/kg,
vg1 = 194.44 x 10-3 m3/kg, uf1 = 761.68 kJ/kg, and ufg1 = 1822.0 kJ/kg.
a) 12 046 262.12 kJ b) 15 046 262.12 kJ c) 16 046 262.12 kJ d) 14 046 262.12 kJ

Solution: u = uf + x(ufg)

Heat Transfer, Q  U  m u   m u 2  u 1 

T
 mg 
For the x1, x1    100 %  t2
 mf  mg  2
 
V 10 m3
For mf, m f 1  f 1   8870.75 kg
v f 1 1.1273 x 103 m3 / kg p1 = 1.0 MPaa
1
V
V1 = V2
 Vg1 90 m 3
For the mg, m g1    462 .87 kg
v g1 194 .44 x 10 3 m 3 / kg

 m g1 
 100 %    
 8 870 .75  462 .87  100 %   4.96 %
462 .87
For the x1, x1  
 m f 1  m g1   
 

Total Mass, m = mf1 + mg1 = 8 870.75 + 462.87 = 9 333.62 kg

For u1,  
u1  u f 1  x1 u fg 1  761 .68  0.0496 1822 .0  852 .05 kJ / kg

Heat Transfer, Q  U  m u   m u 2  u 1 

Q  9333 .62 2464 .1  852 .05   15 046 262 .12 kJ

Isobaric Process
6. A piston-cylinder arrangement contains 100 liters of saturated water and 900 liters of saturated steam in equilibrium
at 1 MPaa. Heat is added at constant pressure until the temperature becomes 300 oC. Determine the total mass.
At 1 MPaa, vf1 = 1.1273 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg1 = 194.44 x 10-3 m3/kg; and tt point 2, p2 = 1 MPaa and t2 = 300 oC, v2
= 257.9 x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 94.33 kg b) 93.34 kg c) 49.33 kg d) 39.34 kg

Solution:

Vf 0.10 m3
For mf, mf    88.71 kg
v f 1.1273 x 103 m3 / kg Vg1

Vf1
Vg 3
0.90 m
For mg, mg    4.63 kg
vg 194 .44 x 10 3 m 3 / kg
Q
For the total mass, m  m f  m g  88 .71  4.63  93 .34 kg

7. A piston-cylinder arrangement contains 100 liters of saturated water and 900 liters of saturated steam in equilibrium
at 1 MPaa. Heat is added at constant pressure until the temperature becomes 300 oC. Determine the quality of
vapor at initial condition. At 1 MPaa, vf1 = 1.1273 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg1 = 194.44 x 10-3 m3/kg; and tt point 2, p2 = 1
MPaa and t2 = 300 oC, v2 = 257.9 x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 4.96 % b) 6.94 % c) 9.46 % d) 6.49 %

Solution:
Vf 0.10 m3 p
For mf, mf    88.71 kg
v f 1.1273 x 103 m3 / kg
1 1.0 MPaa 2
Vg 0.90 m 3
For mg, m    4.63 kg
v g 194 .44 x 10 3 m 3 / kg
g

For the total mass, m  m f  m g  88 .71  4.63  93 .34 kg V

For the quality of vapor at initial condition,

 m g1 
 100 %    
 8 8.71  4.63  100 %   4.96 %
4.63
x1  
 m f 1  m g1   
 
8. A piston-cylinder arrangement contains 100 liters of saturated water and 900 liters of saturated steam in equilibrium
at 1 MPaa. Heat is added at constant pressure until the temperature becomes 300 oC. Determine the final volume.
At 1 MPaa, vf1 = 1.1273 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg1 = 194.44 x 10-3 m3/kg; and tt point 2, p2 = 1 MPaa and t2 = 300 oC, v2
= 257.9 x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 27.04 m3 b) 14.07 m3 c) 24.07 m3 d) 17.04 m3

Solution:
Vf 0.10 m3 p
For mf, mf    88.71 kg
v f 1.1273 x 103 m3 / kg
1 1.0 MPaa 2
Vg 0.90 m 3
For mg, m g    4.63 kg
v g 194 .44 x 10 3 m 3 / kg

For the total mass, m  m f  m g  88 .71  4.63  93 .34 kg V

For the final volume,  

V2  m v 2  93 .34 kg  257 .9 x 10 3 m 3 / kg  24 .07 m 3

9. A piston-cylinder arrangement contains 100 liters of saturated water and 900 liters of saturated steam in equilibrium
at 1 MPaa. Heat is added at constant pressure until the temperature becomes 300 oC. Determine the work done
during the process. At 1 MPaa, vf1 = 1.1273 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg1 = 194.44 x 10-3 m3/kg; and tt point 2, p2 = 1 MPaa
and t2 = 300 oC, v2 = 257.9 x 10-3 m3/kg.
a) 20 370 kJ b) 23 070 kJ c) 27 030 kJ d) 20 307 kJ

Solution:
Vf 0.10 m3 p
For mf, mf    88.71 kg
v f 1.1273 x 103 m3 / kg
1 1.0 MPaa 2
Vg 0.90 m 3
For mg, m g    4.63 kg
v g 194 .44 x 10 3 m 3 / kg

For the total mass, m  m f  m g  88 .71  4.63  93 .34 kg V

For the final volume,  

V2  m v 2  93 .34 kg  257 .9 x 10 3 m 3 / kg  24 .07 m 3

For the Work Done during the process,

 
W  p dV  p V2  V1   1000 kN / m 2 24 .07 m 3  1.0 m 3  23 070 kJ
1
2

10. Steam at a pressure of 0.9 MPaa (hf = 743 kJ/kg, hfg = 2031 kJ/kg) is generated in an exhaust gas boiler from feed
water at 80 oC (h = 334.9 kJ/kg). If the dryness factor of the steam is 0.96, determine the heat transfer per kg
steam.
a) 2357.86 kJ/kg b) 2573.86 kJ/kg c) 2375.86 kJ/kg d) 2753.86 kJ/kg

Solution:
p2 = p2 = 0.90 MPaa
T
For the h2, h 2  h f 2  x 2 h fg 2
2
h 2  743 .0  0.96 2031   2692 .76 kJ / kg 1
x1 = 70 %

For the Heat Added,

q A  h 2  h1  2692 .76  334 .9  2357 .86 kJ / kg

s
11. If a wet steam at 0.8 MPaa (hfg = 2048 kJ/kg) requires 82 kJ of heat per kg of steam to completely dry it, what is
the dryness fraction of the wet steam?
a) 0.96 b) 0.69 c) 0.86 d) 0.68

Solution: p2 = p1 = 0.80 MPaa

Heat Added, q A  h 2  h1 T


h1  h f  x1h fg  h f  x1 h g  h f  1 2
f x1 = 70 % g
q A  h g  h f  x1h fg  h fg  x1h fg

h fg  q A 2048  82
x1    0.959961 0.96 s
h fg 2048

12. The quality of steam that gives up 2000 KJ/kg while condensing to water at constant pressure at 101.235 KPa is
about?
a) 88.6% b) 86.8 % c) 68.8 % d) 66.8 %

Solution: p2 = p1 = 101.325 kPaa

T
At 101.325 kPaa, hfg = 2257 kJ/kg = 970.3 Btu/lb
2 1
q R  h 2  h1 x1 = 70 %

Where, h1  h f  x1h fg
q R  h 2  h f  x1h fg   x1h fg
s
q   2000 kJ / kg 
x1   R      0.8861 or 88 .61 %
h fg  2257 kJ / kg 

13. A steam condenser receives 10 kg/s of steam with an enthalpy of 2570 kJ/kg. The steam condenses into a liquid
and leaves with an enthalpy of 160kJ/kg. If cooling water passes through the condenser with temperature rise from
13OC to 24OC, calculate the water flow rate, kg/sec.
a) 325.2 kg/s b) 532.2 kg/s c) 523.2 kg/sec d) 322.5 kg/s

Solution:
p1 = p2
Qc  Q cw T
2 1
Qc  m h 2  h1   10 160  2570    24 100 kJ / s x1 = 70

Q cw  m cw c p t out  t in   m cw 4.187 24  13 

s
Qc 24 100 kJ / s
m   523 .26 kg / s
c p T  4.187 kJ / kg  K 11 K 

Isothermal Process
14. Assume 3 kg of steam initially saturated at 320 oC are heated at constant temperature. If during the non-flow
process the heat transferred in kJ is numerically equal to half the initial enthalpy. Determine the heat transfer. From
steam tables at 320 oC, hg = 2 700.1 kJ/kg.
a) 4050.15 kJ b) 4500.15 kJ c) 4005.15 kJ d) 4150.10 kJ
 Solution:
Solving for the heat transfer,

h   2700.1 
Q  m 1   3   4 050.15 kJ
 
2  2 

p1
p2
1 t1 = t2 = 320 oC 2

15. Assume 3 kg of steam initially saturated at 320 oC are heated at constant temperature. If during the non-flow
process the heat transferred in kJ is numerically equal to half the initial enthalpy. Determine the change in entropy.
From steam tables at 320 oC, hg = 2 700.1 kJ/kg.
a) 6.8299 kJ/kg-K b) 6.8299 kJ/K c) 2.2766 kJ/kg-K d) 2.2766 kJ/K

Solution:
Solving for the heat transfer,

h   2700.1 
Q  m 1   3   4 050.15 kJ
 
2  2 

Solving for the final entropy, at point 2, t2 = 320 oC

2 dQ Q 4 050.15
S  S2  S1  1 T
 
T 320  273
 6.8299 kJ / K

16. Four kg of steam at 320 oC contain 20 % moisture. After addition of heat at constant temperature the pressure
becomes 2.5 MPaa. Determine the change of entropy. From steam tables at 320 oC, sf = 3.4480 kJ/kg-K and sfg1
= 2.0882 kJ/kg-K; and at 2.5 MPaa and 320 oC, s = 6.7258 kJ/kg-oK.
a) 6.4289 kJ/kg-K b) 6.4289 kJ/K c) 4.6289 kJ/kg-K d) 4.6289 kJ/K

Solution:
T

p1
p2
1 t1 = t2 = 320 oC 2

For the value of s1, s1  

 s f 1  x1 s fg 1  3.4480  0.80 2.0882   5.11856 kJ / kg  K

For the Change of Entropy,

S  m s 2  s1   4 kg 6.7258  5.11856 kJ / kg  K   6.42896 kJ / K

17. Four kg of steam at 320 oC contain 20 % moisture. After addition of heat at constant temperature the pressure
becomes 2.5 MPaa. Determine the heat transferred, in kJ. From steam tables at 320 oC, sf = 3.4480 kJ/kg-K and
sfg1 = 2.0882 kJ/kg-K; and at 2.5 MPaa and 320 oC, s = 6.7258 kJ/kg-oK.
a) 3812.37 kJ b) 3182.37 kJ c) 3218.37 kJ d) 3128.37 kJ
 Solution:
T

p1
p2
1 o
t1 = t2 = 320 C 2

For the value of s1, s1  

 s f 1  x1 s fg 1  3.4480  0.80 2.0882   5.11856 kJ / kg  K

   
For the heat transfer, Q  mT s 2  s1  4 320  273 6.7258  5.11858  3 812 .37 kJ 
Other Solution for Q,

Q  mT s   S  T  6.42896 kJ / K 320  273   3 812 .37 kJ

Adiabatic Process
18. Steam leaves an industrial boiler at 0.83 MPaa (h f = 727.25 kJ/kg, hfg = 2043.2 kJ/kg). A portion of the steam is
passed through a throttling calorimeter and exhausted to the atmosphere when the calorimeter pressure is 101.4
kPaa and a temperature of 115.6 oC (h = 2707.52 kJ/kg). How much moisture does the steam leaving the boiler
contain?
a) 3.08 % b) 2.08 % c) 8.03 % d) 1.08 %

Solution:
For Throttling process, h1 = h2 1

Industrial
h f 1  x1h fg 1  h 2 Boiler Throttling
Calorimete
r
h 2  h f 1  2707.52  727.25 
x1    100 %  96.92 % 2
h fg 1  2043.2 

y1  100  x1  100  96 .92  3.08 %

19. Steam flows into a turbine at the rate of 10 kg/s and 75 KW of heat are lost from the turbine. Ignoring elevation
and kinetic energy effects, calculate the power output from the turbine if the difference of enthalpy from the turbine
entrance and exhaust is 438.5 KJ/kg.
a) 4130 kW b) 4310 KW c) 3410 kW d) 4130 kW

Solution: Q  H  PE  KE  W PE = 0 KE = 0

W  Q  H  Q  mh  1
W

W   75 kW   10 kg / s  438 .5 kJ / kg   4 310 kW

2

20. Steam flows steadily through a turbine at a rate of 6.95 kg/sec entering at 8 MPa and 450 °C and leaving at 30
KPa as saturated vapor. If the power generated by the turbine is 4MW, determine the rate of heat loss from the
steam. Steam properties: 8 MPa, 450°C; h = 3272 KJ/kg and 30 KPa, steam saturated; h = 2625.3 KJ/kg.
a) 494 KW b) 449 kW c) 393 kW d) 339 kW

Solution: Q  H  PE  KE  W PE = 0 KE = 0

Q  mh 2  h1   W
 Q  6.95 kg / s 2625 .3  3272 kJ / kg   4 000 kW  494 .6 kW

h t1 = 450 oC 1

W 2’
1 p1 = 8 MPaa

2 2
p2 = 30 kPaa
Q

21. Steam enters a turbine with an enthalpy of 3000 KJ/kg and exits at 2400 KJ/kg. When the turbine efficiency is 85%,
calculate the steam exhaust enthalpy in KJ/Kg.
a) 2940 b) 2490 c) 2094 d) 2409

Solution:
h h1 = 3000 kJ/kg 1
100 %  h1  h 2 100 %
'
W'
t 
W h1  h 2
2’

h '2  h1  t h1  h 2 
2

h '2  3000  0.85 3000  2400   2490 kJ / kg

h2 = 2400 kJ/kg

s
Other Problems
22. Steam turbine receives 5000 kg/hr of steam at 5 MPa and 400°C (h = 3195.7 kJ/kg) and velocity of 25 m/s. It
leaves the turbine at 0.006 MPa (hf = 151.53 kJ/kg, hfg = 2415.9 kJ/kg) and 15% wetness and velocity of 20 m/s,
radiation loss is 10,000 kJ/hr. Find the KW power developed.
a) 1373.29 KW b) 1733.29 kW c) 1337.29 kW o d) 1729.33 kW
h t1 = 400 C 1

Solution: Q  H  PE  KE  W PE = 0

 
2’
m V22  V12 P1 = 5 MPaa
Q  mh 2  h1   W
2000 2

W  Q  mh 2  h1  

m V22  V12  p2 = 0.006 MPaa

2000
s
For h2: h 2  h f 2  x 2 h fg 2  151 .53  0.85 2415 .9  2205 .05 kJ / kg

W
 10 000    5000 2205 .05  3195 .7    5000  20 2  25 2 
   
3600  3600   3600  2000
W  1 373 .28 kW

23. A turbo-generator is supplied with superheated steam at a pressure of 3 MPaa and temperature of 350 oC (h =
3117 kJ/kg). The pressure of the exhaust steam from the turbine is 6 kPaa (h f = 152 kJ/kg, hfg = 2415 kJ/kg) with
a quality of 88 %. If the turbine uses 0.25 kg/s, calculate the power equivalent of the total enthalpy drop in the
turbine. [209.95 kW]

Solution: Q  H  PE  KE  W

W   mh 2  h1   mh1  h 2 
h 2  h f 2  x 2 h fg 2  152  0.88 2415   2277 .2 kJ / kg
W  0.25 3117  2277 .2   209 .95 kW
MODULE 6: VAPOR POWER CYCLE – RANKINE CYCLE

Prepared by: Jose R. Francisco, PME, CEM

Instructor

DEFINITION
 Vapor Power cycles are thermodynamic cycles using pure substance as

a working fluid. Power is produced through cyclic processes from liquid to

vapor then from vapor to liquid.

CARNOT CYCLE
 Carnot Cycle is the most efficient power cycle possible operating

between two given temperature levels. It is often used as a standard

against which the performance characteristics of other heat engine
cycles are measured. It is a reversible four-process cycle as shown in the
schematic and Ts diagrams below.

Figure 1. Schematic & Ts Diagrams, Carnot Cycle

QA
T

Boiler
4 1 4 1
Wp Wt TH
Pump Turbine

3 2
Condenser TL
3 2
s
QR

Processes
Process 1-2: Adiabatic turbine expansion process
Process 2-3: Constant temperature heat rejection process
Process 3-4: Adiabatic pumping process
Process 4-1: Constant temperature heat addition process

Difficulties in Carnot Cycle

o Turbine will have to handle steam with low quality. Steam with quality
less than 90 % has too much moisture, and the liquid impingement
and erosion of the turbine blades is detrimental.
o Difficulties in designing a device to compress or pump the liquid-vapor
mixture and difficulty of controlling a partial condensation process.

RANKINE CYCLE
 Rankine Cycle – is an ideal thermodynamic power cycle that
approximates the simple steam power plant cycle. This cycle is the
modification of Carnot cycle for simple steam power plant cycle
application. It is used for such application because of its simplicity,
1
 practicability, historical importance, and other more complex cycles may
be regarded as modification of the Rankine cycle.
Figure 2. Schematic & Ts Diagrams t1 1
T

1 Wk p1
Wt
Steam
Generator Turbine
Electric
2
Generator B
Condenser
QA QR p2
B Pump
3
3 2
s
Wp

Processes:
Process 1-2: Adiabatic turbine expansion process (isentropic)
Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat rejection process
Process 3-B: Adiabatic pumping process
Process B-1: Constant pressure heat addition process
CYCLE ANALYSIS
 Heat Added to the Cycle

 Consider the steam generator as steady flow open system, process 3

to B, and apply general energy equation from the first law of
thermodynamics.

Q = H + P + K + W; Where, P  0, K  0, & W = 0

Then, QA = H = ms (h1 – hB)

\Where,
QA = heat added to the steam generator, kW, Hp
ms = steam mass flow rate or throttled steam mass flow rate, kg/s, lb/min
h1 = enthalpy of steam leaving the steam generator, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
hB = enthalpy of feed water entering the steam generator, kJ/kg, Btu/lb

 For Unit mass: qA = h1 – hB kJ/kg, Btu/lb

 Heat Rejected by the Cycle

 Consider the condenser as steady flow open system and from first low
of thermodynamics.

Q = H + P + K + W; Where, P  0, K  0, & W = 0

2
 Then, QR = H = ms (h3 – h2) = - ms (h2 – h3)

o The negative sign indicates that heat is rejected by the

system.

Where,
QR = heat rejected, kW, Hp
ms = steam mass flow rate or throttled steam mass flow rate, kg/s, lb/min
h2 = enthalpy of steam entering the condenser, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
h2 = enthalpy of saturated liquid leaving the condenser, kJ/kg, Btu/lb

 For Unit Mass, qR = - (h2 – h3) kJ/kg, Btu/lb

 Turbine Work or Turbine Power Output

 Consider the steam turbines as steady flow open system and applying
the first law of thermodynamics.

Q = H + P + K + W; Where, P  0, K  0, & Q = 0

Then, Wt = - H = - ms (h2 – h1) = ms (h1 – h2)

Where,
W t = turbine work or turbine power output, kW, Hp
ms = steam mass flow rate or throttled steam mass flow rate, kg/s, lb/min
h1 = enthalpy of steam entering the turbine, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
h2 = enthalpy of steam at the turbine exhaust, kJ/kg, Btu/lb

 For Unit Mass, wt = h1 – h2 kJ/kg, Btu/lb

 Pump Work or Pump Power Input

 Consider the pump as steady flow open system and apply the first law
of thermodynamics.

Q = H + P + K + W; Where, P  0, K  0, & Q = 0

Then, Wp = - H = - ms (hB – h3) Wp  ms  hB  h3 

Where,
W p = pump work, kW, negative sign indicates work is done to the system.

Wp  absolute pump work, kW, Hp

3
  For Unit Mass: w p  h B  h 3  kJ/kg, Btu/lb
 Approximate Pump work
 The state of water at the pump discharge is compressed liquid and
tables to obtain its properties are usually unavailable, exact pump
work is not easily determined.

