AC synchronous generator (alternator) -

construction and working

by Kiran Daware AC Machines, Synchronous machines

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NOTE: This article is about alternators. The term 'AC generator'

commonly refers to an AC Synchronous generator or alternator.
Although, the term "AC generators" includes any type of
electricity generator that generates Alternating Current. Read
about 'Induction Generators' here.

Basically, an AC generator is an electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy in the form of Alternating Current (AC). Basic principle behind the working of
an AC synchronous generator is also Faraday's law of electrical induction, somewhat similar to
working of a DC generator.

How does an AC synchronous generator or alternator work?

The above figure illustrates how an alternator or AC synchronous generator work.

According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor moves in a
magnetic field,  EMF gets induced across the conductor. If a closed path is provided to the
conductor, induced emf causes current to flow in the circuit.
Now, in the above figure, let the conductor coil A-B-C-D is placed in a magnetic field. Direction
of the magnetic flux will be from N pole to S pole. The coil is connected to slip rings, and the
load is connected through brushes that are resting on the slip rings.

Now, consider the case 1 from the above figure. The coil is rotating clockwise, in this case, the
direction of induced current can be given by Fleming's right-hand rule, and it will be along A-B-
C-D.

As the coil is rotating clockwise, the position of the coil will be changed after half of the
rotational period, as shown in the second case of the above figure. In this case, the direction of
the induced current, according to Fleming's right-hand rule, will be along D-C-B-A. It shows that
the direction of the current changes after every half of the rotational time period, that means we
get an alternating current.

Construction of AC synchronous generator (alternator)

Salient pole type alternator

The main parts of an alternator, obviously, consists of a stator and a rotor. But, unlike other
machines, in most of the alternators, field exciters are rotating and the armature coil is stationary.

Stator: Unlike in a DC machine, the stator of an alternator is not meant to serve a path for
magnetic flux. Instead, the stator is used for holding armature winding. The stator core is made
up of lamination of steel alloys or magnetic iron, to minimize the eddy current losses

Why armature winding is stationary in an alternator?

  At high voltages, it is easier to insulate the stationary armature winding, which may be as
high as 11 kV or even more in some cases.
 The generated high voltage output can be directly taken out from the stationary armature.
Whereas for a rotary armature, there will be large brush contact drop at higher voltages,
also the sparking at the brush surface will be a problem to look after.
 If the field exciter winding is placed in the rotor, low voltage DC can be transferred
safely to the exciter winding via slip-rings.
 The armature winding can be braced well, to prevent deformation caused by high
centrifugal force if it was in the rotor.

Rotor: There are two types of rotor used in an AC synchronous generator/alternator: (i)
Salient and (ii) Cylindrical type

1. Salient pole type: Salient pole type rotor is used in low and medium speed alternators.
The construction of an AC synchronous generator of a salient pole type rotor is shown
in the figure above. This type of rotor consists of a large number of projected poles
(called salient poles), bolted on a magnetic wheel. These poles are also laminated to
minimize the eddy current losses. Alternators featuring this type of rotor are large in
diameters and short in axial length.

2. Cylindrical type: Cylindrical type rotors are used in high-speed alternators, especially in
turbo-alternators. This type of rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder having
slots along its outer periphery. Field windings are placed in these slots.

A DC supply is given to the rotor winding through the 'slip-rings and brushes' arrangement.

Connecting an alternator in the grid is called as synchronization of alternator, read more about it
at the link.

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Working principle and types of an Induction

Motor
by Kiran Daware AC Machines, Induction Motor
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Induction Motors are the most commonly used motors in many applications. These are also
called as Asynchronous Motors, because an induction motor always runs at a speed lower than
synchronous speed. Synchronous speed means the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the
stator.

There basically 2 types of induction motor depending upon the type of input supply - (i) Single
phase induction motor and (ii) Three phase induction motor.

Or they can be divided according to type of rotor - (i) Squirrel cage motor and (ii) Slip ring
motor or wound type

Basic working principle of an Induction Motor

In a DC motor, supply is needed to be given for the stator winding as well  as the rotor winding.
But in an induction motor only the stator winding is fed with an AC supply.

 Alternating flux is produced around the stator winding due to AC supply. This alternating
flux revolves with synchronous speed. The revolving flux is called as "Rotating Magnetic
Field" (RMF).
 The relative speed between stator RMF and rotor conductors causes an induced emf in
the rotor conductors, according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The
rotor conductors are short circuited, and hence rotor current is produced due to induced
emf. That is why such motors are called as induction motors. 

