BUILDING AND FURNITURE TECHNOLOGY

Table of Contents

The Natural and Built Environment ............................................................................................................ 1

Impact of Environmental Pollution on the Natural and Built Environment ....................................... 2
The influence of other cultures on Caribbean building styles. ............................................................... 4
Principles of the Building Construction Industry ............................................................................... 5
Site Works ................................................................................................................................................... 7
Factors to bear in mind when choosing a building site:........................................................................ 10
Preparing for Site Work Operations ................................................................................................. 12
Methods of clearing a building site ................................................................................................... 13
Hoarding; .................................................................................................................................................. 15
Laying Out Simple Buildings/Structures .................................................................................................. 16
Setting out the Building Outline ........................................................................................................... 17
Setting out Trenches ......................................................................................................................... 19
Excavation and Timbering .................................................................................................................... 20
Excavation......................................................................................................................................... 21
BASIC ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS .............................................................................................. 23
Sectional Views ................................................................................................................................ 25
TIMBER TECHNOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 26
Softwoods.............................................................................................................................................. 27
Conversion of Timber ........................................................................................................................... 28
Seasoning of Timber ............................................................................................................................ 30
Moisture content .................................................................................................................................. 31
Timber Defects ..................................................................................................................................... 32
Wood Preservation ................................................................................................................................ 34
Production of Common Building Construction Materials: ................................................................... 36
Uses of Construction Materials............................................................................................................. 36
Production of Manufactured Boards ..................................................................................................... 37
Plastics: ..................................................................................................................................................... 39
Building tools and Equipment .............................................................................................................. 40
Equipment: ............................................................................................................................................ 40
Guidelines for checking a scaffold ................................................................................................... 41
Tools and equipment for mortar and concrete ...................................................................................... 45

i
ii

Preparing Concrete................................................................................................................................ 46
Portland Cement.................................................................................................................................... 46
Characteristics of different Types of Cement........................................................................................ 46
The five common types of cement .................................................................................................... 46
Notable Behaviour of Concrete ............................................................................................................ 47
Characteristics of Aggregates ............................................................................................................... 47
Types of Aggregates ......................................................................................................................... 47
The total weight of water in the concrete.............................................................................................. 49
Some common mixes ............................................................................................................................ 49
Placing Concrete ................................................................................................................................... 50
Foundations ............................................................................................................................................... 52
Constructing a Concrete Foundation ................................................................................................ 52
Types of Foundations............................................................................................................................ 52
Constructing formwork ............................................................................................................................. 56
Constructing lintels and beams ............................................................................................................. 57
Walls ......................................................................................................................................................... 59
Categories of Walls ............................................................................................................................... 59
Wall Finishes ........................................................................................................................................ 65
Roofs ......................................................................................................................................................... 70
Parts of a Roof ...................................................................................................................................... 74
Doors ......................................................................................................................................................... 76
Windows ................................................................................................................................................... 81
Functions of windows: ...................................................................................................................... 82
Floors ........................................................................................................................................................ 85
Floor members .................................................................................................................................. 89
STAIRS ..................................................................................................................................................... 94
Basic Plumbing and Related Services....................................................................................................... 97
FURNITURE TECHNOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 104
Finishing and abrasives tools and materials; .................................................................................. 110
Using Furniture Equipment............................................................................................................. 113
Woodworking Joints ............................................................................................................................... 116
Constructing Simple Household Furniture; .................................................................................... 117
 1

The Natural and Built Environment

Components of the natural and built environment
The natural environment; surroundings which can be natural, man-made or a combination of these.

The built environment; created by man with or without the aid of the natural environment.
2

The components of the built environment:

Environmental polices relating to land management:
1. Planning requirements.
2. Building Regulations.
3. Land restrictions by vendor or lessor.
4. Availability of services.
5. Local amenities including transport.
6. Subsoil conditions.
7. Levels and topography of land.
8. Adjoining buildings or land.
9. Use of building.
10. Daylight and view aspects
Buildings and infrastructure to satisfy humans’
needs;
1. Natural contours of land.
2. Natural vegetation and trees.
3. Size of land and/or proposed building.
4. Shape of land and/or proposed building.
5. Approach and access roads and
footpaths.
6. Services available.
7. Natural waterways, lakes and ponds.
8. Restrictions such as rights of way; tree
preservation and ancient buildings.
9. Climatic conditions created by surrounding properties, land or activities.
10. Proposed future developments.