Q = U + Ef + P + K + W

Where, Q = 0, U = 0, P = 0, & K = 0

Then, Wp  E f  ms  pB v B  p3 v 3 

But, pB = p1, p3 = p2, & v3 = vB = vf2

Therefore, Wp   ms v 3  p1  p 2 

Wp  ms v3 p1  p2 

 For Unit Mass, Wp   v f 2  p1  p2  kJ/kg, Btu/lb

 Determination for the Value of hB

 Equating the equations of the pump work:

Wp = - ms (hB – h3) = - ms v3 (pB – p3);  (hB – h3) = v3 (p1 – p2)

h B  h 3  v 3 p 1  p 2   h f 2  v f 2 P1  P2 

 Net Work of the Cycle or the Cycle Net Work

 First law of thermodynamics states that “when a system is
undergoing a cyclic change the net heat added to the system is
equal to the net work produced by the system”.

Qnet = Wnet = Wt - Wp

Wnet = ms(h1 – h2) - ms(hB – h3) = ms[(h1 – h2) - (hB – h3)]

For Unit Mass, wnet = (h1 – h2) - (hB – h3) kJ/kg, Btu/lb

4
 Cycle Thermal Efficiency: Cycle thermal efficiency is the ratio of network
produced of the cycle to that of the heat added to the cycle.

Wnet m h  h   h B  h 3 
e th  100 %  s 1 2 100 %
QA m s h 1  h B 

 Steam Rate of the cycle: Steam rate, , of a Rankine cycle is the amount
of steam, say in kg, required to produce a unit net work, say one kW, in
one hour.

3600 m s 3600
 or  
Wnet w net

Where,  = steam rate, kg / kW-hr

ms = mass flow rate of steam, kg/s.
Wnet = net work of the cycle, kW.
wnet = unit mass net work of the cycle, kJ / kg.

 Heat Rate of the Cycle: Heat Rate, HR, is the amount of heat required to
produce a unit net work of the cycle or the amount of heat input, say in
kJ, to produce net work, say one kW, in one hour.

3 600 QA
HR 
Wnet

Where, HR = heat rate, kJ / kW-hr

QA = heat added, k
Wnet = net work of the cycle, kW

ACTUAL RANKINE CYCLE

 Rankine Cycle is said to be actual and irreversible due to the presence of

one or all of the following conditions: Pressure drop at the steam

generator process and or pressure drop on the steam line (process B to
1) or p1 < pB; Turbine expansion process is irreversible and not isentropic
(s1  s2); Pressure drop at the condenser (p2 > p3) and or sub-cooling
liquid occurs at the condenser outlet; and Pumping process is irreversible
or pump is inefficient

5
 Actual Turbine Work or Actual Turbine Power Output

 Consider process 1 to 2’, and from the first law of thermodynamics.

W’t = ms (h1 – h2’)

Where,
W’t = actual turbine work, kW, Hp
h1 = enthalpy of steam entering the turbine, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
h2’ = actual enthalpy of steam at turbine exhaust, kJ/kg, Btu/lb

 For Unit Mass, w t '  h1  h2' kJ/kg, Btu/lb

Figure 3. Ts Diagrams, Actual Rankine Cycle

T t1 1

p1

B’
B

p2
3 2 2’
s

 Internal Turbine Efficiency or Isentropic Turbine Efficiency

m h  h 
100 %  s 1 2' 100 %  h 1  h 2' 100 %
Wt '
t 
Wt m s h 1  h 2  h1  h 2

 Actual Pump Work: For actual pump work, consider the actual pump
process 3 to B’ and using the first law of thermodynamics

Wp '  m s h B'  h 3 

For Unit Mass, w’p = - (hB’ – h3) kJ/kg, Btu/lb

 Pump Efficiency:
Wp  hB  h3 
p  100 %    100 % 
Wp '  h B'  h 3 
6
 For the value of hB’

hB  h3
h B'  h 3 
p

 Actual Heat Added: Q A '  m s h 1  h B' 

For Unit Mass, q A  h 1  h B' kJ/kg, Btu/lb

 Cycle Actual Net Work:

Wnet '  Wt '  Wp '  m s h 1  h 2'   h B'  h 3 

 h  h 3 
Wnet '  m s  t h 1  h 2   B 
  p 

For Unit Mass,

h B  h 3 
w net  h 1  h 2'   h B'  h 3    t h 1  h 2   , kJ/kg
p

 Actual Thermal Efficiency of the Cycle:

e th ' 
Wnet '
100 %  h1  h 2'   h B'  h3  100 %
QA ' h1  h B'

t h1  h 2  
h B  h 3 
p
e th '  100 %
h1  h B'
 Steam Rate of the Actual Cycle - is the amount of steam, say in kg,
required to produce a unit actual net work, say one kW, in one hour.

3600 m s 3600
'  or ' 
Wnet ' w net '
7
 Where,
’ = actual steam rate, kg / kW-hr
ms = mass flow rate of steam, kg/s.
Wnet’ = actual network of the cycle, kW
wnet’ = unit mass net work of the cycle, kJ / kg.

 Actual Heat Rate of the Cycle: Actual Heat Rate, HR’, is the actual
amount of heat required to produce an actual unit net work of the cycle or
the amount of heat input, say in kJ, to produce net work, say one kW, in
one hour.
3600 Q A '
HR ' 
Wnet '

Where,
HR’ = heat rate, kJ / kW-hr
QA’ = heat added, kW
Wnet’ = net work of the cycle, kW
 Combined Work, Wk: Combined Work, Wk, is the output of the electric
generator of the Rankine cycle. Turbo-generator is a turbine driving an
electric generator.

o For Ideal Cycle, Wk = Wt

For Actual Cycle, Wk = k Wt

Where, k = combined turbine efficiency

 Turbine Efficiencies
o Internal Turbine Efficiency is the ratio of the actual turbine work to
that of an ideal work:
 W '
 t   t  100 % 
 Wt 

o Brake Turbine Efficiency is the ratio of brake turbine work to that of

the turbine ideal work:

WB
B  100 %
Wt

8
 o Mechanical Turbine Efficiency is the ratio of turbine brake work to
that of the turbine ideal work:
WB
m  100 %
Wt '

o Electric Generator Efficiency is the ratio of the generator output to

that of the turbine brake work:

Wk
g  100 %
WB

o Combined Turbine Efficiency is the ratio of generator output or

combined work to that of the turbine ideal work:

Wk
k  100 %   B  g
Wt

Where
Wt = Ideal turbine work, kW
Wt’ = Actual turbine work, kW
WB = Brake turbine work, kW
Wk = Combined turbine work or, simply, combined work, kW

 Cycle Thermal Efficiencies

Ideal Cycle Thermal Efficiency is the ratio of the ideal network to that of
the ideal heat added to the steam generator:

Wnet
e th  100 %
QA

o Actual Thermal Efficiency of the Cycle is the thermal efficiency of

the cycle based on the actual network:

Wnet '
e th '  100 %
QA '

o Brake Cycle Thermal Efficiency is the thermal efficiency of the

cycle based on the brake network:
9
 WB  Wp '
e thB  100 %
QA '

o Combined Cycle thermal Efficiency is the thermal efficiency of the

cycle based on the combined network:

Wk  Wp '
e thk  100 %
QA '

Where
eth = ideal cycle thermal efficiency
eth’ = actual cycle thermal efficiency
eBth = brake cycle thermal efficiency
ekth = combined cycle thermal efficiency
REHEAT CYCLE AND ENGINE
 Reheat cycle is the modification or improvement of Rankine cycle or engine in order to increase the cycle or
engine thermal efficiency by increasing the turbine or engine power output.
 Power output is increased, by reheating the steam after partial expansion inside the turbine or engine;
reheating of steam could be done by single reheater.
 Reheating could be a single stage or multi stages.

Figure. Schematic Diagram, Single-stage Reheat Cycle

Reheater

1 2 3 Wk
Wt
Steam
Generator Turbine
Electric
4
Generator
Condenser
QA Pump QR
B
5

Wp
Figure. Ts Diagram, Single-stage Reheat Cycle

T
t1 1
t3 p1 3

B’ p2 = p3
B 2 2’

p4
5 ===000.000000.00 4 4’
MPaaMPAa s
s2 = s1 s 4 = s3

10
Figure. hs Diagram, Single Stage Reheat Cycle

h 1 t1

3 t3
p1
2 2’

p2 = p3
4’
B’ 4
B
p4

5
s
s2 = s1 s4 = s3

REGENERATIVE CYCLE/ENGINE
 Regenerative cycle/engine is an improvement of Rankine cycle/engine in order to increase the thermal
efficiency by lowering the heat added to the cycle.
 This cycle could be single-stage or multi stages.

Figure. Schematic Diagram, Ideal Single-Stage Regenerative Cycle/Engine

1 Wk
Wt
Steam
Generator Turbine
3 Electric
2
m Generator
Condenser
QA B5 Pump 2 B4 Pump 1
QR
4
Wp2 5 Wp1
Regenerative
Heater

Figure. pV and Ts Diagrams, Single-Stage Regenerative Cycle

1
p
T
B5 1 p1
p1
t1
B5
B4 m 2 p2
m 2
5
5 p2
1-m B4 1- m

p3 p3
4 3 4 3
V s

REHEAT-REGENERATIVE CYCLE/ENGINE
 Reheat-regenerative engine is the combined reheat cycle and regenerative cycle, which is the third main
modification of a Rankine cycle/engine.
 The cycle could be a combination of single-stage reheat and single-stage regenerative, or could be a
combination of single-stage reheat and multi-stage regenerative or a combination of single-stage
regenerative and multi-stage reheat cycle, or combination of multi-stage reheat and multi-stage regenerative
cycle.
 This is the theoretical prototype cycle of the actual steam power used in the generation of electric power.

11
Figure. Schematic Diagram
(1 - m1)

RH
ms = 20 kg/s

2 Wt
1
3 Turbine
2 4 Generator
5
(1 - m1)
Steam m1 (1 - m1 – m2)
QA
Generator m2
(1 - m1) Condenser

Pump 3 Pump 2 Pump 1 6

8
B7 B7 B6
7 (1 - m1 – m2)
W p3 W p1
OH # 1 W p2 OH # 2

Figure. Ts Diagram
t1 = 540 oC 1
T

3 t3 = 480 oC

p1 = 10 MPaa
B8 2 (1 – m1)
p2 = p3 = 2 MPaa
B7 8 m1

4
p4 = 0.34 MPaa
m2
B6 7
(1 – m1 –m2)

p5 = 0.007 MPaa
6 5
s

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Steam at a pressure of 0.9 MPaa (hf = 743 kJ/kg, hfg = 2031 kJ/kg) is generated in an
exhaust gas boiler from feed water at 80 oC (h = 334.9 kJ/kg). If the dryness factor of
the steam is 0.96, determine the heat transfer per kg steam. [2357.86 kJ/kg].

Heat Added, q A  h 2  h1 p2 = p1 = 0.80 MPaa

T
h1  h f  x1h fg  h f  x1 h g  h f   1 2
f x1 = 70 % g
q A  h g  h f  x1h fg  h fg  x1h fg

h fg  q A 2048  82
x1    0.959961 0.96 s
h fg 2048

2. If a wet steam at 0.8 MPaa (hfg = 2048 kJ/kg) requires 82 kJ of heat per kg of steam
to completely dry it, what is the dryness fraction of the wet steam? [0.96]

12
 Solution: p2 = p1 = 0.80 MPaa
T
Heat Added, q A  h 2  h1
1 2


h1  h f  x1h fg  h f  x1 h g  h f  f x1 = 70 % g

q A  h g  h f  x1h fg  h fg  x1h fg
s
h fg  q A 2048  82
x1    0.959961 0.96
h fg 2048

3. A turbo-generator is supplied with superheated steam at a pressure of 3 MPaa and

temperature of 350 oC (h = 3117 kJ/kg). The pressure of the exhaust steam from the
turbine is 6 kPaa (hf = 152 kJ/kg, hfg = 2415 kJ/kg) with a quality of 88 %. If the
turbine uses 0.25 kg/s, calculate the power equivalent of the total enthalpy drop in the
turbine. [209.95 kW]

Solution: Q  H  PE  KE  W

W
W   mh 2  h1   mh1  h 2  1

h 2  h f 2  x 2 h fg 2  152  0.88 2415   2277 .2 kJ / kg Q

W  0.25 3117  2277 .2   209 .95 kW

4. Steam enters the super-heaters of a boiler at a pressure of 2 MPaa (hf = 909 kJ/kg,
hfg = 1890 kJ/kg, vf = 1.1767 x 10-3 m3/kg, vg = 99.63 x 10-3 m3/kg, and x = 98 %) and
leaves at the same pressure at a temperature of 350 oC (h = 3138 kJ/kg, v = 138.6 x
10-3 m3/kg). Determine the percent increase in volume due to drying and
superheating. [42 %]
p

Solution: v1  v f 1  x1 v g1  v f 1 
1 2
v1  1.1767  0.98 99 .63  1.1767 x10 3
 97 .66 x 10 3 3
m / kg

 v  v1   138 .6  97 .66 
% V   2  100 %     100 %   41 .92 % V
 v1   97 .66 

Steam leaves an industrial boiler at 0.83 MPaa (h f = 727.25 kJ/kg, hfg = 2043.2 kJ/kg). A
portion of the steam is passed through a throttling calorimeter and exhausted to the
atmosphere when the calorimeter pressure is 101.4 kPaa and a temperature of 115.6 oC
(h = 2707.52 kJ/kg). How much moisture does the steam leaving the boiler contain?
a) 3.08 % b) 2.08 % c) 8.03 % d) 1.08 %

13
 Solution: 1
For Throttling process, h1 = h2
Industrial
Boiler Throttling
h f 1  x1h fg 1  h 2 Calorimete
r
2
h  h f 1  2707.52  727.25 
x1  2   100 %  96.92 %
h fg 1  2043.2 

y1  100  x1  100  96 .92  3.08 %

5. An 100-liter tank containing a mixture of saturated liquid water and saturated steam at
370 oC. a) Find the mass of each phase if their volumes are equal. b) Find the volume
occupied by each phase if their masses are equal. Given from steam tables at 370
oC: v = 2.213 x 10-3 m3/kg and v = 4.925 x 10-3 m3/kg. [Ans: a) 22.59 kg, 10.15 kg; b)
f g
0.069 m3, 0.031 m3]

6. Determine the volume occupied by 2.25 kg steam at 8 MPaa and 60 % quality. Given
from steam tables at p = 8 MPaa: vf = 1.3842 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg = 23.52 x 10-3
m3/kg. [Ans. 33 liters]

7. A rigid container with a volume of 2 000 liters contains 4-kg mixture of saturated water
and steam at 120 oC. The mixture is slowly heated until the liquid content is
completely vaporized. Determine the quality of the vapor at the initial condition. From
steam tables, at t1 = 120 oC: vf1 = 1.0603 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg1 = 891.9 x 10-3 m3/kg
[Ans: 56.01 %]

8. A thermal power plant generates 5 MW and has also 300 kW power needed for
auxiliaries. If heat generated by fuel is 13,000 kW, what is the net thermal efficiency
in%? [Ans. 36.15%]

Solution: Thermal Efficiency, e th 

Power Output
100 %
Power Input

 5 000  300 
e th    100 %  36 .15 %
 13 000 

9. A superheat steam Rankine cycle has turbine inlet conditions of 17.5 MPa and 500 OC
and expands to 7 kPaa (vf = 1.0074 x 10-3 m3/kg). The turbine and pump polytropic
efficiencies are 90% and 70% respectively and the pressure losses between the
pump and the turbine inlet are 1.5 MPa. What should be the pump work in kJ//kg.
[Ans. 27.33 kJ/kg]
2
Solution: p2 = 17.5 + 1.5 = 19 MPaa = 19 000 kPaa 1
p1 = 7 kPaa

14
 v p  p 
1.0074 x 10 3
  kN 
m 3 / kg 19 000  7 2 
Wp  f 1 2 1   m 
 27.33 kJ / kg
p 0.70

10. A steam condenser receives 10 kg/s of steam with an enthalpy of 2570kJ/kg. The
steam condenses into a liquid and leaves with an enthalpy of 160kJ/kg. If cooling
water passes through the condenser with temperature rise from 13 OC to 24OC,
calculate the water flow rate, kg/sec. [Ans. 523.2 kg/sec]

11. In an open feedwater heater for a steam plant, saturated steam at 700 kPa is mixed
with subcooled liquid at 700 kPa and 25OC. Just enough steam is supplied to ensure
that the mixed steam leaving the heater will be saturated liquid at 700 kPa when
heater efficiency is 90%. What will be the mass flow rate of the subcooled liquid if
steam flow rate is 0.865 kg/sec. Steam properties:@ 700kPa, saturated steam, h =
2763.5 kJ/kg; @ 700 kPa, 25OC, hf = 105.5 kJ/kg; @700 kPa, hf = 697.22 kJ/kg.
[Ans. 2.72 kg/s]

Solution: Qw = heat absorbed by water from the steam

Qs = heat rejected by the steam to the water
m1 = mass flow rate of subcooled liquid
m2 = mass flow rate of steam h2 = 2763.5 kJ/kg
m3 = m1 + m2 = mass flow rate feed water
m2 = 0.865 kg/s
Q w  h Q s
h = 90 %

m w h 3  h1   ms h 2  h 3 h m3 = m1 + 0.865 h1 = 105.5 kJ/kg

m1
m h  h 3 h h3 = 697.22 kJ/kg
m w  m1  s 2
h 3  h1

m1 
0.8652763.5  697.220.90  2.719 kg / s
697.22  105.5

12. Steam enters the superheater of a boiler at a pressure of 25 bar and dryness of 98%
and leaves at the same pressure and temperature of 370 OC. Calculate the heat
energy supplied per kg of steam supplied in the superheater. Steam properties: @
2500 kPa, 370 OC, h = 3171.8 kJ/kg; @ 2500 kPa : hf = 962.11 kJ/kg, hfg = 1841.0
kJ/kg [Ans. 405.51 kJ/kg]

Solution: Super heater – a boiler component used to superheat the steam

qA
1 2
Superheater
h1 h2 = 3171.8 kJ/kg

h1  h f 1  x1h fg 1  962 .11  0.98 1841 .0  2766 .29 kJ / kg

q A  h 2  h1  3171 .8  2766 .29  405 .51 kJ / kg

15
13. A heat exchanger was installed purposely to cool 0.50 kg/s of gas. Gas MW is 28 and
specific heat ratio of 1.32. The gas is cooled from 150 OC to 80 OC. Water is available
at the rate of 0.30 kg/s and at a temperature of 12 OC. Calculate the exit temperature
of the water in OC. [Ans. 46.13 OC]
Water, t3 = 12 oC
Solution: Qg = Qw 3
Gas 1 2
mg cpg t1  t 2   mcw cpcw t 4  t 3  Cooler
t1 = 150 oC t2 = 80 oC
4
mgcpg t1  t 2 
Water, t4 = ?
t4   t3
mcw cpcw
k R  k   R   1.32   8.3143 
Where, cpg        1.2249 kJ / kg  K
k  1  k  1   MW   0.32   28 

Then, t 4 
0.50 1.2249 150  80   12  46.13 oC
0.30 4.187 

14. In a Rankine cycle, pump work developed is 15 kJ/kg. If water temperature leaving
the condenser is 20 oC (density is 958 kg/m3) at 100 kPa, what is the pressure at the
entrance of the turbine in MPa? [Ans. 14.47 MPa]

p 2  p1
Solution: w  v1 p 2  p1   2
1

 
p 2   w  p1  958 kg / m3 15 kJ / kg   100 kPa

p 2  14 470 kPaa  14 .47 MPaa

T t1 1

1 Wk
Wt p1
Steam
Generator Turbine
Electric
2
Generator
Condenser
QR B
QA Pump
B
3 p2
Wp 3 2
s

15. In a Rankine cycle, the turbine work is 1.0 MJ/kg and pump work is 13 kJ/kg. If heat
generated by steam generator is 2.8 MJ/kg, what is the efficiency of the cycle? [Ans.
35.25 %]

W W 
Solution: e th 
Wnet
100 %   t p  100 %
QA  QA 
16
  1 000 kJ / kg  13 kJ / kg 
e th    100 %   35 .25 %
 2 800 kJ / kg 

16. Steam enters the super-heaters of a boiler at a pressure of 2 MPaa (h f = 909 kJ/kg, hfg = 1890 kJ/kg, vf = 1.1767 x
10-3 m3/kg, vg = 99.63 x 10-3 m3/kg, and x = 98 %) and leaves at the same pressure at a temperature of 350 oC (h
= 3138 kJ/kg, v = 13.86 x 10-3 m3/kg). Determine the percent increase in volume due to drying and superheating.
[42 %]