(This action is same as that occurs in transformers, hence induction motors can be called
as rotating transformers.) 
  Now, induced current in rotor will also produce alternating flux around it. This rotor flux
lags behind the stator flux. The direction of induced rotor current, according to Lenz's
law, is such that it will tend to oppose the cause of its production. 
 As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity between rotating stator
flux and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up with the stator RMF. Thus the rotor
rotates in the same direction as that of stator flux to minimize the relative velocity.
However, the rotor never succeeds in catching up the synchronous speed. This is the
basic working principle of induction motor of either type, single phase of 3 phase. 

Synchronous speed:

 The rotational speed of the rotating magnetic field is called as synchronous speed.

where, f = frequency of the spply

            P = number of poles

Slip:

Rotor tries to catch up the synchronous speed of the stator field, and hence it rotates. But in
practice, rotor never succeeds in catching up. If rotor catches up the stator speed, there wont be
any relative speed between the stator flux and the rotor, hence no induced rotor current and no
torque production to maintain the rotation. However, this won't stop the motor, the rotor will
slow down due to lost of torque, the torque will again be exerted due to relative speed. That is
why the rotor rotates at speed which is always less the synchronous speed.
The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and actual speed  (N) of the rotor is called as
slip.
Three Phase Induction Motor
by Kiran Daware AC Machines, Induction Motor

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A three phase induction motor runs on a three phase AC supply. 3 phase induction motors are
extensively used for various industrial applications because of their following advantages -

 They have very simple and rugged (almost unbreakable) construction

 they are very reliable and having low cost
 they have high efficiency and good power factor
 minimum maintenance required
 3 phase induction motor is self starting hence extra starting motor or any special starting
arrangement is not required

They also have some disadvantages

 speed decreases with increase in load, just like a DC shunt motor

 if speed is to be varied, we have sacrifice some of its efficiency

Construction of a 3 phase induction motor

Just like any other motor, a 3 phase induction motor also consists of a stator and a rotor. Basically there
are two types of 3 phase IM - 1. Squirrel cage induction motor and 2. Phase Wound induction motor
(slip-ring induction motor). Both types have similar constructed rotor, but they differ in construction of
rotor. This is explained further
.

Stator
The stator of a 3 phase IM (Induction Motor) is made up with number of stampings, and these
stampings are slotted to receive the stator winding. The stator is wound with a 3 phase winding which is
fed from a 3 phase supply. It is wound for a defined number of poles, and the number of poles is
determined from the required speed. For greater speed, lesser number of poles is used and vice versa.
When stator windings are supplied with 3 phase ac supply, they produce alternating flux which revolves
with synchronous speed. The synchronous speed is inversely proportional to number of poles (Ns =
120f / P). This revolving or rotating magnetic flux induces current in rotor windings according to
Faraday's law of mutual induction.

Rotor
As described earlier, rotor of a 3 phase induction motor can be of either two types, squirrel cage rotor
and phase wound rotor (or simply - wound rotor).

Squirrel cage rotor

Most of the induction motors (upto 90%) are of squirrel cage type. Squirrel cage type rotor has very
simple and almost indestructible construction. This type of rotor consist of a cylindrical laminated core,
having parallel slots on it. These parallel slots carry rotor conductors. In this type of rotor, heavy bars of
copper, aluminum or alloys are used as rotor conductors instead of wires.
Rotor slots are slightly skewed to achieve following advantages -

1. it reduces locking tendency of the rotor, i.e. the tendency of rotor teeth to remain under stator teeth
due to magnetic attraction.

2. increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor

3. increases rotor resistance due to increased length of the rotor conductor

The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded to short circuiting end rings at both ends. Thus this rotor
construction looks like a squirrel cage and hence we call it. The rotor bars are permanently short
circuited, hence it is not possible to add any external resistance to armature circuit.

Phase wound rotor

Phase wound rotor is wound with 3 phase, double

layer, distributed winding. The number of poles of rotor are kept same to the number of poles of the
stator. The rotor is always wound 3 phase even if the stator is wound two phase.
The three phase rotor winding is internally star connected. The other three terminals of the winding are
taken out via three insulated sleep rings mounted on the shaft and the brushes resting on them. These
three brushes are connected to an external star connected rheostat. This arrangement is done to
introduce an external resistance in rotor circuit for starting purposes and for changing the speed /
torque characteristics.
When motor is running at its rated speed, slip rings are automatically short circuited by means of a
metal collar and brushes are lifted above the slip rings to minimize the frictional losses.