Impact of Environmental Pollution on the Natural and Built Environment

Effects of Climate Change:
Climate Change; is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended
period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years). Climate change may refer to a change in average weather
conditions, or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme
weather events). Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received
by Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions.
The five components of earth's climate system to include atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere
(restricted to the surface soils, rocks, and sediments), and biosphere. Natural changes in the climate system
("internal forcings") result in internal "climate variability". Examples include the type and distribution of species,
and changes in ocean currents.
Forcing mechanisms can be either "internal" or "external". Internal forcing mechanisms are natural processes within
the climate system itself (e.g., the thermohaline circulation). External forcing mechanisms can be either natural
(e.g., changes in solar output) or anthropogenic (e.g., increased emissions of greenhouse gases).
 3

Whether the initial forcing mechanism is internal or external, the response of the climate system might be fast (e.g.,
a sudden cooling due to airborne volcanic ash reflecting sunlight), slow (e.g. thermal expansion of warming ocean
water), or a combination (e.g., sudden loss of surface ice in the arctic ocean as sea ice melts, followed by more
gradual thermal expansion of the water). Therefore, the climate system can respond abruptly, but the full response
to forcing mechanisms might not be fully developed for centuries or even longer.
Risk Management Strategies:
The KYOTO Protocol; is an international treaty, which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gases emissions, based on the
premise that (a) global warming exists and (b) man-made CO2 emissions have caused it. The Kyoto Protocol was
adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December, 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There are currently
192 Parties (Canada withdrew effective December 2012) to the Protocol
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
1. The main feature of the Protocol is that it established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions
of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which
was a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol.
2. Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to prepare
policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition,
they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as
joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded
with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
3. Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
4. Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
5. Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under
the Protocol.
4

The influence of other cultures on Caribbean building styles.

British;
1. Bricks
2. Arches- a structure that spans a space and supports structure and weight above it.
3. MDF- see manufactured boards
4. Steep Roof-see roofs
5. Dormers- a structural element of a building that protrudes from the plane of a sloping roof surface
6. Casement Windows-see windows
7. Architraves- the lintel or beam that rests on the capitals of the columns.

French;
1. Louvered windows and doors
2. Veranda
3. Lattice work
4. Ornate mouldings
5. Double doors
6. Plaster walls
Indian;
1. Court yard
2. Circular roofs
3. Open floor plan
4. Cistern
5. Flat roof
American;
1. High rise building
2. Dry wall
3. Steel frame building
4. Split-level building with separate roofs for each
5. Panel construction
 5

Principles of the Building Construction Industry

Classification of Buildings:
Residential; dwelling houses/ buildings which contain one or a number of dwellings, or one whose sole purpose
is to serve as such.
Commercial; buildings or spaces within a building designated by planning authorities for the practice of business,
sector concerned with the construction of buildings or spaces within a building designated by planning authorities
for the practice of business, project or venture set up with the intention of providing goods and services to make a
profit project or venture set up with the intention of providing goods and services to make a profit
Social/Civic Industrial; structures and built form of a quality and suitability for an urban setting/ for the
production or manufacture of devices, materials, goods and products.

Basic building structures:

6

Superstructure; can be defined as all structure above substructure both internally and externally
Basic building elements:
Primary Elements; basically components of the building carcass above the substructure excluding secondary
elements, finishes, services and fittings.
Secondary Elements; completion of the structure including completion around and within openings in primary
elements.
 7

Site Works
A Building or Construction Site can be considered as a temporary factory employing the necessary resources to
successfully fulfil a contract.

 Excavation;
1. Any work on a construction site involving digging, blasting and removing material from the
ground.
2. A pit, a hole, or trench dug into the ground on a building site for the location of foundations,
drainage services and other subterranean constructions.

 Grading; the formation of masses of earth into the required contoured shape with bulldozers and other
mechanical plant, into embankments.

 Back filling; earth replaced and compacted into an excavation to cover subsoil foundations and services
once they have been laid.

 Drainage; Local Authority unless a private drain or sewer when owner(s) is responsible.

 Drive way; a private road leading from a public road up to a building.

 Septic and Sewer Systems;

1. A small-scale treatment plants for one building or complex, in which the solid matter in sewage
settles, and the remaining effluent is purified and released.
2. The network of sewers which convey discharge from buildings in a district to a sewage treatment
plant.

 Landscaping; in the context of building works this would involve reinstatement of the site as a
preparation to the landscaping in the form of lawns, paths, paving, flower and shrub beds and tree
planting
Building construction documents:
Site Specification Document; used to locate site, buildings, define site levels, indicate services to buildings,
identify parts of site such as roads, footpaths and boundaries and to give setting-out dimensions for the site and
buildings as a whole. Suitable scale not less than 1: 2500

 Site Plan; an architectural drawing depicting an area or plot of land with defined property lines.