17. Steam leaves an industrial boiler at 0.83 MPaa (h f = 727.25 kJ/kg, hfg = 2043.2 kJ/kg). A portion of the steam is
passed through a throttling calorimeter and exhausted to the atmosphere when the calorimeter pressure is 101.4
kPaa and a temperature of 115.6 oC (h = 2707.52 kJ/kg). How much moisture does the steam leaving the boiler
contain? [3.08 %]

18. Steam flows into a turbine at the rate of 10 kg/s and 75 KW of heat are lost from the
turbine. Ignoring elevation and kinetic energy effects, calculate the power output from
the turbine if the difference of enthalpy from the turbine entrance and exhaust is
438.5 KJ/kg. [4310 KW]

Solution: Q  H  PE  KE  W

W
1
W  Q  H  Q  mh 2  h1   Q  mh1  h 2 
2

W  75  10 438 .5  4 310 kW Q

19. Steam flows steadily through a turbine at a rate of 6.95 kg/sec entering at 8 MPa and
450 °C and leaving at 30 KPa as saturated vapor. If the power generated by the
turbine is 4 MW, determine the rate of heat loss from the steam. Steam properties: 8
MPa, 450°C; h = 3272 KJ/kg and 30 KPa, steam saturated; h = 2625.3 KJ/kg. [ 494
KW]

Solution: Q  H  PE  KE  W W

1

Q  mh 2  h1   W  6.95 2625 .3  3272   4 000 2

Q
Q   494 .57 kW

20. Steam enters a turbine with an enthalpy of 3000 KJ/kg and exits at 2400 KJ/kg. When the turbine efficiency is
85%, calculate the steam exhaust enthalpy in KJ/Kg. [2490]

21. A simple Rankine cycle operates between superheated steam at 600 °C and 6 MPaa
entering the turbine and 10 kPaa entering the pump. What is the maximum possible
thermal efficiency in percent? Steam properties: at 6 MPa, 600 °C (h = 3658 kJ/Kg
and s = 7.1685 kJ/kg-K) ; at 10 kPa (hf = 192 kJ/kg, hfg = 2393 kJ/Kg, sf = 0.649
kJ/kg-K, sfg = 7.502 kJ/kg-K, vf = 0.0010102 m3/kg) [ 40]

17
 T t1 1
Solution:
1 Wk p1
Wt
Steam
Generator Turbine
Electric
2
Generator
Condenser B

QA QR p2
B Pump
3
3 2
Wp s

100 %   t p  100 %  h1  h 2   h B  h 3  100 %

Wnet W W 
e th 
QA  QA  h1  h B 

Where, h B  h 3  vf 3 p1  p 2   h f 3  vf 3 p B  p3 

 
h B  192  0.0010102 m3 / kg 6 000  10 kPa   198 .05 kJ / kg

 
s 2  s1  sf 2  x 2 sfg 2

s s   7.1685  0.649 
x 2   2 f 2  100 %     100 %   86 .90 %
 sfg 2   7. 502 
 

 
h 2  h f 2  x 2 h fg 2  192  0.869 2393   2271 .52 kJ / kg

Then, e th 
h1  h 2   h B  h3  100 %
h1  h B 

eth 
3658  2271.52  198.05  192 100 %  39.897 %  40 %
3658  198.05

22. In a steam Rankine cycle, state 1 is saturated liquid at 101.325 kPa. State 2 is high
pressure liquid at 700 KPa. How much work is required to pump one kilogram of
water from state 1 to state 2. (vf at 101.325 KPa = 0.00104 m3/kg) [623 J/kg]

Solution: vf1 = 0.00104 m3/kg, p1 = 101.325 kPaa 2

p2 = 700 kPaa 1

 
w p  vf 1 p2  p1   0.00104 m3 / kg 700  101 .325 kPaa 

w p  0.6226 kJ / kg  622 .6 J / kg

23. An open feedwater heater utilizes saturated steam at 150°C extracted from the
turbine. Feedwater to be heated enters at 60°C. If the mixture leaves the heater at the
rate of 18,000 kg/hr. Calculate for the quantity of steam extracted from the turbine in

18
 kg/hr. @ 150°C hf = 632.2 KJ/kg, hfg = 2114.3 KJ/kg; @ 60°C hf = 251.13 KJ/kg.
[2742.68 kg/hr]

Solution: h 2  h g  h f 2  h fg 2  632 .2  2114 .3  2746 .5 kJ / kg

h2 = 2746.5 kJ/kg
h 3  h f 3 at 150 C  632 .2 kJ / kg
o
m2 = ?

h1  h f 1 at 60 oC  251 .13 kJ / kg
m3 = 18 000 kg/hr h1 = 251.13 kJ/kg
m1  m3  m 2  18 000  m 2 kJ/kg
h3 = 632.2 kJ/kg m1

E in  E out m1h1  m 2 h 2  m3h 3

18000  m2 251 .13   m2 2746 .5  18 000 632 .2

18 000 251 .13   251 .13 m 2  2746 .5 m 2  18 000 632 .2

m2 
18 000632.2  252.13  2742.68 kg / hr
2746.5  252.13

24. The quality of steam that gives up 2000 KJ/kg while condensing to water at constant
pressure at 101.235 KPa is about? [88.6% ]

25. In a Rankine cycle, steam enters the turbine at 2.5MPa and a condenser pressure of 50KPa. What is the thermal
efficiency of the cycle? Steam Properties: @ 2.5Mpaa, h = 2803.1 kJ/kg & s = 6.2575 kJ/kg-OK; @ 50kPaa, hf =
340.49 kJ/kg, hfg = 2305.4 kJ/kg, vf = 0.00103 m3/kg, sf = 1.0910 kJ/kg-OK, sfg = 6.5029 kJ/kg-OK. [Ans: 25.55 %]

26. A thermal power plant generates 5 MW and has also 300 kW power needed for auxiliaries. If heat generated by
fuel is 13,000kW, what is the net thermal efficiency in%? [Ans. 36.15%]

27. A superheat steam Rankine cycle has turbine inlet conditions of 17.5 MPa and 500 OC and expands to 7 kPa. The
turbine and pump polytropic efficiencies are 90% and 70% respectively and the pressure losses between the
pump and the turbine inlet are 1.5MPa. what should be the pump work in kJ//kg. [Ans. 27.13 kJ/kg]

28. A steam generating plant has 2 – 20MW turbo generators. Steam is supplied at 1.7MPa and 320 OC. Condenser
pressure is 6kPa. Daily average load factor is 80%. The steam generating units operates at 70% efficiency when
using bunker fuel having a heating value of 31,150kJ/kg and an average steam rate of 5kg steam/kWH. Calculate
the metric tons of fuel required per 24 hours operation. Steam Properties: @ 1.7MPaa, 320 OC: h = 3077 kJ/kg;
@6kPaa, hf =151.53 kJ/kg, vf = 0.0010064 m3/kg [Ans. 514.9 tons/day]

29. A steam condenser receives 10kg/s of steam with an enthalpy of 2570kJ/kg. The steam condenses into a liquid
and leaves with an enthalpy of 160kJ/kg. If cooling water passes through the condenser with temperature rise
from 13OC to 24OC, calculate the water flow rate, kg/sec. [Ans. 523.2 kg/sec]

30. In an open feedwater heater for a steam plant, saturated steam at 700kPa is mixed with subcooled liquid at
700kPa and 25OC. Just enough steam is supplied to ensure that the mixed steam leaving the heater will be
saturated liquid at 700 kPa when heater efficiency is 90%. What will be the mass flow rate of the subcooled liquid
if steam flow rate is 0.865kg/sec. Steam properties: @ 700kPa, saturated steam, h = 2763.5 kJ/kg; @ 700 kPa,
25OC, hf = 105.5 kJ/kg; @700kPa, hf = 697.22 kJ/kg. [Ans. 2.72 kg/s]

31. Steam enters the superheater of a boiler at a pressure of 25 bar and dryness of 98% and leaves at the same
pressure and temperature of 370OC. Calculate the heat energy supplied per kg of steam supplied in the
superheater. Steam properties: @ 2500 kPa, 370 OC, h = 3171.8 kJ/kg; @ 2500 kPa : hf = 962.11 kJ/kg, hfg =
1841.0 kJ/kg [Ans. 405.51 kJ/kg]

32. A heat exchanger was installed purposely to cool 0.50kg/s og gas. Gas MW is 28 and specific heat ratio of 1.32.
The gas is cooled from 150OC to 80OC. Water is available at the rate of 0.30kg/s and at a temperature of 12 OC.
Calculate the exit temperature of the water in OC. [Ans. 46.13 OC]
19
33. In a Rankine cycle, pump work developed is 15kJ/kg. If water temperature leaving the condenser is 20 OC (density
is 958 kg/m3) at 100kPa, what is the pressure at the entrance of the turbine in Mpa? [Ans. 14.47 MPa]

34. In a Rankine cycle, the turbine work is 1.0 MJ/kg and pump work is 13 kJ/kg. If heat generated by steam
generator is 2.8MJ/kg, what is the efficiency of the cycle? [Ans. 35.25 %]

35. In a reheat power plant, the difference in enthalpy at the entrance and exit is 550 kJ/kg for first stage and second
stage is 750 kJ/kg. If both stages has an efficiency of 92 % and heat added to boiler is 3 MJ/kg, determine the
plant efficiency neglecting pump work. [Ans. 39.87 %]

36. A steam generator has an exit enthalpy of 3195.7 kJ/kg at the rate of 10 kg/sec. The enthalpy available at the
turbine inlet is 3000 kJ/kg. Determine the heat loss between the boiler outlet and turbine inlet. [Ans. 1957 kJ/sec]

37. An adiabatic turbine steam generating plant receives steam at a pressure of 7.0 MPa and 550OC and exhausts at
a condenser pressure of 20kPa. The turbine inlet is 3 meters higher than the turbine exit, inlet steam velocity is
15m/s and the exit is 300m/s. Calculate the turbine work in kJ/kg. [Ans. 1196.24]

38. A Carnot cycle uses steam at the working substance and operates between pressures of 7 MPa and 7kPa.
Determine the cycle thermal efficiency. @ 7Mpa, t sat = 285.88OC & @7kPa, tsat = 39OC [Ans. 44.17 %]

39. Steam is generated at 4.10 MPa and 440 OC and condensation occurs at 0.105MPa. a) For a rankine engine
operating between these limits, compute the thermal efficiency and the heat rate. a) Considering that a Rankine
cycle occurs between the same limits, determine Q A, QR, Wnet, ec. c) What mass flow rate is required for a net
output of 30, 000kW? Properties: @4.1Mpa, 440 OC: h = 3305.7 kJ/kg, s = 6.8911 kJ/kg-OK; @ 0.105 Mpa: hf =
423.24 kJ/kg, hfg = 2254.4 kJ/kg, sf = 1.3181 kJ/kg-OK, sfg = 6.0249 kJ/kg-OK, vf = 0.0010443 m3/kg. [Ans: a)
27.65%, 13,017 kJ/kg; b) 2878.3, 2085.4, 792.9, 27.55 %; c) 37.84 kg/s]

40. A turbo generator has a combined steam rate of 5.35 kg/kWh at its rated output of 20,000kW. The steam is at
1.7MPa, 300OC, and the exhaust is at 0.01Mpa. Calculate a) the combined heat rate, b) the combined thermal
efficiency, and c) the combined engine efficiency. @1.7MPa, 300 OC: h = 3032.1 kJ/kg, s = 6.8528 kJ/kg-OK; @
0.01 MPa: hf = 191.83 kJ/kg, hfg = 2392.8 kJ/kg, sf = 0.6493 kJ/kg-OK, sfg = 7.5009 kJ/kg-OK. [Ans: a) 15,195
kJ/kW-hr; b) 23.69%; c) 78.12%]

41. In a reheat cycle steam at 8.0MPa and 485OC enters the turbine and expands to 1.4MPa. At this point, the steam
is withdrawn and passed through a reheater. It re-enters the turbine at 1.3 MPa and 720 OC. Expansion now
occurs to the condenser pressure of 0.006MPa. For the cycle and 1 kg of steam determine a) Q A, b) Wnet, c)ec.
For the Rankine engine determine d) W, e) e e, and f) the steam flow for an engine output of 40,000 kW. @ 8.0
MPa & 485 oC: h = 3361 kJ/kg; @ 1.4 MPa: s2 = s1 & h = 2891 kJ/kg; @1.3 MPa & 720 OC: h = 3968 kJ/kg; @
0.006 MPa: s4 = s3, hfg = 2526 kJ/kg, hf = 151.53 kJ/kg, vf = 0.0010064 m3/kg. [Ans: a) 4278.4 kJ/kg; b) 1904
kJ/kg; c) 44.5%; d) 1912 kJ/kg; e) 44.6%; f) 20.89 kg/s]

42. Steam is delivered to an engine at 5.4 MPa and 600 OC. Before condensation at 31OC, steam is extracted for
feedwater heating at 0.60 MPa. For an ideal cycle, find a) the amount of steam extracted b) W and c)e. For an
ideal engine and the same states, compute d) W and e, and steam rate. Properties: @ 5.4 MPa, 600 OC, h =
3663.3 kJ/kg; @ 0.6 MPa & s2=s1, hfg = 2987 kJ/kg, hf = 670.56 kJ/kg, vf = 0.0011006 m3/kg; @ 0.004496 MPa &
s3=s1, hfg = 2187 kJ/kg, hf = 129.97 kJ/kg, vf = 0.0010046 m3/kg.

43. Steam turbine receives 5000 kg/hr of steam at 5 MPa and 400 °C and velocity of 25 m/s. It leaves the turbine at
0.006 MPa and 15% wetness and velocity of 20 m/s, radiation loss is 10,000 kJ/kg. Find the KW power
developed. [1373.29 KW]

20
MODULE 8. GAS TURBINES/BRAYTON CYCLE
Prepare by: Jose R. Francisco, PME
Instructor
USEFUL INFORMATION
 The first gas turbine was invented in 120 B.C., by Hero a Scientist of Alexandria
 120 B.C.  First gas turbine but no work produced
 Windmill  the first gas turbine to produce work in the Middle East at the year 900’s and
1100’s in Europe
 Brayton and Joule  independently proposed the cycle that is the ideal prototype of the
actual unit
 1906  gas turbine that produced power had been built.
IDEAL GAS TURBINE
 There are two types of simple gas turbine cycles, namely: the simple open gas turbine cycle
and the simple closed gas turbine cycle; The theoretical power cycle for gas turbine cycle is
known as Brayton cycle; Figures below illustrate the open and closed gas turbine cycles.

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of a Simple Open Gas Turbine Cycle

QA

2 3
Combustor

Wt
Wc
Gas Turbine
Compressor
1
4

Figure 2. Schematic Diagram of Simple Closed Gas Turbine Cycle

QA

Heater
2 3 Wt
Wc
Gas Turbine
Compressor
4
1
Cooler

QR

Figure 3. pV and Ts Diagram of Brayton Cycle

T T3 3

p p=C
2 p=C 3 s=C

pVk = C
2
 dQ
4
Qnet 

pVk = C

W  p dV

1 p=C 4 p=C
1 T1

V s

1
AIR-STANDARD BRAYTON CYCLE
 Air-standard Brayton cycle is a gas turbine cycle in which the working gas is standard
air.

 Assumptions for air-Standard Brayton cycle

o The mass and properties of fuel are neglected; The heat added is the energy
released by the reaction of the fuel; The substance has the properties of the air
throughout; and Constant specific heat is assumed.

Cycle Processes
 Process 1-2: An adiabatic compression processes, or isentropic process; Process 2-3:
An isobaric heat addition process; Process 3-4: An adiabatic turbine expansion process,
or isentropic process; Process 4-1: an isobaric heat rejection process
CYCLE ANALYSIS
 Heat added, consider the combustor or the heater as steady flow open system:

Q A  m c p T3  T2 

Where, W = 0, P = 0, and K = 0
QA = heat added, kW
ma = mass flow rate of air, kg/s
cp = specific heat of air = 1.0062 kJK/kg-oK
T2 = temperature of air entering the heater or combustor, oK
T3 = temperature of air leaving the heater or combustor, oK

 Heat rejected, consider the cooler as a steady flow open system:

Q R  m a c p T1  T4    m a c p T4  T1 

Where W = 0, P = 0, and K = 0
QR = heat rejected, kW
ma = mass flow rate of air, kg/s
cp = specific heat of air = 1.0062 kJK/kg-oK
T4 = temperature of air entering the cooler, oK
T1 = temperature of air leaving the cooler, oK

 Turbine work, consider the turbine as steady flow open system

Wt  m a c p T3  T4 

 Compressor work, consider the compressor as steady flow open system

Wc   m a c p T2  T1 

 Cycle Network

Wnet  Wt  Wc  ma c p T3  T4   T2  T1 

For unit mass: w net  c p T3  T4  T2  T1 

2
  Thermal efficiency of the Cycle:

100 %  1  T4  T1   100 %  1   T1  100 %

Wnet     
e th 
QA  T3  T2     T2 

 
 1  1  1  100 %
e th  1  k 1 
100 %  
 rk    k 1 
 
rp k  

p 2 p3
Where, rp    pressure ratio
p1 p 4

V1 v1
rk    compression ratio
V2 v 2

V4 v 4
re    exp ansion ratio
V3 v3

MAXIMUM NETWORK OF THE CYCLE

 There must an intermediate temperature T2 that will result in a maximum network; and
letting T1 and T3 as constant.

 For maximum net work,

dWnet
0
dT2

Then, the intermediate temperature T2 will be:

T2  T1 T3  T4

Maximum network will be:

Wnet max  m a c p T3  T4  T2  T1   m a c p T3  2 T2  T1 

BRAYTON REGENERATIVE CYCLE

 Regenerative is used to increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle decreasing the heat
added to the cycle.

Figure 4. Open Regenerative Cycle

QA

Combustor
3
Compressor Wt
Wc Turbine
2
Regenerator x
4

1 5

3
Figure 5. Closed Regenerative Cycle

QA

Heater
3
Compressor Wt
Wc Turbine
2
Regenerator x
4

1
5

Cooler

QR

Figure 6. pV & Ts Diagrams, Brayton Regenerative Cycle

T T3 3

p
2 x 3 Heat added to air
by regenerator

pVk = C
x
2 4
5
Heat lost by
pVk = C exhaust to the air
1 5 4
1 T1
V
s

 For Ideal Counter-flow Heat Exchanger:

Tx  T4 and T5  T2

 Cycle Thermal Efficiency:

 
e th 
Wnet
100 %  1  Q R  100 %
QA  QA 

  T  T    T  T 
e th  1   5 1  100 %  1   2 1  100 %
  T3  Tx    T3  T4 

Where, QA  ma cp T3  Tx 

 k
k 1
QR  ma c p T5  T1 
T2 T3
  rp
T1 T4

 k
k 1 T3
T2  T1 rp T4 
rp  k
k 1

  T1 
  k  100 %
k 1
Substituting, e th  1    rp

  T3  

4
  Regenerative Effectiveness:

Actual Heat Transferre d

 reg 
Maximum Possible Heat Transferre d

hx  h2 Tx  T2
 reg  
1  rfa h 4  h c  1  rfa T4  T2 

Where hc = enthalpy of the products at temperature, T2.

Tc = T2 = temperature of the product, oK
Rf/a = fuel/air ratio

SAMPLE AND PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. In an air-standard Brayton cycle, air enters compressor at 1 bar and 15 oC. The pressure
leaving the compressor is 0.6 MPaa and maximum temperature of the cycle is 1000 oC.
Calculate the cycle thermal efficiency.
a) 35 % b) 32 % c) 37.5 % T T3 d) 40 % 3

Solution:
p=C s=C
p
2 p=C 3

pVk = C 2
 dQ
4
Qnet 

pVk = C

W  p dV
p=C
1 p=C 4 1 T1
s
V

100 %  1  T4  T1   100 %  1   T1  100 %

Wnet     
e th 
QA  T3  T2     T2 

 
 1   1  T2 T3 T1T3
e th  1  k 1 
100%  1  k1  100 %  T4 
 rk     T1 T4 T2
 rp k 

p 2 p3 600 kPaa
Where, rp     6.0
p1 p 4 100 kPaa

Note: 1 Bar = 0.10 MPa = 100 kPa

 
e th  1  0.4  100 %   40 .07 %
1
  1.4 
 6 

2. Air enters the combustion chamber in a gas turbine power plant at 400 kPaa, 200 oC and
leaves at 400 kPaa, 1000 oC. Fuel with a heating value of 45 MJ/kg enters with a fuel ratio of
0.025. Determine the combustor efficiency.
a) 65 % b) 71.5 % c) 69 % d) 75 %

5
 Solution:

mfa = 0.025 kgf/kga

mf
m QA
mfa  f  mf  mfa  ma  0.025 ma
ma 1 2
Combustor
ma ma
m 2  m1 Q A  Q air

mf q Fh  0.025 ma q Fh  ma c p T2  T1 

ma c p T2  T1  c p T2  T1   1.0062 1000  200  

h     100 %  71 .55 %
0.025 ma q F 0.025 q F  0.025 45 000  

3. In an air-standard Brayton cycle, air enters compressor at 20 oC, 100 kPaa and enters the
turbine at 485 kPaa. The maximum temperature in the cycle is 1000 oC. Assuming a
compressor isentropic efficiency of 80 %, and turbine isentropic efficiency of 85 %, what is
the thermal efficiency of the cycle?
a) 20 % b) 25 % c) 22.95 % d) 23.87 %

Solution: T T3 = 1273 oK 3

p
2 2’ 3 p1 = p2 = 485 kPaa

4’
pVk = C 2’
2 4

Qnet  dQ

pVk = C
1 p1 = 100 kPaa 4 T1 = 293 oK
4’ 1
s
V
For T2,

k 1 0.4
p   485  1.4
 293 
k
T2  T1  2    460 .04 K
 p1   100 

From Compressor Efficiency,

 m c T  T   
c 
Wc
100 %   a p 2' 1  100 %   T2'  T1  100 %
'
Wc 
 ma c p T2  T1  
 T2  T1 

T2  T1 460 .04  293

T2'   T1   293  501 .8 K
c 0.80

For T4,

T1 T3 293 1273  T2 T3
T4    810 .78 K  
T2 460 .04 T1 T4

6
 From Turbine Efficiency,

 m c T  T'   
t 
Wt'
100 %   a p 3 4  100 %   T3  T'4  100 %
Wt  m a c p T3  T4    T3  T4 

T4'  T3  t T3  T4   1273 0.851273 810.78  880.11 K

Wc m a c p T2  T1  wc c p T2  T1 
For W’c, Wc'   w 'c  
c c c c

wc c p T2  T1  1.0062 460 .04  293 

w 'c      210 .1 kJ / kg
c c 0.80

For W’t, Wt'  t Wt  t ma c p T3  T4  w 't  t w t  t c p T3  T4 

w 't  t w t  t c p T3  T4   0.85 1.0062 1273  810 .78   395 .32 kJ / kg

For Q’A, Q'A  ma c p T3  T2'   

q 'A  c p T3  T2' 
 
q 'A  c p T3  T2'  1.0062 1273  501 .8  775 .98 kJ / kg

m a c p T2  T1 
For W’net, Wnet
'
 Wt'  Wc'  t m a c p T3  T4   w 'net  w 't  w 'c
c
w 'net  w 't  w 'c  395.32  210.1  185.22 kJ / kg

For the actual thermal efficiency,

t T3  T4  
T2  T1 
 W'  c
e 'th   net  100 %   100 % 
'
 QA

 T  T 
3
'
2

0.85 1273  810 .78   460 .04  293 

e 'th  0.80 100 %  23 .87 %
1273  501 .8
Other Solution for e’th,

e'th 
w 'net
100 %   185.22  100 %  23.87 %
 775.98 
'
qA

4. In an ideal air Brayton cycle, 2 kg/s of air at 101.325 kPaa and 25 oC is compressed
isentropically to a certain pressure and temperature after which the heat is added until the
temperature becomes 1027 oC. Isentropic expansion occurs in the turbine. Determine the
work net in the cycle, in kW. [710.72 kW]

7
 Solution:

For the maximum Net Work or power Output,

Wnet max  m a c p T3  T4  T2  T1   m a c p T3  2 T2  T1 

Where, T2  T1 T3  25  2731027  273  622.41 K

Wnet max  2 kg / s 1.0062 kJ / kg  K 1300  2 622 .41  298 

T 3
Wnet max  710 .74 kW T3

p=C s=C
p
2 p=C 3

pVk = C 2
 dQ
4
Qnet 

pVk = C
W  p dV 
p=C
1 p=C 4
1 T1
s
V
5. An air-standard Brayton cycle receives air at one atmosphere and 21 oC. The upper
pressure and temperature limits of the cycle are 414 kPaa and 815 oC, respectively.
Assuming constant specific heat, calculate: a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle [33.11 %];
b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle if compressor (isentropic) efficiency is 85 % and turbine
(isentropic) efficiency is 90 %. [24.58 %]

Solution: T1 = 21 + 273 = 294 K T3 = 815 + 273 =1088 K

a) For the thermal Efficiency

 
e max 
Wnet
100 %  1  k 1 100 %
 1 

 rp  k 
QA  

p p 414
Where, rp 2  3   4.086
p1 p 4 101.325

   
e max  1 
1 
100 %   1 
1
 100 %   33.11 %
 rp  k 
 k 1
  
 4.0861.4 
0.4

b) For the thermal efficiency if c = 85 % and t = 90 %

 W 
 t Wt  C 
 W 'net   W ' t  W 'c  C
e'max   100 %    100 %     100 % 
 Q' A   Q' A   Q' A 
 
 
T2  T1 rp  k  2944.0861.4  439.55 K
k 1 0.4

8
 c 
Wc
100%  T2  T1 100 %
W 'c T'2 T1

T2  T1 439.55  294
T' 2   T1   294  465.24 K
C 0.85

T1T3 2941088
T4    727.73 K
T2 439.55

T2  T1  
0.901088  727.73  439.55  294 

 t T3  T4   

 
e'max   C
 100 %    0.85
 100 % 
 T 3  T ' 2   1088  465 .24 
   

e'max  24.58 %

6. In an air standard Brayton cycle, compressor receives air at 1 atmosphere, 20 oC, and
discharges it to 0.5 MPaa at a rate of 5 kg/s. It was also found out that the temperature of
the air entering the turbine is 900 oC. Determine the maximum possible electrical power
output, in kW, assuming generator efficiency of 98 %.

Solution: T1 = 20 + 273 = 293 K T3 = 900 + 273 = 1173 K

T2  T4  T1 T3  20  273900  273  586.25 K

Wnet max  m a c p T3  2 T2  T1   5 kg / s 1.0062 1173  2586 .25   293  1476 .6 kW

Wnet max  5 kg / s 1.0062 1173  2586 .25   293   1476 .6 kW

Wg  g Wnet max  0.98 1476 .6 kW   1 447 .07 kW

7. A 75-kW air-standard Brayton cycle is designed for maximum work. The compressor inlet
conditions are 101 kPaa and 28 oC and the pressure ratio is 6.5. Determine: a) The turbine
inlet temperature [877.18 oK]; b) The cycle thermal efficiency [41.42 %]; and c) The air mass
flow rate [0.4953 kg/s]

Solution:

a) For the turbine inlet temperature

T2  T1 rp  k  28  2736.51.4  513.84 K

k 1 0.4

T22 513.84
2
T3    877.18 K
T1 28  273

9
 b) For the Cycle thermal Efficiency

   1 
e th  1 
1 
100 %   1   100 %   41.42 %
 rp  k 
 k 1
  
 6.51.4 
0.4

Other Solution:

 T   28  273 
e max  1  1  100 %  1   100 %  41.42 %
 T3   877.18 

W   T     
e max   net  100%  1  1 100 %  1 
T1  100%  1  T1 100 %
 QA   T2   T1T3   T3 
  

c) For the mass flow rate of air

Wnet max
ma 
c p T3  2T2  T1 

75 kW
ma   0.4953 kg / s
1.0062877.18  2 513.84  301
8. A gas turbine system operating on the air-standard Brayton cycle with friction is to produce
7500 Hp. Air at 101.325 kPaa, 27 oC, is drawn by the compressor (c = 85 %). The pressure
ratio is 8. At the turbine (t = 82 %) inlet, the gas temperature is 930 oC. Determine: a) The
mass flow rate of air [35.76 kg/s]; b) The compressor work and turbine work [15 899.95 kW];
and c) The thermal efficiency. [25.22 %]

 kW 
Solution: W'net  7500 Hp  0.746   5 595 kW
 Hp 
T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K T3 = 930 + 273 = 1203 K

T T3 3

p
2 2’ 3 p1 = p2

pVk = C 4’
2 2’ 4

Qnet  dQ

pVk = C
1 p1 4 4’ 1
T1
s
V

For the T2 and T4,

T2  T1 rp  k  30081.4  543.43 K
k 1 0.4

10
 T1 T3 3001203
T4    664.11 K
T2 543.43

a) For the Mass Flow Rate

W 'net
ma 
 T  T1 
c p t T3  T4   2
 c 

5595
ma   35.76 kg / s
1.00620.821203  664.11  543.43  300
 0.85 

b) For the Compressor Work and Turbine Work

ma cp T2  T1  35.761.0062543.43  300  10 304.74 kW

W'c  
c 0.85

W't  ma cp T3  T4   t  35.761.00621203 664.110.82  15899.95 kW

c) For the thermal efficiency

e'th 
W'net
100 %  W't W'c 100 %  W't W'c 100 %
Q' A Q' A ma c p T3  T'2 

T2  T1 543.43  300
Where, T'2   T1   300  586.39 K
c 0.85

15899.95  10 304.7
e'th  100 %  25.22 %
35.761.00621203 586.39
9. A gas turbine unit has compressor inlet conditions of 100 kPaa and 310 oK. The compressor
discharge pressure is 690 kPaa, and the temperature is 565 oK. Fuel enters the combustion
chamber and raises the air temperature to 1200 oK. The turbine discharge temperature is
710 oK, and the pressure is 100 kPaa. Determine: a) The compressor and turbine adiabatic
efficiencies [89.53 %, 96.53 %]; and b) The cycle thermal efficiency [37.01 %]

Solution: T3 = 1200 oK 3
T
p
2 2’ 3 p1 = p2 = 690 kPaa

pVk = C 4’
2 2’ 4

Qnet  dQ
pVk =C
1 p1 = 100 kPaa 4 4’ T1 = 310 oK
1
V11 s
 p 2 690
For the pressure ratio, rp    6.9
p1 100

For the compressor theoretical discharge temperature,

T2  T1 rp  k  3106.91.4  538.31 K

k 1 0.4

For the turbine theoretical exhaust temperature,

T3 1200 T1T3 3101200

T4    691.05 K T4    691.05 K
r 
k 1
6.9
0.4
k 1.4
T2 538.31
p

a) For the Compressor and Turbine Adiabatic or Isentropic Efficiencies

 
c 
Wc
100 %   T2  T1  100 %   538.31  310  100 %  89.53 %
W 'c  T'2 T1   565  310 

 
t 
W 't
100 %   T3  T'4  100 %   1200  710  100 %  96.28 %
Wt  T3  T4   1200  691.05 

b) For the thermal efficiency

e'th 
W'net
100 %  W't W'c 100 %  W't W'c 100 %
Q' A Q' A ma c p T3  T'2 

e'th 
T3  T'4   T'2 T1  100 %
T3  T'2 

e'th 
1200  710  565  310 100 %   37.01 %
1200  565

10. An air turbine operates between pressure of 410 kPaa and 100 kPaa and receives 0.45 kg/s
of air at 650 oC. For an ideal turbine, what is the power developed? When operating under
these conditions an actual turbine develops 111.9 kW and has discharge temperature of 402
o
C. The turbine blades are water-cooled with water entering 10 oC and leaving at 38 oC.
Determine the water flow rate in kg/s. [Ans. 138.66 kW, 0.228 kg/s]

Solution:

For the Theoretical Turbine Exhaust Temperature,

T3 650  273
T4    616.77 K
r 
k 1 0.4
k  410  1.4
 
p

 100 

For the ideal turbine power output,

12
 Wt  ma cp T3  T4   0.451.0062923  616.77  138.66 kW

For the Mass Flow rate of Cooling Water, assume that W t – W’t is absorbed by water,

mw cpw Two  Twi   Wt  W't

Wt  W't 138.66  111.9

mw    0.228 kg / s
c pw Two  Twi  4.18738  10

11. In an air standard Brayton Cycle, air enters the compressor at 1 bar and 15 oC. The pressure leaving the
compressor is 0.6 MPa and the maximum temperature of the cycle is 1000OC. Calculate for the cycle thermal
efficiency? [Ans. 40 %]

12. In an air standard Brayton cycle, air enters compressor at 20 OC, 100 kPa and enters the turbine at 485 kPa. The
maximum temperature in the cycle is 1000 OC. Assuming a compressor isentropic efficiency of 80%, and turbine
isentropic efficiency of 85%, what is the thermal efficiency of the cycle? [Ans. 22.65 %]

13. In an air standard Brayton cycle, the compressor receives air at 1 atmospheric 20 OC and releases it at 0.5 MPaa
at a rate of 5 kg/sec. It was also found out that the temperature of the air entering the turbine is 900 OC.
Determine the maximum possible electrical power output in kW assuming generator efficiency 98 %. [Ans. 1328
kW]

14. An air standard Brayton Cycle receives air at one atmosphere and 21OC. The upper pressure and temperature
limits of the cycle are 414 kPa and 815 kPaa, respectively. Assuming constant specific heats, calculate: a)
Thermal efficiency of the cycle. [Ans. 33.11%]; b) Thermal efficiency of the cycle if compressor (isentropic)
efficiency is 85% and turbine (isentropic) efficiency is 90%. [Ans. 24.57 %]

15. A gas turbine has a mass flow rate of 35 kg/sec. Specific enthalpy of inlet gas is 1225kJ/kg while the exhaust gas
has a specific enthalpy of 350 kJ/kg. The velocities of the inlet and exhaust gases are 150 m/s and 60 m/s,
respectively, and a heat loss of 1000 kW. Calculate power output of the gas turbine, in kW.

16. Air enters the combustion chamber in a gas turbine power plant at 400 kPaa, 200 oC and leaves 400 kPaa,
1000OC. Fuel with a heating value of 45MJ/kg enters with a fuel to air ratio of 0.025. Determine the combustor
efficiency? [Ans. 71.11%]

17. A gas turbine power plant has an output of 25,000 kW with mechanical-electrical efficiency of the AC generator
of 93%. The unit produces a brake thermal efficiency of 30%. A combustion chamber installed in the plant having
an efficiency of 78% burns liquid fuel oil with 24 OAPI gravity. Calculate the amount of fuel needed in gallons per
day.

18. A 12MW gas turbine operating in the simple open cycle has an exhaust gas flow of 71.8 kg/sec. This gas enters
a steam generator at 392OC and leaves at 140OC. The specific heat of gas is 0.99 kJ/kg-OC, heat required to
produce a one kg of steam at 4.1 MPaa and 315OC from feed-water at 110OC is 280 kcal. Find the quantity of
steam that can be produced by the boiler per hour.

19. A gas turbine working on air standard Brayton cycle has air enter into the compressor at atmospheric pressure
and 22OC. The Pressure ratio is 9 and the maximum temperature in the cycle is 1077 OC. Compute for the cycle
efficiency per kg of air in percent. [Ans. 46.62 %]
20. A regenerator in a gas turbine unit receives air from the compressor at 400 kPaa and 455 oK. The products of
combustion enter at 105 kPaa and 823 oK and leave at 102 kPaa and 611 oK. The specific heat of air is 1.0047
kJ/kg-oK and of the products is 1.044 kJ/kg-oK. The air flow rate 22.89 kg/s, and the fuel rate is 0.231 kg/s.
Determine: a) The f/a ratio [0.010092]; c) The regenerator Effectiveness [81.55 %]; and c) The net entropy
change across the regenerator. [4.9091 kJ/kg-oK]

21. Air enters the combustion chamber of a gas turbine unit at 550 kPaa, 227 oC, and 43 m/s. the products of
combustion leave the combustor at 517 kPaa, 1004 oC, and 140 m/s. Liquid fuel enters with a heating value of
43000 kJ/kg. The combustor efficiency is 95 %. Determine the fuel/air ratio.[ r fa = 0.0194 kg fuel/kg air]

Trust in the LORD with all your heart and lean not on your own understanding; in all your ways
acknowledge him, and he will make your paths straight. Proverbs 3:5-6
13
 LAGUNA STATE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY
C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g
Mechanical Engineering Department
Sta. Cruz Campus, Sta. Cruz, Laguna

MODULE 1. BASIC PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS

Prepared by: Jose R. Francisco, PME, CEM

Instructor
DEFINITIONS AND USEFUL INFORMATION
 Thermodynamics is that branch of physical sciences that treats of various phenomena of energy and the related
properties of matter, especially of the laws of the transformation of heat into other forms of energy and vice
versa.

Kinds of Thermodynamic Systems

1. Closed System is a system in which working substance does not cross its boundaries but energy crosses its
boundaries.
2. Open System is a thermodynamics system in which both the working substance and energy are crossing its
boundaries. An example of which is a pump or compressor being cut from the suction point to the discharge
side.
3. Isolated system is a thermodynamic system in which neither the mass (working substance) nor energy
crosses its boundaries, and completely not affected by the surrounding conditions.

 Thermodynamic Properties are descriptive characteristics of the system used to compute the changes of energy
that have occurred in a system or working substance. These are characteristics or attributes of matter which can
be evaluated quantitatively

Types of Thermodynamic Properties

1. Intensive Properties are thermodynamic properties that are independent of the mass of the substance in the
system. Example: temperature, pressure, density, and voltage.
2. Extensive Properties are thermodynamic properties that are dependent upon the mass of the substance in
the system. These properties are total values. Example: total volume, total internal energy, or total enthalpy
3. Specific Properties are properties that are considered for a unit mass, and are intensive by definition.
Example: specific volume, specific internal energy, or specific enthalpy

BASIC LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. First Law of Thermodynamics deals with law of conservation of energy. The law of conservation of energy states
that “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it just transforms into another forms”.
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with the direction of flow of heat energy that is from the higher
temperature body to lower temperature body, and the property known as “Entropy”.
3. Third Law of Thermodynamics deals with the restriction of all physical systems to the temperature regime that
excludes absolute zero. The law states that, “At absolute zero, the entropy of a pure substance (in equilibrium at
0 oK or 0 oR) in some ‘perfect’ crystalline form becomes zero”.
4. Zeroth Law is law concerning thermal equilibrium and is the basis for temperature measurement.
 The law states that “When two bodies, isolated from other environment, and are in thermal equilibrium with a
third body, the two are in thermal equilibrium with each other”.

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

 The second law of motion of Newton states that, “The acceleration of a particular body is directly proportional to
the resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional to this mass”. Acceleration is also the derivative of
velocity of a body with respect to time.

F F ma
a  , or ak , or F
m m k

Where, F = force acting on the body, N, kgf, lbf

m = mass of the body, kg, lb
a = acceleration, m/s2, fps2
k = proportionality constant, depending on the unit of F

Definitions and Units of Force

1. Newton Force: A Newton force is a force required to accelerate 1 kg-mass at 1 m/s2. Thus, 1 N = 1 kg-m/s2
2. Kg Force: A kg force is a force required to accelerate 1 kg-mass at 9.8066 m/s2. Thus, 1 kgf = 9.8066 kg-
m/s2

1
 3. Dyne force: A dyne force is a force required to accelerate 1-gram-maa at 1 cm/s2. Thus, 1 Dyne = 1 g-cm/s2
4. Gram force: A gram force is a force required to accelerate 1 gram-mass at 980.66 cm/s2. Thus, 1 gf = 980.66
g-cm/s2
5. Pound Force: A pound force is a force required to accelerate 1 slug mass at 1 fps2. Thus, 1 lbf = 1 slug-fps2.
6. Pound Force: A pound force is a force required to accelerate 1 lb-mass at 32.2 fps2. Thus, 1 lbf = 32.2 lb-
fps2

kg m  m kg m  m
Relation Between kgf and N: k  1  9.8066  1 kgf = 9.8066 N
Ns 2
kg f  s 2

slug  ft lb m  ft
Relation Between lbm and slug: k  1  32.174  1 slug = 32.174 lbm
lb f  s 2
lb f  s 2

MASS AND WEIGHT

 Mass is the absolute quantity of matter in substance or body. It is a quantity that does not change with the
change of gravity.
 Weight is the force of gravity on the body and could be determined by a spring scale. This quantity changes with
the change of gravity.
o At the surface of the earth near sea level, mass and weight are numerically equal.

FLUID THERMODYNAMICS PROPERTIES

1. Density is an intensive thermodynamic property that is usually used to determine the mass of the substance or
system. It is the mass per unit volume of a substance.

m

V

Where,  = density of the substance, kg/m3, lb/ft3.

m = mass of the substance, kg, lb.
V = volume of the substance, m3, ft3.

2. Specific volume is the volume of a unit mass substance; it is also defined as the reciprocal of density.

V 1
v  Where, v = specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb.
m 

3. Specific Weight is the force of gravity per unit volume of a substance.

Fg m g g
  
V kV k

Where,  = specific weight of the substance, N/m3, kgf/m3, lbf/ft3.

Fg = the force of gravity on the body or the weight of the body, kg f, lbf.

Note: If the mass is at the surface of the earth, near sea level, g is numerically equal to k (g  k).

4. Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of a certain substance to that of the specific weight of water at
standard condition. It is also defined as the ratio of the density of a certain substance to that of the density of
water at standard condition.

 
SG  
 w w

Where,  = Specific weight of a certain substance

w = Specific weight of water at standard condition
w = 62.4 lbf/ft3 = 1000 kgf/m3 = 9.8066 kN/m3 = 1 kgf/li
 = Density of a certain substance
w = Density of water at standard condition
w = 62.4 lbm/ft3 = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 kgm/m3
5. Pressure is an intensive thermodynamic property and basically defined as the force per unit area:

2
 F
p
A

Where, p = pressure, kN/m2, kPa, MPa, kgf/cm2, psi.

F = normal force, kN, kgf, lbf.
A = area, m2, cm2, in.2

 Gauge Pressure is the pressure of a substance or system measured by a pressure gage or a pressure-
measuring instrument.
 Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the column atmospheric air per unit area; or it is the pressure
of the atmosphere at a certain location, say, at the surface of the earth near sea level.

 Standard atmospheric pressure at the surface of the earth, near sea level
1 atmosphere = 29.92” Hg = 760 mm Hg = 101.325 kPa = 14.7 psi = 34 ft H2O = 760 Torr
1 atmosphere = 1.0332 kgf/cm2

 Special Pressure Conversions:

1 bar = 100 kPa = 0.10 MPa 1 mm Hg = 1 Torr

 Fluid Gage Pressure, or Hydrostatic Pressure, or simple, Fluid Pressure, is the force exerted by a column of
fluid per unit area.

Fg  g 
p  h  h
A  k 

Where, p = fluid pressure or hydrostatic pressure, kPag, psig

k = proportionality constant
A = cross sectional area of the column, m2, in.2
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8066 m/s2 = 32.174 fps2
m = mass of the column of fluid, kgm, lbm
h = depth of fluid, m, ft
Fg = force of gravity or the weight of the column of fluid, N, kg f, lbf

 Absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of the barometric pressure or atmospheric pressure and the gauge
pressure.

p ab  p baro  p g  p atm  p g

Where, pab = absolute pressure, kPaa, psia patm  pbaro = atmospheric pressure, kPa, psi
pbaro = barometric pressure, kPa, psi pg = gauge pressure, kPag, psig

 Note: kPaa means kPa absolute and psia means psi absolute; and kPag means kPa gauge and
psiag means psi gauge.

o Positive sign (+) is used when the gauge pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure or surrounding
pressure of the system.

o Negative sign (-) is used when the gauge pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure. Negative gauge
pressure is also called as Vacuum pressure.

Pressure Measuring Instruments

o Barometer is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure atmospheric pressure.
o Pressure Gauge is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure gauge pressure directly by its dial
indicator. Bourdon gage is the most commonly used pressure measuring instrument.
o Manometer is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure gauge pressure of the system using U-tube
wherein water or mercury is the working substance.

Types of Manometers
o Open-type Manometer – is a manometer with an atmospheric surface in one leg and capable of measuring gage
pressures.
 Piezometer – is the simplest form of manometer, which is a tube tapped into a wall of a container or conduit
for the purpose of measuring the pressure.

3
o Differential-type Manometer – is a manometer without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring only
differences of pressure.

6. Temperature
 The temperature of a body is its thermal state considered with reference to its ability to communicate heat to
another bodies”.
 Temperature is also defined as the measure of coldness and hotness of a body; it is an intensive
thermodynamic property used to indicate the amount of energy within the molecules of the substance.
 Fahrenheit scale is based on the freezing point of water as 0 oF and the boiling point of water as 212 oF at 1
standard atmospheric pressure. This scale is used for English system of measurement.
 Celsius scale is based on the freezing point of water as 0 oC and the boiling point of water as 100 oC at 1
standard atmospheric pressure. This scale is used in the Metric and SI system of measurement.
 Absolute temperature is the temperature of a body or system in reference to absolute zero. Degrees
Rankine is the unit used in the English system while Degreed Kelvin is used in the Metric or SI system of
units.

 Temperature Equations:

Conversion of oF to oC: t C 
5
t F  32 Conversion of oC to oF: t F 
9
t c  32
9 5
Absolute temperature in oK: TK  t C  273 Absolute temperature in oR: TR  t F  460

Where, tF = arbitrary temperature in oF tC = arbitrary temperature in oC

TR = absolute temperature in oR TK = absolute temperature in oK

7. Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property with the following definitions:

 For a closed system, it means the sum of internal energy and the product of pressure and specific volume,
and given by the relation:

h  u  pv

Where, h = enthalpy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb p = pressure, kPaa, psia

v = specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb

 For an open system, enthalpy means the sum of internal energy and the flow energy or flow work, and given
by the relation:

H  U  Ef

Where, H = total enthalpy, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min

U = total internal energy, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min
Ef = flow energy or work, kJ. KW, Btu, Btu/min

8. Entropy is a thermodynamic property first introduced by Clausius in 1865 and could be defined as follows:
 Entropy is the measure of the microscopic disorder of the molecules of a substance.
 It is a thermodynamic property that remains constant in an adiabatic reversible process.
 The change of entropy in an irreversible process is the measure of the unavailable energy.
 Entropy is also defined as the measure of the irreversibility of the system or substance.
 The change of entropy for a reversible process is given by the following relation:

 dQ 
s  s 2  s1   
 T  rev

 Details of entropy will be discussed in Lesson 5, Second law of thermodynamics.

Where, s = change of entropy, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR s1 = initial entropy, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR

s2 = final entropy, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR Q = heat transfer during the process, kJ, Btu
T = absolute temperature, oK, oR

9. Surface Tension – is the force of molecular attraction per unit length of free surface; it is a function of both the
liquid and the surface in contact with the liquid.

10. Compressibility – is the resistance of fluid to change its volume in a confined space. Compressibility of water
usually affects the solution of practical problems in hydraulics only by changing its unit weight.

4
  Modulus of Elasticity or Bulk Modulus of the fluid – is the ratio of the stress (change of pressure) to the strain
(change in volume divided by the original volume).

P

 V 
 
 V 

Where,  = bulk modulus or modulus of elasticity of fluid  = 300 000 psi (for water)
V = original volume V = change in volume
p = change in pressure

o The negative sign (-) accounts for the fact as the pressure increases, the volume decreases.

11. Viscosity - is a measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid; or it may be defined as the ratio of the shearing stress
or force between adjacent layers of fluid to the rate of change of velocity perpendicular to the direction of motion;
or it may be defined also as that property of a fluid that determines the amount of its resistance to a shearing
stress.

12. Kinematic Viscosity is defined as the absolute viscosity divided by density; it is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity
of a fluid to its mass density.

CYCLE AND PROCESS

 Process is the manner of changing the condition or state of the substance or system.
 Cycle is the series of two or more processes in which the final condition after the execution of the processes is
the same as the initial condition.

CONSERVATION OF MASS
 The law of conservation of mass states that “Mass can neither be created nor destroyed, it just transforms into
components”.

CONTINUITY EQUATION
 Continuity Equation is the conservation of mass expression for steady flow open system.
 Continuity equation is in the form of mass flow rate and volume flow rate of the fluid into or from the system.

 Mass Flow Rate Equation:

m  AV

Where, m = mass flow rate, kg/s   volume flow rate, m 3 / s

V
A = cross sectional area, m3. V = Velocity of fluid, m/s

 Volume Flow Rate Equation:

  AV
V

Where,  = Density of fluid, kg/m3.

SAMPLE AND PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Mass and Weight

1. The weight of an object is 80 lbf. Determine its mass at standard condition.
a) 80 lb b) 2.5 lb c) 2576 lb d) 79 lb

2. Find the weight of a 75-kgm object at standard condition.

a) 735.5 kgf b) 75 N c) 735.5 N d) 75 kgf

Density, Specific Volume, Specific Weight, Volume, and Specific Gravity

3. Two liquids of different densities, 1500 kg/m 3 and 500 kg/m3, are poured together into a 100-liter tank filling it. If
the resulting density of the mixture is 800 kg/m 3, find the respective quantities of liquids and also find the weight
of mixture with local gravity of 9.765 m/s2.
a) 45 kg and 35 kg b) 45 kg and 80 kg c) 35 kg and 79.66 kg d) 35 kg and 80 kg

4. In problem # 3 above, what is the weight of the mixture?

5
 a) 80 kgf b) 781.2 N c) 79.66 kgf d) 79.66 N

5. One kilogram of liquid having a density of 1200 kg/m 3 is mixed with a 2 kg of another liquid having a density of
2000 kg/m3. If the volume of the mixture is the sum of the initial volumes, determine the density of the mixture.
a) 1636.4 kg/m3 b) 3200 kkg/m3 c) 1600 kg/m3 d) 1066.67 kg/m3

6. A spherical tank 600 mm in diameter is filled with a fluid whose density is 640 kg/m 3. Find the total volume of
fluid in m3
a) 0.311 b) 0.113 c) 0.131 d) 1.130

7. A spherical tank 600 mm in diameter is filled with fluid whose density is 640 kg/m 3, what is the total mass of the
fluid?
a) 32.72 kg b) 72.32 kg c) 73.22 kg d) 37.22 kg

8. A spherical tank 600 mm in diameter is filled with fluid whose density is 650 kg/m 3, determine the specific volume
of the fluid.
a) 0.155 m3/kg b) 0.0155 m3/kg c) 0.00155 m3/kg d) 0.000155 m3/kg

9. A spherical tank 600 mm in diameter is filled with fluid whose density is 640 kg/m3, what is the flid specific weight
if g = 9.765 m/s2?
a) 637.29 kgf/m3 b) 637.29 N/m3 c) 673.29 kgf/m3 d) 673.29 N/m3

10. If the density of a gas is 0.003 slugs per cubic foot, what is the specific weight of the gas in N/m 3. [Ans. 15.2]

11. Determine the specific weight of water at standard condition, in kg f/m3 [Ans. 1000 kgf/m3]

12. A cylinder 6 inches in diameter and 10 inches high contains oil that has density of 850 kg/m 3. Determine the
weight of the oil, in lbf. [Ans. 8.69 lbf]

13. The fuel tank of a car holds 60 liters of gasoline. Assuming that the gasoline has a specific gravity of 0.74,
determine the weight of the gasoline in the tank, in kg f. [Ans. 44.4 kgf]

14. A liquid has a specific weight of 200 lbf/ft3. Calculate the volume needed to have a weight of 390 lbf. [Ans. 1.95
ft3]

15. It is proposed by a gasoline dealers to sell gasoline by the liter. If gasoline has a density of 1.3 slugs per cubic
feet, what is the weight of 60 liters of gasoline? [Ans. 40.2 kg f]

16. 100 g of water are mixed with 150 g alcohol (density = 790 kg/m³). What is the specific volume of the resulting
mixtures, assuming that the fluids mixed completely?
A. 0.82 x 10ˉ³ m3/kg B. 0.88 x 10ˉ³ m3/kg C.0.63 x 10ˉ³ m3/kg D. 1.16 x 10ˉ³ m3/kg

17. Steam flows through a nozzle at 400˚C and 1 Mpa (h = 3263.9 KJ/Kg) with velocity of 300 m/s. find the
stagnation enthalpy.
A, 3300 KJ/kg B. 3290 KJ/kg C.3320 KJ/kg D. 3309 KJ/kg

18. Given steam pressure of 900 lb/ft², temperature of 300˚F, specific volume of 5.8 ft³/lb. If the specific enthalpy is
9500 ft-lb/lb, what is the internal energy per lb of the system? 4280 ft-lb/lb

19. In a constant temperature, closed system process, 100 Btu of heat is transferred to the working fluid of 100˚F.
What is the change of entropy of the working fluid, KJ/k? 0.34 KJ/k

20. A household oil tank can hold 275 gallons of oil. If oil has a specific weight of 8 800 N/m 3, how many pounds
of oil will there be in a full tank? [Ans. 2 099.05 lbf]

Continuity Equation
21. A pump discharges 280 kg/min of water whose specific weight is 920 kg/m 3 (g = 9.765 m/s2). Determine the time
required to fill a spherical tank 3 m in diameter. [Ans. 47 minutes]

22. Air enters a nozzle steadily at 2.21 kg/m³ and 30 m/s. What is the mass flow rate through the nozzle if the inlet
area of the nozzle is 80 cm²?
A. 0.35 kg/s B. 3.5 kg/s C. 5.3 kg/s D. 0.53 kg/s

23. A pipe has a diameter of 4” at section AA, and a diameter of 2”at section BB. For an ideal fluid flow the velocity is
given as 1 ft/sec at section AA. What is the velocity at section BB?
A. 4 ft/sec B. 0.5 ft/sec C. 1.0 ft/sec D. 2.0 ft/sec

6
24. Water is flowing in a pipe with a diameter of 10 inches at a velocity of 5 m/s. If the density is 997.9 kg/m3 and the
viscosity of water is 1.131 Pa-s, determine Reynolds number of the flow. [Ans. 2241]

Pressure
25. A 30-m vertical column of fluid,  = 1878 kg/m3, is located where g = 9.65 m/s2. Find the pressure at the base of
the column, in kPag. [543.7 kPag]

26. A vertical column of water will be supported to what height by standard atmospheric pressure in ft? [Ans. 33.9 ft]

27. The door of a jet liner has the dimensions of 2.3 m x 1.2 m. If the inside pressure of the cabin is 98 kPaa, what
force is exerted on the door when the plane flies at an altitude where the outside pressure is 15 kPaa? [Ans.
229.08 kN]

28. A boiler installed where the atmospheric pressure is 752 mm Hg has a pressure of 12 kg/cm 2. Find the absolute
pressure, in MPa. [Ans. 1.28]
29. The pressure of a boiler is 9.5 kg/cm2. The barometric pressure of the atmosphere is 768 mm Hg. Find the
absolute pressure in the boiler, in psia. [Ans. 150.013 psia]

30. A vacuum gage mounted on a condenser reads 660 mm Hg. What is the absolute pressure in kPaa when the
atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa. [Ans. 13.3]

31. The piston of a pump is 7.5 cm in diameter. If a force of 2000 N is applied to the piston, what is the pressure that
is being developed at the face of the piston? [Ans. 453 kPag]

32. Convert the following readings of pressure to kPaa assuming that the barometer reads 760 mm Hg.
a) 40 cm Hg vacuum [Ans. 48] b) 100 psig [790.7]
c) 8 inches of mercury vacuum [Ans. 74.23] d) 900 mm Hg gage [Ans. 221.3 ]

33. Steam exhausts to a condenser pressure of 620 mm Hg vacuum. Determine the absolute pressure in kg/cm 2 if
the barometric reading is 750 mm Hg. [0.18]

34. A tank is filled with fresh water until there us a depth of 35 ft of water. Determine the pressure, psig, at the
bottom of the tank. [Ans. 15.2 psig]

35. A vacuum gage reads 10” Hg when the atmospheric pressure is 30” Hg. Assuming the density of mercury to be
13595 kgm/m3, determine the absolute pressure in kPaa. [Ans. 135.45 kPaa]

36. A pressure gage indicates 25 psi when the barometer is at a pressure equivalent to 14.5 psi. Compute the
absolute pressure in psia and ft of mercury if the specific gravity of mercury is 13.0. [Ans. 7.01 ft Hg]

37. During take off in space, an 80-kg astronaut is subjected to acceleration equal to 5 times the pull of the earth’s
standard gravity. If the take off is vertical, what force does he exert on the seat? [Ans. 4.71 kN]

38. A hiker is carrying a barometer that measures 101.3 kPa at the base of the mountain. The barometer reads 85
kPa at the top of the mountain. The average air density is 1.21 kg/m3. Determine the height of the mountain.
[Ans. 1373.67 m]

39. An oil storage tank contains oil with a specific gravity of 0.88 and a depth of 20 m, what is the hydrostatic
pressure at the bottom of the tank, in kg/cm2. [Ans. 1.76]

40. What minimum pressure is required to force blood from the heart to the top of the body if the vertical distance is
7 cm. Assume blood density as 1.04 g/cm3 and neglect friction. Express answer in mm Hg column. [Ans. 5.35]

41. A weatherman carried an Aneroid barometer from the ground floor to his office atop the Shangrila Hotel in
Madaluyong City. On the ground level, the barometer reads 30.150 inches of Hg absolute, and at the topside it
reads 28.607 inches of Hg absolute. Assume that the average air density (atmospheric) was 0.075 pcf, estimate
the height of the building, in ft. [Ans. 1455]

42. Water is flowing in a pipe with radius of 25.4 cm at a velocity of 5 m/s at a temperature in the pipe. The density
and viscosity of water are 997.9 kg/m 3 and 1.131 Pa-s, respectively. What is the Reynolds number for this
situation? [Ans. 2241]

43. The pressure of a boiler is 9.5 kg/cm 2. The barometric pressure is 768 mm of mercury. Find the absolute
pressure in the boiler.

7
44. The barometer of a mountain hiker reads 930 mbars at the beginning of a hiking trip and 780 mbars at the end.
Neglecting the effect of altitude on a local gravitational acceleration, determine the vertical distance climbed.
Assume g = 9.7 m/s
A. 1274.21 m B. 1289.00 m C. 1267.34 m D. 1583.34 m

45. Find the pressure at the 100 fathom depth of water in kpag.
A. 1,793.96 kpag B. 1,893.96 kpag C. 1,993.96 kpag D. 1,693.96 kpag

Temperature
46. A Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers are both immersed in a fluid and indicate identical numerical readings.
What is the temperature of the fluid expressed as oK? [Ans. 233 oK]

47. A new temperature scale is proposed in which the boiling and and freezing points of water at atmospheric
pressure are 500 oH and 100 oH, respectively. What is the absolute zero in oH? [Ans. – 992 oH]

48. The temperature inside a furnace is 320 oC and temperature of the outside is – 10 oC. What is the temperature
difference in oR. [594]

49. A mechanical engineer is a member of a geological survey team. In a certain project an appropriate height
calculation was made on a certain falls. Thermometer readings at the top of the falls indicate 32 oC and at the
point where the water falls on the rocks below it, thermometer reading indicates 32.05 oC. Assume that no
energy is added or dissipated during its fall, what would be the approximate height of the falls. [Ans. 21.3 m]

50. At what temperature are the two temperature scales oC and oF equal? [- 40]

51. Convert 750˚R to ˚K.

A. 390.33˚K B. 395.33˚K C. 410.33˚K D. 416.33˚K

52. Determine the temperature for which a thermometer with degrees Fahrenheit is numerically twof a hice the
reading of the temperature in degrees Celcuis.
A. -24.6 B. 320 C. 160 D. -12.3

53. The temperature inside a furnace is 320 oC and the temperature of the outside is 10 oC. What is the temperature
difference in oF? [558]

54. Determine the percentage change in the volume of water if its pressure is increased by 30 000 psi. [Ans. 10 %] 
= 300 000 psi (for water)

Viscosity
55. The absolute viscosity of a fluid at atmospheric conditions is 6 x 10 -3 kgf-s/m2. Find this viscosity in: a) Reyn
[Ans. 8.535 x 10-6]; b) Poise [Ans. 0.5886]; c) lbf-s/ft2 [Ans. 1.23 x 10-3]; and d) Pa-s [Ans. 0.05886]

56. Mercury at 20 oC has a viscosity of 1.58 x 10-2 poise. What is the force necessary to maintain a relative velocity
of 2 m/s between two plates that are separated by 10 cm and whose area is 0.10 m 2. [Ans. 0.00316 N]

PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

1. Find the pressure at the 100 fathom depth of water in kpag.

A. 1,793.96 kPag B. 1,893.96 kPag C. 1,993.96 kPag D. 1,693.96 kPag

2. Convert 750˚R to ˚K.

A. 390.33˚K B. 395.33˚K C. 410.33˚K D. 416.33˚K

3. Determine the temperature for which a thermometer with degrees Fahrenheit is numerically twice the reading of
the temperature in degrees Celcuis.
A. - 24.6 B. 320 C. 160 D. - 12.3

4. A certain boiler has a pressure of 200 psi. If barometric pressure is 745 mm of Hg, find the absolute pressure in
kPaa.
A. 1652.45 B. 1823.21 C. 3846.78 D. 1477.90

5. 438 °K is _____°F.
A. 213 °F B. 329 °F C. 113 °F D.1156 °F

8
6. A tank contains water having a height of 10 m and oil (SG = 0.9) with 4 m above water surface. Find the pressure
of water at the bottom of the tank.
A. 113.42 kPag B. 123.42 kPag C. 133.42 kPag D. 143.42 kPag

7. The suction has a pressure of 100 mm Hg vacuum. If the atmospheric pressure is 10m of H₂O, find the absolute
pressure in m of H₂O.
A. 8.64 B. 9.38 C. 10.34 D.12.45

8. Find the equivalent of 36°F temperature change in °C.

A. 2.22 °C B. 3.33 °C C. 20 °C D. 30 °C

9. The barometer of a mountain hiker reads 930 mbars at the beginning of a hiking trip and 780 mbars at the end.
Neglecting the effect of altitude on a local gravitational acceleration, determine the vertical distance climbed.
Assume g = 9.7 m/s
A. 1274.21 m B. 1289.00 m C. 1267.34 m D. 1583.34 m

10. A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads30 kpa at a location where the barometric reading is 755 mm Hg.
Determine the absolute pressure in the tank.
A. 70.6 kPaa B. 84.23 kPaa C. 90.34 kPaa D. 98.45 kPaa

11. Determine the pressure exerted on a diver at 30 m below the free surface of the sea. Assume a barometric
pressure of 101 kpa and the specific gravity of sea water is 1.03.
A. 404 kPaa B. 410 kPaa C. 420 kPaa D. 430 kPaa

12. Water enters the heater at 30˚C and leaves at 150˚F, what is the temperature difference in ˚C
A. 25.55 ˚C B. 35.55 ˚C C. 45.55 ˚C D. 55.55 ˚C

13. 100 g of water are mixed with 150 g alcohol (density = 790 kg/m³). What is the specific volume of the resulting
mixtures, assuming that the fluids mixed completely?
A. 0.82 x 10ˉ³ m3/kg B. 0.88 x 10ˉ³ m3/kg C.0.63 x 10ˉ³ m3/kg D. 1.16 x 10ˉ³ m3/kg

14. Air enters a nozzle steadily at 2.21 kg/m³ and 30 m/s. What is the mass flow rate through the nozzle if the inlet
area of the nozzle is 80 cm²?
A. 0.35 kg/s B. 3.5 kg/s C. 5.3 kg/s D. 0.53 kg/s

15. A pipe has a diameter of 4” at section AA, and a diameter of 2”at section BB. For an ideal fluid flow the velocity is
given as 1 ft/sec at section AA. What is the velocity at section BB?
A. 4 ft/sec B. 0.5 ft/sec C. 1.0 ft/sec D. 2.0 ft/sec

16. What is the specific volume of air at 15 psia and 90˚F in ft³/lb?
A. 13. 57 f³/lb B. 15.57 ft³/lb C. 17.57 ft³/lb D. 19.57 ft³/lb

9
 LAGUNA STATE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY
C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g
Mechanical Engineering Department
Sta. Cruz Campus, Sta. Cruz, Laguna

MODULE 2. WORK, ENERGY, POWER, and FIRST LAW

Prepared by: Jose R. Francisco, PME, CEM

Instructor
ENERGY
 Energy is basically defined as the capacity to do work; or energy is the capacity of the substance or system
to do an effect. As stated in the law of conservation of energy, “Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, it just transforms into another forms”.

Potential energy
 Potential energy is the energy of a body or substance because of its position or elevation measured with
respect to a certain datum line. This energy is also called as gravitational potential energy.

o Total Potential Energy:

PE  Fg  z  m g z

o Change of Potential Energy, total value:

PE  m g z   m g z 2  z1 

o Change of Potential Energy, Unit Mass:

pe  g z   g z 2  z1 

Where, PE = total potential energy of the body, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min
PE = change of total potential energy, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/mim
pe = change of unit mass potential energy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
m = mass of the body or substance, kg, kg/s, lb, lb/min
z1 = initial position of the body, m, ft.
z2 = final position or elevation of the body, m, ft.
z = change of position of the body, m, ft.
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2, fps2 = 9.8066 m/s2 =32.2 fps2

Kinetic Energy
 Kinetic Energy is basically defined as the energy of a body because of its velocity.

 Total Kinetic Energy of the body:

m V2
KE  F  s 
2

 Change of Total Kinetic Energy, due to the change of velocity:

KE 
m 2
2

V2  V12 
 Change of Unit Mass Kinetic Energy:

ke 
V 2
2  V12 
2

Where, KE = total kinetic energy of the body, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min
KE = change of total kinetic energy, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min
ke = change of unit mass kinetic energy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb

1
 m = mass of the body or substance, kg, kg/s, lb, lb/min
V = velocity of the body, m/s, fpm
V1 = initial velocity of the body, m/s, fpm
V2 = final velocity of the body, m/s, fpm

Internal Energy
 Internal Energy is the energy of a body or substance that is the sum of the energies of all its molecules; it is
also the sum of the various forms of energy that a molecule has.

 Change of internal energy of a system or any substance:

U  U 2  U1  m u 2  u 1 
 Change of internal energy for an ideal gas:

U  m c v dt  m c v T2  T1 
2
1

Where, U = total internal energy, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min

m = mass of the substance, kg, kg/s, lb, lb/min
U = change of total internal energy of the system or substance, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min
T2 = final temperature, K, R
u1 = initial specific internal energy, kJ/kg, Btu/min
u2 = final specific internal energy, kJ/kg, Btu/min
cv = specific heat at constant volume, kJ/kgm-K, Btu/lbm-R
T1 = initial temperature, K, R

Work energy
 Work Energy is basically defined as energy in transition; it exists only when a force is moving through a distance.
It is a transitional energy (not stored in a moving substance) crossing the boundaries of a system that could
conceivably produce the one and only effect of raising a weight.

Work Equation: W  F  s

Convention of Sign for Work Energy

Work is positive (+) when work is done by the system.

Work is negative (-) when work is done to the system.

Non-Flow Work or Work on a Moving Boundary

o Non-flow work is a work done to or by a non-flow closed system during a reversible process without flowing
of a working substance or through a moving boundary.

 Non-flow Work, total value:

dW  p dV W  1 p dV  m 1 p dv
2 2


w  1 p dv
2
 For unit mass analysis:

Where, W = nonflow work or work done during the process, kJ, Btu
w = unit mass nanflow work, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
p = pressure, kPaa, psia
V = volume, m3, ft3.
v = specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb

Flow Work or Flow Energy

o Flow work or Flow Energy is work done in pushing a fluid across a boundary, usually into or out of the
system

 Change of flow energy between boundaries, say 1 to 2:

E f  E f 2  E f 1  p 2 V2  p1V1  m p 2 v 2  p1 v1 

 Change of flow energy, unit mass analysis,

2
 e f  p 2 v 2  p1 v1

Where, Ef = flow work or energy, kW, Btu/min

Ef = change of flow energy between boundaries, kW, Btu/min
ef = change of flow energy, unit mass, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
Ef1 = flow work or energy at boundary 1, kW, Btu/min
Ef2 = flow work or energy at boundary 2, kW, Btu/min
V1 = volume flow rate at boundary 1, m3/s, cfm.
V2 = volume flow rate at boundary 2, m3/s, cfm.
v1 = specific volume at boundary 1, m3/kg, ft3/lb.
v2 = specific volume at boundary 2, m3/kg, ft3/lb.
m = mass flow rate, kg/s, lb/min

Heat Energy
 Heat Energy is basically defined as the energy in motion; it moves from higher temperature body to lower
temperature body.

Convention of Sign for Heat Energy

o Heat is positive (+) when heat is transferred to or supplied to the system.

o Heat is negative (-) when heat is transferred from or rejected by the system

Q  1 dQ  Q12
2
For a system undergoing a process, say, 1 to 2,

Difference of Heat and Work

o Work can be converted entirely into heat, or ideally entirely into other forms of energy.
o Heat cannot be converted entirely into work, only part of it will be converted into wok energy.

SPECIFIC HEAT
 Specific heat is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass substance by
one degree Kelvin.

Constant Volume Specific Heat, cv,

o Constant volume specific heat or specific heat at constant volume is the change of the molecular internal
energy for a unit mass or one mole of a substance per degree change of temperature with the volume
remains constant from the initial state to the final state.

Constant Pressure Specific Heat

o Constant pressure specific heat or specific heat at constant pressure is the change of enthalpy for a unit
mass or one mole substance per degree change of temperature between two states without changing the
pressure.

Specific Heat Ratio

 Specific heat ratio is the ratio of constant pressure specific heat to that of constant volume specific heat:

cp H
k 
cv U

Specific Heat Relation (For Ideal Gas)

 From the equation of enthalpy and taking its differential, h  u  pv
kR R R
cp  cv  R cp  and cv  R
k 1 k 1 M

Where, k = specific heat ratio

R = gas constant, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR
ft  lb Btu kJ
R  Universal gas cons tan t  1545.32  1.9859  8.3143
lb  Ro
lb  R
o
kg  o K
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY FOR ANY SYSTEM
 For any system, the energy entering the system minus the energy leaving the system is equal to the change of
stored energy of the system.

3
 Energy Entering Energy Leaving  Changeof Stored 
   
 the System   the System  Energy of the System

E in  E out  E s

Where, Ein = Energy entering the system

Eout = Energy leaving the system
Ein = Change of energy stored within system

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY FOR NON-FLOW CLOSED SYSTEM

 Non-flow closed system is a system in which work produced is done by a moving boundary, as with the case of
piston-cylinder device, illustrated in the figure below.
dW
dQ  dE s  dW  Q  E s  W

Es = U + P + K
dEs
Where, Q = heat transfer, kJ, Btu
Es = change in stored energy of the system, kJ, Btu.
U = change of internal energy of the system, kJ, Btu. dQ
P = change of potential energy of the system, kJ, Btu
K = change of kinetic energy of the system, kJ, Btu W = non flow work of the system, kJ, Btu

If P and K are negligible, Q  U  W

For Unit Mass Analysis, q  u  w

Where, q = unit mass heat transfer, kJ/kg, Btu/lb

u = unit mass change of internal energy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb.
w = unit mass non flow work, kJ/kg, Btu/lb.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY FOR STEADY FLOW OPEN SYSTEM

 Steady flow open system is a system in which the mass entering the system is equal to the mass leaving the
system; it is also a system in which the energy entering the system is equal to the energy leaving the system. For
a steady flow open system, the change of stored mass and the change of stored energy are zero.

m1 1 System
2 m2

z1
z2
Q Datum line

 Conservation of mass: m1 = m2

Where, m1 = the mass flow rate entering the system, kg/s, lb/min.
m2 = mass flow rate leaving the system, kg/s, lb/min.
ms = change in stored mass within the system = 0

 Conservation of Energy:

Q  U  E f  P  K  W But, H = U + Ef,

Then, Q  H  P  K  W

Where, U = change in internal energy between boundaries, kW, Btu/min.

4
 Q = heat transfer to the system, kW, Btu/min
Ef = change in flow energy between boundaries, kW, Btu/min.
H = change in enthalpy between boundaries, kW, Btu/min
K = change in kinetic energy between boundaries, kW, Btu/min.
W = shaft work or steady flow work, kW, Btu/min.

 For Unit Mass Analysis,

q  u  e f  p  k  w  But, h = u + ef

Then, q  h  p  k  w

Where, q = unit mass heat transfer, kJ/kg, Btu/lb

u = unit mass change of internal energy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb.
ef = unit mass change of flow energy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
p = unit mass change of potential energy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb.
k = unit mass change of kinetic energy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
h = unit mass change of enthalpy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb.
w = unit mass work of steady flow open system, kJ/kg, Btu/lb

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

 The First law of thermodynamics deals with the Law of Conservation of Energy. The law of conservation of
energy states that “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it just transforms into another form or forms”.
 To apply the first law of thermodynamics, two thermodynamic systems are considered in this module, namely:
the closed system, and open system.

FIRST COROLLARY OF THE FIRST LAW

 The first corollary of the first law of thermodynamics is the application of the conservation of energy to
closed system or control mass.
 Closed system is also known as a fixed or controlled mass system; it could be a non-flow closed system or
steady flow closed system.

First Law Statement for a System Undergoing a Cycle

 The first law of thermodynamics states that, “during any cycle a system undergoes, the cyclic integral of the
heat is proportional to the cyclic integral of the work” or “ when a system is undergoing a cyclic change, the
net heat added to or rejected from the system is equal to the net work done by or done to the system”.

SECOND COROLLARY OF THE FIRST LAW

 The second corollary of the first law of thermodynamics is the application of the conservation of energy to an
open system.
 There are two type of an open system being considered here, namely: the steady flow open system and the
unsteady flow or transient flow open system.
 Open system is also called as fixed volume in space or control volume.

APPLICATIONS OF STEADY FLOW OPEN SYSTEM

Adiabatic Turbine
 Adiabatic Turbine is an engine, equipment, or prime mover that convert enthalpic energy into mechanical energy;
Turbine could be a steam turbine, water turbine, air turbine, or gas turbine; Turbine process is adiabatic, means
there is no heat transfer from the surroundings to the turbine or from the turbine to the surroundings.

Compressors and Pumps

 Compressors and Pumps are machines that are utilized to compress, or raise the pressure of, the fluid passing
through them; Compressor is a machine that transports gas from one point to another point of higher energy
level; it is capable of compressing the gas to a very high pressure; Pump is a machine that at transports liquid;
the work is very much like that of the compressor except that it handles liquids instead of gases.

Boiler or Steam Generator

 Boiler is a vapor generator in which a liquid, say water, is converted into a vapor, say steam, by addition of heat;
A boiler used to generate steam is also called as steam generator.

Condenser
 Condenser is basically defined as an apparatus that condenses a substance from its vapor phase to its liquid
phase by extracting heat from the substance; In steam power plant, condenser is a component used to maintain
vacuum conditions on the exhaust of prime mover by transfer of heat to circulating water or air at the lowest
5
 ambient temperature; In refrigeration system application, condenser is used to reject heat from the refrigerant at
a relatively high temperature and pressure in order to convert refrigerant vapor into liquid; and Condenser is
generally classified as surface condenser and contact condenser. In a surface condenser, there is no direct
mixing of vapor and the coolant; while in the contact condenser, there is a direct mixing of the vapor and coolant
in the extraction of heat.

Throttling Devices
 A throttling Device is an apparatus in which by an obstruction in its through-flow reduces the pressure of the flow;
it is a device that is used to reduce the pressure of the fluid with the increase of its velocity; The process
involving this device is called throttling process and is a constant enthalpy process or isenthalpic process; and A
typical example of this device is a throttling valve or expansion valve in a vapor-compression refrigeration
system; or a capillary tube in a household refrigerator.

Nozzle and Diffuser

 A nozzle is basically defined as device used to increase the flow speed of the substance passing through it; It is
a device that converts enthalpy into kinetic energy. The kinetic energy is then usually used to drive a mechanical
device such as turbine wheel. It increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure.
 A diffuser is basically defined as a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down. The process
of a diffuser is the reversed process of a nozzle.

Mixing Chambers
 A Mixing Chamber is basically defined as a section where the mixing process takes place. The mixing chamber
does not have to be a distinct “chamber”. An ordinary T-elbow or Y-elbow as a shower, for example, serves as
the mixing chamber for the cold-and hot-water streams.
 A Mixing Chamber, for example, is a furnace wherein air and fuel are mixed for combustion process.
 Mixing chamber is considered as a steady flow open system because the conservation of mass and conservation
of energy are also applied.

SAMPLE AND PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Work, Energy, Power

1. What is the kinetic energy, in kJ/kg, of a high velocity flow of gas at 240 m/s? [Ans. 29]

2. If a 1/3-Hp pump runs for 20 minutes, determine the energy required in kJ. [Ans. 298.4]

3. A spherical balloon 6 m in diameter is filled with gas weighing 5.5 N/m 3. In Standard air weighing 12 N/m3, what
is the maximum load including its weight that the balloon can lift? [Ans. 735 N]

4. A 1-kg hammer moving with a velocity of 50 m/s strikes a 200 gram iron stake, driving it into the ground. If half of
the energy goes into the iron rod, what will be its rise in temperature? C p for iron = 0.14 kCal/kg-oK. [Ans. 5.33
oK]

5. An electric motor converted 1 kW of electrical input into work at 65 kg-m/s. The speed is 1750 rpm. Find the
driven torque in N-m. [Ans. 3.48]

Conservation of Energy (Closed and Open Systems)

6. A heat engine receives 70 lbs of steam per minute with an enthalpy of 1600 Btu/lb and a velocity of 100 fps. It
leaves the engine at 900 fps and 1320 Btu/lb enthalpy. Radiation loss is 84 000 Btu/hr. Find the engine power
output. [Ans. 403 Hp]

7. Steam flows into a turbine at the rate of 10 kg/s and 1o kW of heat are lost from the turbine. Ignoring elevation
and kinetic energy effects, calculate power output from the turbine. The enthalpy at the turbine inlet is 3140 kJ/kg
and at the outlet is 3100 kJ/kg. [390 kW]

8. Steam turbine is receiving 1014 lb/hr of steam, determine the horsepower output of the turbine if the work done
by the steam is 251 Btu/lb
A. 100 Hp B. 462.7 Hp C. 200 Hp D. 6002.7 Hp

9. A steady flow system boiler from feed water entering at 40 oC produces steam, at the rate of 600 kg/hr. Find the
rate at which heat is transformed in kCal/hr if steam enthalpy is 660 kCal/kg. [372 000 kcal/hr]

10. 0.10 kg/s of hot gas at a temperature of 285 oC enters the nozzle of a gas turbine at an enthalpy of 3100 kJ/kg
and exits the nozzle at 3070 kJ/kg at a pressure of 5 MPaa. The gas has an approximate molecular weight of 28
and its specific heat ratio is 1.35. If the nozzle is considered to be well insulated, determine: a) The exit gas
velocity if approach velocity is neglected [244.9 m/s]; b) The exit gas temperature [259 oC]; and c) The proper
exit cross sectional area [Ans. 0.0000125 m3]

6
11. Surveys made on Maria Cristina falls indicate that the temperature of the water as it falls to the rocks below is
25.07 oC and at the top of the falls, the average temperature is 25 oC. Determine the approximate height of the
water falls if it is assumed that there are no evaporation losses and no heat energy is dissipated or added during
the fall. [Ans. 29.88 m]

12. Steam enters a turbine stage with an enthalpy of 3628 KJ.kg at 70 m/s and leaves the same stage with an
enthalpy of 2864 KJ/kg and a velocity of 124 m/s. Calculate the power if there are 5 kg/s steam admitted at the
turbine throttle?
A. 4597.45 KW B. 3976.55 KW C. 3883.81 D. 1675.42 KW

13. Steam with an enthalpy of 800 kcal/kg enters a nozzle at a velocity of 80 m/s. Find the velocity of the steam at
the exit of the nozzle if its enthalpy is reduced to 750 kcal/kg assuming the nozzle to be horizontal and
disregarding heat losses. [Ans. 326 m/s]

14. Steam flows into a turbine at the rate of 20 kg/s with an enthalpy of 2650 kJ/kg. Radiation losses from the turbine
are 12 kW. Ignoring elevation and kinetic energy effects, calculate power output from the turbine if exhaust
enthalpy of steam is 2245 kJ/kg. [Ans. 8 088 kW]

15. Steam with enthalpy of 800 kCal/kg enters a nozzle at a velocity of 80 m/s. find the velocity of the steam at the
exit of the nozzle if its enthalpy is reduced to 750 kCal/kg, assuming the nozzle is horizontal and disregarding
heat losses. Take g = 9.81 m/s² and J constant = 427 kg m/kCal.
A. 452.37 m/s B. 245.45 m/s C. 651.92 m/s D.427.54 m/s

16. Mechanical energy in the form of torque, 4000 N-m, is applied to an AC generator at a speed of 30 revolutions
per second. The machine losses some of the energy in the form of heat losses at 44.44 kW and the remainder is
transformed to the electrical form. Calculate the power produced, in kW. [Ans. 709]

17. A power dam creates a head of 30 m in a stream whose normal flow is 120 m 3/s. Hydraulic turbines, that can
convert 94 % of the water power to the shaft power, are installed. The turbines are connected to the electric
generators with an efficiency of 98.5 %. What is the kW capacity of the plant? [ans. 32699]

18. A hydraulic turbine receives water from a reservoir at an elevation of 100 m above it. What is the minimum water
flow in kg/s to produce a steady turbine output of 50 MW? [Ans. 51000]

19. A metal fabrication company has two 50-Hp motors for stamping and shearing operations and five 20-Hp motors
for other operations. Assume 80 % efficiency of the motors, 95 % for line transmission efficiency and 92 % for
generator. Find the rated capacity of the generator, in kW, assuming that all motors deliver their rated power
simultaneously. [Ans. 196]

20. How much heat, in kJ, must be transferred to 20 kg of air to increase the temperature from 20 oC to 280 oC if the
pressure is maintained constant? [Ans. 5200]

21. A non-flow, closed, system contains 0.5 kg of an ideal gas. The gas temperature is increased by 10 oC while 10
kJ of work are done by the gas. What is the heat transfer, in kJ, if cv = 0.9 kJ/kg-K? [Ans. 14.5]

22. Fifty five thousand gallons of water passes through a heat exchanger and absorbs 29540000 kJ. The exit
temperature is 45 oC. Calculate the water entrance temperature. [Ans. 11.08 oC]

23. The mass flow rate of ammonia through a heat exchanger is 5 kg/min. enthalpy of ammonia at entry is 240 kJ/kg
and at exit is 80 kJ/kg. Water coolant is allowed to rise to 10 oC. Determine the water flow rate, in kg/min. [Ans.
20]

24. Determine the maximum thermal efficiency that can be obtained in an ideal reversible heat engine operating
between 840 oC and 170 oC. [Ans. 60 %]

25. A 3-hp refrigerator or heat pump operates between – 18 oC and 38 oC. Determine the maximum theoretical heat
that can be transferred from the cold reservoir. [Ans. 10.2 kW]

26. Determine the maximum Hp output from any power unit burning 1 055 000 kJ/hr of fuel with high and low
temperature extremes of 840 oC and 5 oC. [Ans. 219 kW]

27. An ideal gas at a pressure of 4120 kPaa and a temperature of 25 oC is contained in a cylinder with a volume of
20 m3. A certain amount of the gas is released so that the pressure in the cylinder drops to 1730 kPaa.
Expansion of the gas is isentropic. The heat capacity ratio is 1.4 and the gas constant is 0.286 kJ/kg-oC.
Determine the mass of gas remaining in the cylinder, in kg. [Ans. 520.2]

7
28. There are 1.5 kg of air in a rigid container at 170 kPaa and 38 oC. If the temperature is raised to 80 oC, what is
the resulting absolute pressure? [Ans. 194]

29. A tank contains 80 ft3 of air at a pressure of 350 psia. If the air is cooled until its pressure and temperature
decreases to 200 psi and 70 oF, respectively, what is the change in internal energy in Btu? [Ans. – 5552]

30. If 10 lbs of water are evaporated at atmospheric pressure until a volume of 288.5 ft3 is occupied. How much work
is done? [Ans. 602 948 ft-lb]

31. How much work is done when 20 ft3 of an air initially at a pressure of 15 psia and a temperature of 45 oF
experience an increase of pressure to 60 psia while the volume is constant? [Ans. No work]

32. Steam flows through a nozzle at 400˚C and 1 Mpa (h = 3263.9 KJ/Kg) with velocity of 300 m/s. find the
stagnation enthalpy.
A. 3300 KJ/kg B. 3290 KJ/kg C.3320 KJ/kg D. 3309 KJ/kg

33. Given steam pressure of 900 lb/ft², temperature of 300˚F, specific volume of 5.8 ft³/lb. If the specific enthalpy is
9500 ft-lb/lb, what is the internal energy per lb of the system? 4280 ft-lb/lb

34. In a constant temperature, closed system process, 100 Btu of heat is transferred to the working fluid of 100˚F.
What is the change of entropy of the working fluid, KJ/k? 0.34 kJ/K

35. Air enters a nozzle steadily at 2.21 kg/m³ and 30 m/s. What is the mass flow rate through the nozzle if the inlet
area of the nozzle is 80 cm²?
A. 0.35 kg/s B. 3.5 kg/s C. 5.3 kg/s D. 0.53 kg/s

36. A pipe has a diameter of 4” at section AA, and a diameter of 2”at section BB. For an ideal fluid flow the velocity is
given as 1 ft/sec at section AA. What is the velocity at section BB?
A. 4 ft/sec B. 0.5 ft/sec C. 1.0 ft/sec D. 2.0 ft/sec

37. Steam turbine is receiving 1014 lb/hr of steam, determine the horsepower output of the turbine if the work done
by the steam is 251 Btu/lb
A. 100 Hp B. 462.7 Hp C. 200 Hp D. 6002.7 Hp

38. Steam enters a turbine stage with an enthalpy of 3628 KJ.kg at 70 m/s and leaves the same stage with an
enthalpy of 2864 KJ/kg and a velocity of 124 m/s. Calculate the power if there are 5 kg/s steam admitted at the
turbine throttle?
A. 4597.45 KW B. 3976.55 KW C. 3883.81 D. 1675.42 KW

39. Steam with enthalpy of 800 kCal/kg enters a nozzle at a velocity of 80 m/s. find the velocity of the steam at the
exit of the nozzle if its enthalpy is reduced to 750 kCal/kg, assuming the nozzle is horizontal and disregarding
heat losses. Take g = 9.81 m/s² and J constant = 427 kg m/kCal.
A. 452.37 m/s B. 245.45 m/s C. 651.92 m/s D.427.54 m/s

40. Compare the operating costs of a home refrigerator that uses 700 kW-hr electricity annually to one that uses
1900kW-hr. The cost of electricity is P1.25 per kW-Hr. If this were enacted nationally, such that 10 million
refrigerators were effected, what would be the total savings in kW-hrs?

41. Consider the fuel savings in problem # 40, because less electricity needs to be generated. A power plant may be
40 % efficient in converting the fuels chemical energy into electricity. Assume the fuel is oil with a heating value
of 18 500 Btu/lb. How many lb of fuel would be saved?

42. Refer to the energy and lifetime comparisons between incandescent and fluorescent lights. Using a 75-W
incandescent bulb and a 20-W fluorescent bulb, investigate the initial cost of each at a local store. Assuming that
the light is used 8 hours per day annually, determine the time necessary to recover the additional cost of the
fluorescent bulb.

43. Refer to problem # 42, calculate the total energy savings over the lifetime of the fluorescent bulb. If nationally 10
million bulbs have been changed to fluorescent, calculate the fuel savings annually, using the same assumption
in Problem # 41.

8
 LAGUNA STATE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY
C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g
Mechanical Engineering Department
Sta. Cruz Campus, Sta. Cruz, Laguna

MODULE 3. IDEAL GASES & PROCESSES OF IDEAL GASES

Prepared by: Jose R. Francisco, PME, CEM

Instructor
DEFINITIONS AND USEFUL INFORMATION
 Ideal gas or perfect gas is a substance in a gaseous phase whose molecules are linked only by collision forces
and not distorted by collision.

IDEAL GAS LAWS

 Boyle’s Law: “If the temperature of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the volume of gas varies inversely
with the absolute pressure during a quasi-static or reversible change of state.”
p T
2
pV = C 2 T=C 1

For T = C, V V

1 C
V , V  , or PV  C ,  p1V1  p 2 V2 , or p1v1  p 2 v 2
p p
p 2 V1 v1
 
p1 V2 v 2

Where, p1 = initial absolute pressure, kPaa, psia

p2 = final absolute pressure, kPaa, psia
V1 = initial volume, m3, ft3.
V2 = final volume, m3, ft3.
v1 = initial specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb
v2 = final specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb.

 Charles’ Law or Gay-Lussac’s Law:

 If the pressure of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the volume of gas varies proportionately with the
absolute temperature during the change of state.

p T 2
1 2
1

V V
For p = C,

V  T , V  CT , or T  CV

T2 V2 v 2
For process 1 to 2:  
T1 V1 v1

Where, T = temperature, oK, oR

1
  If the volume of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the pressure of gas varies proportionately with the
absolute temperature during the change of state.”
p
T 2
2

1
1

V p
For V = C,
P2 T2
p  T , or p  CT For process 1 to 2: 
P1 T1
Equation of State
 The following equation is known as ideal gas equation or equation of state

pv  RT or pV  mRT

Where, p = the absolute pressure, kPaa v = specific volume, m3/kg

T = absolute temperature, oK R = gas constant, kJ/kg-oK
V = mv = total volume, m3

Gas Constant, R
 The proportionality constant in the equation of state is known as the gas constant, which is the ratio of the
universal gas constant and the molecular mass of the given gas.

R
R
M

Where, M = molecular mass of a given gas, kg/kgmol

R  Universal gas cons tan t, kJ / kgmol o K
R  1545.32 ft  lb / pmol o K  1.9859 Btu / pmol o R
R  8.3143 kJ / kgmol o K  1.9859 kcal / kgmol o K

 Avogadro’s Law: Avogadro’s law states that in an “equal volumes of all ideal gases at a particular pressure and
temperature contain the same number of molecules”. The number of molecules is known as the Avogadro’s
number.

Avogadro’s Numbers, NA = 6.02252 x 1023 molecules/gmole

 Joule’s Law: Joule’s Law of an ideal gas states that “the change of internal energy of an ideal gas is a function
of only the change of temperature, U = U (T)”.

Considering a certain process 1 to 2: U  m

c v dT  mc v T2  T1 
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
 The total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressure that each gas would exert where it to
occupy the vessel alone at the volume, Vm, and the temperature, Tm, of the mixture.

Specific Heat Ratio

 Specific heat ratio is the ratio of constant pressure specific heat to that of constant volume specific heat.
cp
k
cv
Where, k = specific heat ratio
cp = constant pressure specific heat, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR
cv = constant volume specific heat, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR

Relation of Cp, Cv, and R

kR R
cp  c v  R cp  cv 
k 1 k 1
2
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR
 Compressibility Factor is a factor used to determine whether a gas is real or ideal.
 The value of compressibility factor for ideal gas is one and a value of other than one for real gas.

pv
Z
RT

Where, p = absolute pressure, kPaa, psia v = specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb

T = absolute temperature, oK, oR R = gas constant, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR
Z = compressibility factor Z = 1 (for ideal gas)
Z > 1 or Z < 1 (for actual gas)

IDEAL GASES PROCESSES

 Process is the manner of changing the state of a fluid or changing the thermal condition of a fluid or system.

Isometric Process (Isochoric Process)

 Isometric process is the manner of changing that state or thermal condition of fluid at constant volume. It
could be internally reversible or internally irreversible process.

T 2
p
T2
p2 2

1
T1
p1 1

V1 = V2 V s1 s2 s

p 2 T2
Pressure and Temperature Relations: 
p1 T1

Where, p1 = initial pressure, kPaa, psia p2 = final pressure, kPaa, psia

T1 = initial absolute temperature, oK, T2 = final absolute temperature, oK, oR

2
 Work Done During the process: W 
 pdV  0
1

Change of Internal Energy During the Process: U  m c v dT  mc v T   mc v T2  T1 

2


1

Where, U = change in internal energy during the process, kJ, Btu

cv = specific heat at constant volume, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR

Heat Transfer During the process, Q  U  m c v dT  mc v T   mc v T2  T1 

2

1

Where, Q = heat transfer during the process, kJ, Btu.

cv = specific heat at constant volume, kJ/kg-oK

Change of Enthalpy During the Process, H  m c p dT  mc p T   mc p T2  T1 

2

 1

Where, H = change of enthalpy during the process, kJ, Btu

cp = specific heat at constant pressure, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR

2 2 T
 c
dQ dT
 Change of Entropy During the Process, S  m v  mc v ln 2
1 T 1 T T1

Isobaric Process
 Isobaric process is an internally reversible change of state without changing the pressure during the
process.
3
 T 2
T2
p
1 p=C 2
1
T1

V1 V2 V s1 s2 s

T2 V2
 Relation of Temperature and Volume: 
T1 V1

Where, V1 = initial volume, m3 V2 = final volume, m3

Work Done During the Process: W  p dV  pV2  V1   m R T2  T1 

2


1

Where, m = mass of gas, kg, lb

R = gas constant, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR

Change of Internal Energy During the Process: U  m c v dT  m c v T   m c v T2  T1 

2

 1

 Heat Transfer During the Process: Q  m c p T2  T1   H

Change of Enthalpy During the Process: H  m c p dT  m c p T   m c p T2  T1 

2

 1

2 2 2  dT  T 
  
dQ dH
 Change of Entropy During the Process: S   m cp    m c p ln  2 
1 T 1 T 1  T   T1 

Isothermal Process
 Isothermal Process is an internally reversible change of state of the system or substance without changing
the temperature.
p
2
p1
T
pV = C
2 T=C 1

1
p2

s2 s1 s V2 V1 V
p 2 V1 v1
Relation of pressure and Volume:  
p1 V2 v 2

Where, v1 = initial specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb v2 = final specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb

 V2  V 
Work done during the process: W  p 1 V1 ln    m R T1 ln  2 
 V1   V1 

Change of internal energy during the process: U  m c v dT  m c v T   m c v T2  T1   0

2

1

4
  V2  V 
Heat transfer during the process: Q  U  W  W  p 1 V1 ln    m R T1 ln  2 
 V1   V1 

Change of enthalpy during the process: H = 0

2 2 V 
 
dQ dW W
Change of entropy during the process: S     m R ln  2 
1 T 1 T T  V1 

Isentropic Process
 Isentropic Process is an adiabatic and internally reversible process or a constant entropy change of state.

p T
2
p1 T2 2
pVk = C

1 T1 1
p2

V2 V1 s1 = s2 s
V
k 1
k k 1 k 1
p V  T p  k V  v 
 Relation of p, T, & V: 2   1   2   2    1    1 
p1  V2  T1  p1   V2   v2 

p 2 V2  p1V1 mRT2  T1 
 Work Done During the Process: W    mc v T2  T1 
1 k 1 k

Change of Internal Energy During the Process: U  m c v dT  m c v T2  T1 

2


1

 Heat Transfer During the Process: Q  U  W  m c v T2  T1   m c v T2  T1   0

Change of Enthalpy during the process: H  m c p dT  m c p T2  T1 

2


1

2

dQ
 Change of Entropy During the process: S  0; S1  S 2
1 T

k p 2 V2  p1 V1   k 
 m R T2  T1 
2 2 dp


Steady-Flow Open System:  V dp   C
 1

1 k

 1 k 
p
1 1
k

Polytropic Process
 Polytropic Process is an internally reversible process in accordance with pV n = C, where n is any constant
other than 1, 0, , and k.

p T 2
2 T2
p1
pVn = C

1
1 T1
p2

V2 V1 V s1 s2 s

5
 n 1
k n 1
p V  T p  n V 
 Relation of p, T, & V: p1V12  p 2 V22 or 2   1   2   2    1 
p1  V2  T1  p1   V2 

2 p 2 V2  p1 V1 m R T2  T1 
Work Done During the Process: W 
 p dV 
1 1 n

1 n

Change of Internal Energy During the process: U  m c v dT  m c v T2  T1 

2

1

 Heat Transfer During the process: Q  mc n T2  T1 

kn
Where, c n  polytropic specific heat  c v  
 1 n 

Change of enthalpy During the Process: H  m c p dT  m c p T2  T1 

2

 1

2 2  dT  T 
 
dQ
 Change of Entropy During the Process: S  m cn    m c n ln  2 
1 T 1  T   T1 

n p 2 V2  p1 V1   n 
 m R T2  T1 
2 2 dp
 Steady Flow Open System:  V dp  C
  1

1 n

 1 n 
p
1 1
n

SUMMARY
 Consider the polytrophic equation, pVn  C ,
 Let n = 0, pV n  pV 0  p  C , the process is isobaric.

 Let n =1, pV1  pV  C , That is T = C or isothermal process.

C C
 Let n = , pV n  pV   C , V  1
  C , That is an isometric process.
p  p0

 Let n = k, pV n  pV k  C , That is an isentropic process.

p
pVk = C, n = k
T p=C

V = C, n = 

p= T=C
C, n
=0

pV = C, n = 1 s=C

V=C

s
V

6
Discharging a Tank
1
 
m2  p2   k  v1
  
m1  p1  v2

Where, m1 = initial mass of gas in the tank, kg m2 = final mass of gas in the tank, kg
p1 = initial pressure, kPaa p2 = final pressure, kPaa
v1 = initial specific volume, m3/kg v2 = final specific volume, m3/kg

Charging of Tank
 Consider Figure 15 below for the charging of tank.

For the general energy equation for transient flow, open system,

 V2   V2 
Q  U cv   h   gz  dm e   h  
 gz  dm i  W
 2   2 
 e  i

Where Q = 0 and W = 0, and neglecting the potential and kinetic energy,

Then, U cv 

 h dm  0;   h dm  U
i i cv  m 2 u 2  m1u1

o Assuming that the properties in the line are constant with time, which are not affected when charging the
tank. Integrating the above equation from 0 to mL (mL = mline) and hL is constant.

h dm 
mL
0 i
 m L h L  m 2 u 2  m1u1

Assuming that the tank is initially empty, m1 = 0, then, mL = m2

m2hL  m2u2 or hL  u2
 cp 
For an ideal gas, h = cpT and u = cvT, Then, c p TL  c v T2  T2    TL  k TL
 cv 

SAMPLE AND PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Ideal Gas and Equation of State

1. A volume of 400 cc of air measured at a pressure of 740 mm Hg absolute and temperature
of 19 oC. Determine the volume at 760 mm Hg absolute and 0 oC. [Ans. 364 cc]

pV p1V1 p2 V2
Solution: pV  mRT  mR   
T T1 T2

 p  T   740   0  273 
V2   1   2  V1     400   364 .13 mm Hg
 p2   T1   760   19  273 

2. If 100 ft3 of atmospheric air (14.7 psi) at zero Fahrenheit temperature are compressed to a
volume of 1 ft3 and temperature of 200 oF, what will be the pressure of the compressed air in
psia? [2110 psia]

pV p1V1 p2 V2
Solution: pV  mRT  mR   
T T1 T2
 T  V   200  460   100 
p2   2   1  p1     14 .7  2109 .13 psia
 T1   V2   460  1 

7
3. If the final volume of an ideal gas is compressed to one-half its original volume and to twice
its original temperature. What happened to the final pressure? [Ans. p2 = 4p1]

pV p1V1 p2 V2
Solution: pV  mRT  mR   
T T1 T2

 T  V   2T   2V 
p2   2   1  p1   1   1  p1  4 p1
 T1   V2   T1   V1 

4. A bicycle tire has a volume of 600 cm3. If it is inflated with carbon dioxide to a pressure of
551 kPaa at 20 oC, how many grams of carbon dioxide are contained in the tire? [Ans. 5.97
grams]

p V MpV
Solution: pV  mRT  m  
RT RT
3


44551 600cm  1 m  3

m
MpV
  100 cm   5.971 x 10 3 kg  5.971 grams
RT 8.314320  273
5. Find the mass of CO2 having a pressure of 20 psia at 200 oF with 10 ft3 volume.
a) 1.24 lb b) 1.04 lb c) 1.14 lb d) 1.34 lb

m
p V MpV
 
 
4420 psi 144 in2 / ft 2 10 ft 3  1.24 lb 
Solution:
R T R T 1545.32 ft  lb / lb  200  460 oR  
6. A spherical balloon with a diameter of 6 m is filled with helium at 20 oC and 200 kPaa. Determine the mole
number.
a) 10.28 kilogram moles b) 9.28 kilogram moles c) 11.28 kilogram moles d) 12.28 kilogram moles

R m pV
Solution: pV  mRT  m   T    R T  n R T n
M M R

4 4
Where, V     R3     3 m  113 .1 m3
3

 
3  
3

n
pV


200 kN / m2 113.1 m3  
 9.28 kgmol
R T 8.3143 kJ / kgmole  K 20  273 K 

7. Find the work posses by the helium in problem # 6 above at 20 oC.

a) 609 kJ/kg b) 168 kJ/kg c) 229 kJ/kg d) 339 kJ/kg

Solution: For the Mass of Helium,

 m  n M  9.284  37.12 kg
m
n
M

For the Work Posses:

V
  113.1 m  3
w  p v  p    200 kN / m2   609.375 kJ / kg
m  37.12 kg  
8
8. Find the enthalpy of helium in problem # 6 above if its internal energy is 200 kJ/kg.
a) 908 kJ/kg b) 890 kJ/kg c) 809 kJ/kg d) 980 kJ/kg

Solution: For the enthalpy,

 113 .1 
h  u  pv  200  200    809 .375 kJ / kg
 37 .12 

9. An insulated box containing helium gas falls from a balloon 4.5 km above the earth surface. Calculate the
temperature rise in oC of the helium when the box hits the ground.
a) 14.1 b) 12.1 c) 13.1 d) 25.3

m g z   R 
Solution: PE  KE  U  m c v T   m   T 
1000  k  1

Where, for Helium,

k = 1.666
M=4
R 8.3143 kJ / kgmol  K
R   2.078575 kJ / kg  K
M 4 kg / kgmol

T 
k  1g z  1.666  19.8066 m / s2 4500 m  14.14 K or o
C
1000R 1000 2.078575 kJ / kg  K 

Isometric Process
10. A closed vessel contains air at a pressure of 140 kPag and temperature of 20 oC. Find the final pressure in
gauge units if the air is heated at constant volume to 40 oC. Take atmospheric pressure as 759 mm Hg. [Ans.
156.5 kPag]

m R T1 m R T2 T2 p2
Solution: For Isometric Process, V   
p1 p2 T1 p1

T   40  273    101 .325 kPa  

p2   2  p1    759 mm Hg    140 kPag 
 T1   20  273    760 mm Hg  

p2  257 .66 kPaa

 101 .325 kPa 

pg2  p2  patm  257 .66  759 mm Hg    156 .47 kPag
 760 mm Hg 

11. An automobile tire is inflated to 220 kPag pressure at 10 oC. After being driven, the temperature rises to 24 oC.
Assume the tire does not stretch, what is the final gauge pressure. [Ans. 235.9 kPag]

Solution: Since, the tire does not stretch, V = C,

T   24  273 
p2   2  p1    101 .325  220   337 .22 kPaa
 T1   10  273 

pg2  257 .66  101 .325  235 .9 kPag

12. Air at 21 oC is used to inflate an automobile tire to 207 kPag. After being driven, the temperature has risen to 38
oC. What is the resulting pressure if the tire did not stretch? [Ans: 225]

9
 T   38  273 
Solution: p2   2  p1    101 .325  207   326 .15 kPaa
 T1   21  273 

pg2  326 .15  101 .325  224 .83 kPag

13. An automobile tire is inflated to 32 psig pressure at 50 oF. After being driven, the temperature rises to 75 oF.
Assuming that the volume remains constant, determine the gage pressure. [34.29 psig]

T   75  460 
Solution: p2   2  p1    14 .7  32   48 .989 psia
 T1   50  460 

pg2  48 .989  14 .7  34 .29 psig

14. Two kilograms of air in a rigid tank change its temperature from 32 oC to 150 oC. Find the work done during the
process.
a) 236 kJ b) 118 kJ c) 0 kJ d) 150 kJ

2
Solution: 
W  pdV  0
1

15. A perfect gas has a value of R = 58.8 ft-lb/lb-oR and k = 1.26. If 20 Btu are added to 10 lb of this gas at constant
volume when the initial temperature is 90 oF, find the final temperature.
a) 97 oF b) 104 oF c) 134 OF d) 84 oF

 R 
Solution: For Isometric Process, Q  U  m c v T2  T1   m   T2  T1 
 k  1
T2 
k  1U  T  1.26  120 Btu   90  460   556 .88 oR
 58 .8 ft  lb / lb o R 
1
mR
10 lb  

 778 .16 ft  lb / Btu 

t 2  T2  460  556 .88  460  96 .88 oF

16. A tank contains 90 ft3 of air at a pressure of 350 psig; if the air is cooled until its pressure and temperature
decrease to 200 psig and 70 oF respectively, what is the decrease in internal energy?
a) – 6246.96 Btu b) – 6322.09 Btu c) + 6254.25 Btu d) + 6322.09 Btu

T2 p2 p 
Solution: For Isometric Process,   T1  T2  1 
T1 p1  p2 

p   350  14 .7 
T1  T2  1   70  460    900 .28 oR  440 .28 oF
 p2   200  14 .7 

Where, for air,

Molecular mass or weight, M = 28.97 kg/kgmol or lb/pmol
Specific heats: cp = 1.0062 kJ/kg-K = 0.24 Btu/lb-oR
cv = 0.7186 kJ/kg-K = 0.1714 Btu/lb-oR
Specific heat ratio, k = 1.4
Gas Constant, R = 0.28708 kJ/kg-oK = 53.342 Ft-lb/lb-oR

For the mass of air,

10
 m
 
p1 V1 350  14.7 psi 144 in2 / ft 2 90 ft 3


 98.43 lb
R T1  
53.34 ft  lb / lb o R 900.28 oR 
 
U  m c v T2  T1   98 .43 lb  0.1714 Btu / lb o R 70  440 .28 

U   6246 .96 Btu

17. A scuba tank contains 1.5 kg of air. The air in the tank is initially at 15 oC. The tank is left near an engine exhaust
line, and the tank’s pressure doubles. Determine: a) the final temperature [Ans. 576 K]; b) the change in internal
energy [Ans. 310.4 kJ]; c) the heat added [Ans. 310.4 kJ]

Solution:
a) For the final temperature

p   2p 
T2  T1  2   15  273  1   576 K t 2  576  273  303 oC
 p1   p1 

b) For the Change of Internal energy

U  m c v T2  T1   1.5 kg 0.7186 kJ / kg  K 303  15   310 .43 kJ

c) For the Heat Added, for isometric process

Q  U  310 .43 kJ

18. There are 1.36 kg of air at 138 kPaa stirred with internal paddles in an insulated rigid container, whose volume is
142 liters, until the pressure becomes 690 kPaa. Determine the work input. [Ans. 195.96 kJ]

Solution: For the paddle work, Q  Wp  U  Wn

Where, Q = 0 (Adiabatic)
Wn = 0 (Non-flow Work)

m R T2  T1
Then, Wp  U  m c v T2  T1  p2  p1
V

k 1 k 1

Wp 
0.142 m  690  138 kN / m   295 .96 kJ
3
2
0. 4
19. The pressure in an automobile tire was checked at a service station and found to be 30 psig when the
temperature was 65 oF. Later the same tire was checked again, and the pressure gauge reads 35 psi. Assuming
that the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi did not change, what was the new temperature of the air in the tire?
[Ans. 583.72 oR]

p   35  14 .7 
Solution: T2  T1  2   65  460    583 .72 oR
 1
p  30  14 .7 

20. There are 1.5 kg of air in a rigid container at 170 kPaa and 38 oC. If the temperature is raised to 80 oC, what is
the resulting absolute pressure?
a) 192.96 kPaa b) 196.29 kPaa c) 169.29 kPaa d) 129.96 kPaa

T   80  273 
Solution: p2  p1  2   170    192 .96 kPaa
 T1   38  273 

11
21. A tank contains 80 ft3 of air at a pressure of 350 psia. If the air is cooled until its pressure and temperature
decreases to 200 psia and 70 oF, respectively, what is the change in internal energy?
a) + 5 563.3 Btu b) – 5 563.3 Btu c) + 5 635.3 Btu d) – 5 635.3 Btu

p   350 
Solution: For Isometric Process, T1  T2  1   70  460    927 .5 oR
 p2   200 

m

p2 V2 200 psia 144 in2 / ft 2 80 ft 3


 81.5 lb

R T2  
53.34 ft  lb / lb o R 70  460

 
Then, U  m c v T2  T1   81 .5 lb  0.1714 Btu / lb o R 70  460  927 .5

U   5552 .72 Btu

Isobaric Process
22. While the pressure remains constant at 689.5 kPaa, the volume of air changes from 0.567 m 3 to 0.283 m3. Find
the change of internal energy. [Ans. – 489.545 kJ]


Solution: For Isobaric Process, Q  H  U  p V2  V1 
U  H  p V2  V1   m cp T2  T1   p V2  V1 

 kR   k 
U  m   T2  T1   m R T2  T1   mR T2  T1   1
 k  1 k 1 

 k  k  1  R  p V2  V1 
U  mR T2  T1     m T2  T1  
 k  1   k  1 k 1

U 
 
p V2  V1  689 .5 kN / m2 0.283  0.567 m3


  489 .545 kJ
k 1 0 .4
23. Consider that 1 kg of air has a decrease of internal energy of 21.7 kJ while its temperature is reduced to one
third of the initial temperature during a reversible non-flow constant pressure process. Determine: a) the heat
transfer [Ans. – 30.39 kJ]; b) the work done during the process [Ans. – 8.69 kJ]; c) the change of entropy [Ans.
1.105 kJ/oK].

 
Solution: For isobaric process, Q  H  U  p V2  V1  U  m R T2  T1  
For the change of temperature,

 21.7
U   21.7 kJ  1 kg0.7186T   T    30.2 oK
0.7186
a) For the Heat Transfer

Q  H  m cp T   1 kg 1.0062 kJ / kg  K  30 .2   30 .4 kJ

b) The Work Done for the process

12
  p dV  p V  V1   m R T   1 kg 0.28708 kJ / kg  K  30 .2 K 
2
W 2
1

W   8.67 kJ

c) For the change of Entropy

2 2 2  dT  T 
  
dQ dH
S   m cp    m c p ln  2 
1 T 1 T 1  T   T1 

 T   1  1
S  m c p ln  1   m c p ln    1 kg  1.0062 kJ / kg  K ln  
 3T1  3 3

S   1.1054 kJ / K

24. Assume 5 lb of an ideal gas with R = 38.7 ft-lb/lb-oR and k = 1.668 have 300 Btu of heat added during reversible
constant pressure change of state. The initial temperature is 80 oF. Determine the non-flow work [Ans. 120.144
Btu]

Solution:

W  p dV  p V2  V1   m R T 
2
For the Non-Flow Work,  1

 k 
Where, Q  H  m c p T   m   R T 
 k  1

Q k  1 300 0.668
m R T     120.14
k 1.668

Then, W  m R T  120 .14 Btu  

Isothermal Process
25. In a constant temperature closed system process, 100 Btu of heat is transferred to the working fluid at 100 oF.
What is the change of entropy of the working fluid? [Ans. 0.3395 kJ/K]

2 2 V 
 
dQ dW W
Solution: For Isothermal Process, S     m R ln  2 
1 T 1 T T  V1 

2 dQ Q 100 Btu1.055 kJ / Btu

S    
5 
 0.3395 kJ / K
T T
 
1
9 100  32  273 
 
26. Assuming compression is in accordance to the relation pV = C; calculate the initial volume of a gas at a pressure
of 2 bar which will occupy a volume of 6 m3 when it is compressed to a pressure of 42 bar? [Ans. 0.2857 m3]

p2 V2 p 
Solution: For Isothermal Process,   V1  V2  1 
p1 V1  p2 

p   2 

V1  V2  1   6 m3    0.2857 m3 
 2
p  42 

Isentropic Process (Adiabatic Process)

27. Air is compressed adiabatically from 30 oC to 100 oC. If the mass of air being compressed is 5 kg, find the
change of entropy.
13
 a) 1.039 kJ/K b) 0.746 kJ/K c) 0 kJ/K d) 1.242 kJ/K

2

dQ
Solution: For Isentropic Process, S  0
1 T

28. Helium gas is compressed in an adiabatic compressor from an initial state of 14 psia and 50 oF to a final
temperature of 320 oF in a reversible manner. Determine the exit pressure of the helium.
a) 38.5 psia b) 40.5 psia c) 42.5 psia d) 44.5 psia

k 1
k 1 k 1
T p  k V  v 
Solution: For Isentropic Process, 2   2    1    1 
T1  p1   V2   v2 

k 1.666
 T  k 1  320  460  0.666
p2  p1  2   14 psi    40 .52 psia
 T1   50  460 

29. A nozzle is designed to expand air from 689 kPaa and 32 oC to 138 kPaa. Assume an isentropic expansion and
negligible approach velocity. The airflow rate is 1.36 kg/s. Calculate the exit velocity [Ans. 475.5 m/s]

Solution: For Adiabatic Nozzle, Q  H  PE  KE  W

Where, Q = 0, W = 0, PE = 0, V1 = 0

k 1 0.4
p   138  1.4
 32  273 
k
T2  T1  2    192 .65 K
 p1   689 

Then,
 k 
KE   H   m   R T2  T1  
m V22  V12  
 k  1 2000

V2   2000cp T2  T2   20001.006232  273  192.65

V2  475 .49 m / s

30. 0.10 kg/s of hot gas at a temperature of 285 oC enters the nozzle of a gas turbine at an enthalpy of 3100 kJ/kg
and exits the nozzle at 3070 kJ/kg at a pressure of 5 MPaa. The gas has an approximate molecular weight of 28
and its specific heat ratio is 1.35. If the nozzle is considered to be well insulated, determine the exit gas velocity if
the approach velocity is neglected.
a) 244.95 m/s b) 424.95 m/s c) 442.95 m/s d) 294.45 m/s

Solution: For Adiabatic Nozzle, Q  H  PE  KE  W

Where, Q = 0, W = 0, PE = 0, V1 = 0

KE   H   m h2  h1  

m V22  V12 
2000

V2   2000 h2  h1  2000 3100  3070   244 .95 m / s

Polytropic Process
31. During the polytropic process of an ideal gas, the state changes from 20 psia and 40 oF to 120 psia and 340 oF.
Determine the value of n. [Ans. 1.36]

n 1
n 1 n 1
T p  n V  v 
Solution: For the polytropic process, 2   2    1    1 
T1  p1   V2   v2 
14
 n 1
340  460  120  n
   n  1.356
40  460  20 

32. Air is compressed polytropically so that the pV1.4 = C. If 0.02 m3 of air at atmospheric pressure and 4 oC is
compressed to a gage pressure of 405 kPa, determine the final temperature of the air in oC. [Ans. 165.64 oC]

n 1 n 1
T p  n p  n
Solution: 2   2   T2  T1  2 
T1  p1   p1 
n 1 0.4
p   405  101 .325  1.4
 4  273 
n
T2  T1  2    438 .64 K
 p1   101 .325 

t 2  438 .64  273  165 .4 oC

33. A turbine receives 150 lb/s of air at 63 psia and 2450 oR and expands it polytropically to 14.7 psia. The exponent
n is equal to 1.45 for the process. Determine the power.
a) 34 599.78 Btu/s b) 34 599.78 Hp c) 34 599.78 kW d) 34 599.78 Ft-lb/s

Solution:

34. Five kg of air are compressed isentropically from 100 kPaa, 40 oC, to 200 kPaa. The air is then expanded
polytropically with n = 1.2 to the original state. How much heat was added to the working substance? [Ans. 149.2
kJ]

35. The work required to compress a gas reversibly according to pV 1.30 = C is 67.79 kJ if there is no flow. Determine
the Q if the gas is air. [Ans. – 16.88 kJ]

36. Helium expands polytropically through a turbine according to the process pV 1.5 = C. The inlet temperature is
1000 oK, the inlet pressure is 1000 kPaa, and the exit pressure is 150 kPaa. The turbine produces 10 000 kW.
Determine the mass flow rate of helium. For helium, M = 4 kg/kgmol and k = 1.666. [Ans. 3.423 kg/s]

37. During the polytropic process of an ideal gas, the state changes from 20 psia and 40 oF to 120 psia and 340 oF.
Determine the value of n.
a) 1.26 b) 1.63 c) 1.46 d) 1.36

Other Problems
38. An ideal gas at a pressure of 4120 kPaa and a temperature of 25 oC is contained in a cylinder with a volume of
20 m3. A certain amount of the gas is released so that the pressure in the cylinder drops to 1730 kPaa.
Expansion of the gas is isentropic. The heat capacity ratio is 1.4 and the gas constant is 0.286 kJ/kg-oC.
Determine the mass of gas remaining in the cylinder, in kg.
a) 520.2 b) 522.0 c) 502.2 d) 250.2

39. A volume of 400 cc of air measured at a pressure of 740 mm Hg absolute and temperature of 19 oC. Determine
the volume at 760 mm Hg absolute and 0 oC.
a) 366.13 cc b) 364.13 cc c) 313.64 cc d) 334.16 cc

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
IDEAL GAS
1. If the initial volume of an ideal gas is compressed to one-half its original volume and to twice of its temperature,
the pressure:
a. Doubles b. quadruples c. remains constant d. halves

2. Find the mass of carbon dioxide having a pressure of 20 psia at 200˚F with 10 ft 3 volume.
a. 1.04 lbs b. 1.14 lbs c. 1.24 lbs d. 1.34 lbs

3. A spherical balloon with a diameter of 6 m is filled with helium at 20˚C and 200 kpa. Determine the mole number.
a. 9.28 Kmol b. 10.28 Kmol c. 11.28 Kmol d. 13.28 Kmol

4. In Problem # 24, find the work posses for a helium gas at 20˚C.
15
 A. 609 kJ/kg B. 168 kJ/kg C. 229 KJ/kg D. 339 kJ/kg

5. In problem # 24, find the enthalpy of helium if its internal energy is 200 kJ/kg
a. 144 kJ/kg b. 223.42 kJ/kg c. 333.42 kJ/kg d. 168 kJ/kg

PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS

6. Air is compressed adiabatically from 30˚C to 100˚C. if mass of air being compressed is 5 kg. find the change of
entropy.
a. 1.039 kJ/K b. 0.746 kJ/kg c. 0 d. 1.245 kJ/kg

7. 2 kg of air in a rigid tank changes its temperature from 32˚C to 150˚C. find the work done during the process.
a. 236 b. 170 c. 195 d. 0

8. A perfect gas has a value of R = 58.8 ft-lb/lb-˚R and k = 1.26. if 20 BTU are added to 10lbs of this gas at a
constant volume when initial temperature is 90˚F, find the final temperature.
a. 97˚F b. 104˚f c. 154˚F d. 185˚F

9. A tank contains 90 ft3 of air at a pressure of 350 psig; if the air is cooled until its pressure and temperature
decreases to 200 psig and 70˚F, respectively, what is the decrease in internal energy?
a. 6232.09 BTU b. -5552 BTU c. 5552 BTU d.-6232 .09 BTU

10. Helium gas is compressed in an adiabatic compressor from an initial state of 14 psia and 50˚F to a final
temperature of 320˚F in a reversible manner. Determine the exit pressure of helium.
a. 38.5 psia b. 40.5 psia c. 42.5 psia d. 44.5 psia

11. An insulated box containing helium gas falls from a balloon 4.5 km above the earth’s surface. Calculate the
temperature rise in ˚C. of the helium when box hits the ground.
a. 15.2 b. 12.6 c. 25.3 d. 14.1

12. A turbine receives 150 lbm/sec of air at 63 psia and 2450˚R and expands it polytropically to 14.7 psia. The
exponent n is equal to 1.45 for the process. Determine the power.
a. 52,343.16 BTU/sec b. 53,343.16 kW c. 53,343.16 hp d. 53,343.16 ft-lb/sec

13. Air in a 10 m³ tank has a pressure of 500 kpa and temperature of 40˚C. Determine the mass of air in the tank.
a. 44.66 kg b. 55.66 kg c. 66.66 d. 77.66

14. The pressure and temperature of the vessel is 380 kpa and 60˚C, what is the density of air in kg/m³?
a.3.976 kg/m³ b. 4.976 kg/m³ c. 5.976 kg/m³ d. 6.976 kg/m³

15. What is the specific volume of air at 15 psia and 90˚F in ft³/lb?
a. 13. 57 f³/lb b. 15.57 ft³/lb c. 17.57 ft³/lb d. 19.57 ft³/lb

16. The temperature of an ideal gas remains constant while the absolute pressure changes from 100 kpa to 800 kpa.
If initial volume is 100 liters, what is the final volume?
a.10.00 liters b. 12.50 liters c. 15.00 liters d. 17.50

17. An automobile tire is inflated to 35 psig at 54˚F. After being driven, the temperature rise to 80˚F. Determine the
gage pressure assuming volume remains constant.
a. 36.51 psig b. 37.51 psig c. 38.51 psig d. 39.51 psig

18. An air is bubble from the bottom of a lake becomes triple, itself as it reaches on the water surface. How deep is
the lake?
a. 10.65 m b. 15.65 m c. 20.65 m d. 25.65 m

19. Find the mass of ammonia in the 100 ft³ tank having a pressure of 70 psi at 120˚F.
a. 11.61 lb b. 19.12 lb c. 24.34 lb d. 31.61 lb

16