 Architectural Plans;
1. Small scale plans and elevations, showing general arrangement and layout.
2. Drawings to larger scales giving specific details and data.

 Surveyor’s Plan; an architectural drawing showing the geological aspects of the property.

 Working Drawings;
1. Sections- used to provide vertical views through the building to show method of construction.
Suitable scale not less than 1 : 50
8

2. Component Drawings; used to identify and supply data for components to be supplied by a
manufacturer or for components not completely covered by assembly drawings. Suitable scale
range 1 : 100 to 1 : 1
3. Assembly Drawings; used to show how items fit together or are assembled to form elements.
Suitable scale range 1 : 20 to 1 : 5
All drawings should be fully annotated, fully dimensioned and cross-referenced.

 Bill of Quantities; written document prepared in accordance with the standard method of measurement.
Enables estimator to prepare tender sum.

 The Hydrosphere; refers to the combined mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of land.
 9

Site Work Operations

10

Factors to bear in mind when choosing a building site:

1. Soil-load bearing capacity; the amount of force, pressure, weight or stress that a material, soil,
foundations or a structure can safely withstand without failure.
2. Cohesive and non-cohesive soils;
Site Soil Tests; these tests are designed to evaluate the density or shear strength of soils and are very
valuable since they do not disturb the soil under test. Three such tests are the standard penetration test,
the vane test and the unconfined compression test.
Standard Penetration Test; this test measures the resistance of a soil to the penetration of a split spoon or
split barrel sampler driven into the bottom of a borehole. The sampler is driven into the soil to a depth of
150mm by a falling standard weight of 65kg falling through a distance of 760mm. The sampler is then
driven into the soil a further 300mm and the number of blows counted up to a maximum of 50 blows.
This test establishes the relative density of the soil.

Cohesive Soils Non- cohesive Soils

No. of Blows Relative Density No. of Blows Relative Density
0 to 4 Very loose 0 to 2 Very soft
4 to 10 Loose 2 to 4 Soft
10 to 30 Medium 4 to 8 Medium
30 to 50 Dense 8 to 15 Stiff
50 + Very dense 15 to 30 Very stiff
30 + Hard

3. Correct Foundation; is dependent on the results of soil bearing capacity, soil investigation, building
design and other economic and climatic factors.
4. Accessibility; this must be considered for both on- and off-site access. Routes to and from the site must
be checked as to the suitability for transporting all the requirements for the proposed works. Access on
site for deliveries and general circulation must also be carefully considered
5. Cost; Unit cost is the price per metre or foot of the land. Unit cost is normally associated with:
i. Level of development
ii. Available amenities
iii. Available Services
6. Topography; refers to the configuration of surface features of a plot of land, which influences where and
how to build and develop a site.
7. History; is the study of past events associated with the use of the site. Historical issues that should be of
concern to the purchaser are:
1. Water- whether a natural water course, springs or flooding are associated with the site.
2. Dump- whether the site was ever used as a dump for biological waste, refuse or chemical
contaminants
3. Original topography- whether the land was ever filled.
 11

4. Other problems e.g. Whether trees were recently removed to accommodate development or
5. Underground lines such as electric, gas or telephone.
6. Development- This is a measure of clearing and preparation activities associated with a site. It may
also indicate the availability of services to the site.
7. Availability of Utilities; Water, Electricity, Gas, Telephones, internet access
8. Zoning; Zoning ordinances are enacted within a municipality or land-use district to manage growth,
regulate land-use patterns, control building density, direct development to areas with adequate
services and amenities, protect environmentally sensitive areas, and conserve open space.
9. Prospect; existing holes from mining ore test or soil exploration.
10. Aspect; The direction which a building faces with respect to the points of a compass.
11. Location; may influence the unit cost by providing certain advantages such as prevailing winds,
scenic views and general neighbourhood.
12. Size;
13. Minimum sizes of building lots are usually specified in order that:
14. Legal requirements of setback and off set distances are satisfied
15. The building should occupy the maximum percentage of the total land area as specified by the
authorities for the prescribed zone.
16. Climate; the conditions of temperature, weather, wind, rainfall, sunshine, frost etc. for a particular
region.
12

Preparing for Site Work Operations

Construction of temporary shelters and services:

 Site offices; the arrangements for office accommodation to be provided on site is a matter of choice for
each individual contractor. Generally separate offices would be provided for site agent, clerk of works,
administrative staff, site surveyors and sales staff.
 Sanitary facilities; to be maintained, lit, ventilated and kept clean. Separate facilities for male and
female staff
 equipment and material storage; this can be defined as the provision of adequate space, protection and
control for building materials and components held on site during the construction process.
 Water; Local Water Company (A.P.U.A)
 Air- Pneumatic tools and equipment
 Electricity; transmission and distribution of a supply of electricity is usually required at an early stage in
the contract to provide light and power to the units of accommodation.
 Gas; Local gas or energy service providers
 Telephone; National Telecommunications Companies
Access road; a road which makes travel to the site by vehicle possible or a road during
construction or road /track which provides site access for motor vehicles.
 13

Site Equipment:
Items of builder’s plant ranging from small handheld power tools to larger pieces of plant such as mechanical
excavators and tower cranes can be considered for use for one or more of the following reasons:
1. Increased production.
2. Reduction in overall construction costs.
3. Carry out activities which cannot be carried out by the traditional manual methods in the context of
economics.
4. Eliminate heavy manual work, thus reducing fatigue and as a consequence increasing productivity.
5. Replacing labour where there is a shortage of personnel with the necessary skills.
6. Maintain the high standards required, particularly in the context of structural engineering works
On large contracts where a number of plant items are to be used it may be advantageous to employ a skilled
mechanic to be on site to carry out all the necessary daily, preventive and planned maintenance tasks together
with any running repairs which could be carried out on site
Digging; picks, shovels, wheelbarrows, Bulldozers, Scrapers, Graders, Tractor Shovels, Excavating Machines,
Face Shovels, Backacters, Draglines, Dumpers,
Lifting; Fork Lift Trucks, Hoists, Cranes,
Methods of clearing a building site

Stripping; this is the removal of the topsoil from the construction area. This area is usually stripped to a depth of
150 mm, using a bulldozer. Stripping helps to provide a sound level platform as well as the removal of vegetable
matter as well as the removal of termite’s nests. Soils containing high levels of vegetable matter tend to:
1. Support plant life
2. be very unstable
3. Affects some building materials
Clearing; is not necessarily part of stripping but for undeveloped sites, clearing is essential. Trees which sometimes
obstruct the building process, those found to be in the way and at a time obstruct the flow of traffic and must also
be removed. Cutting trees is important because trees damage to foundations. Substructural damage to buildings can
occur with direct physical contact by tree roots. More common is the indirect effect of moisture shrinkage or heave,
particularly apparent in clay subsoils.
Demolition of old buildings; partial or complete removal. Partial is less dynamic than complete removal, requiring
temporary support to the remaining structure. This may involve window strutting, floor props and shoring. The
execution of work is likely to be limited to manual handling with minimal use of powered equipment.
Preliminaries; a detailed survey should include:
• an assessment of condition of the structure and the impact of removing parts on the remainder.
• the effect demolition will have on adjacent properties.
• photographic records, particularly of any noticeable defects on adjacent buildings.
14

• neighbourhood impact, ie. disruption, disturbance, protection.

• the need for hoardings
• potential for salvaging/recycling/re-use of materials.
• extent of basements and tunnels.
• services need to terminate and protect for future reconnections.
• means for selective removal of hazardous materials.
Earthing; the electrical supply to a domestic installation is usually 220 volt single phase and is designed with the
following safety objectives:
1. Proper circuit protection to earth to avoid shocks to occupant.
2. Prevention of current leakage.
3. Prevention of outbreak of fire.
Salvaging; salvaged materials and components can be valuable, bricks, tiles, slates, steel sections and timber are
all marketable. Architectural features such as fireplaces and stairs will command a good price. Reclamation costs
will be balanced against the financial gain.
Disposing; Removal of debris, old stumps old cars.
Closed-loop (near zero waste, sustainable) process:
 15

Hoarding;
Hoarding is a part of the temporary facility installed on a construction site. Its primary function is the enclosure
of the construction area to serve as a form of protection to passers-by. This enclosure has other purposes and is
developed accordingly.

Purposes of hoarding:
1. Protection of the public; the local authority has the responsibility for the protection of the public
against injury during any construction work. As such, there are laws requiring the installation of
hoarding, particularly where pedestrian traffic is common. Hoarding should provide protection
from the vertical side and overhead as well as permit or provide adequate lighting and ventilation
if required.
2. General Security; the construction site must be secured, especially during evenings, on weekends
and public holidays.
3. Protection of materials; Hoarding is an ideal way of ensuring some degree of protection against
theft and vandalism of materials and installations.
4. Control; The control of the movement of workers and avoidance of unwanted interruptions and
distractions assist in increasing productivity. All activities should be carried out with minimum
inconvenience. The movement of supply vehicles and receipt of goods should be planned and
controlled at all times.
5. Reduction of interference and interruptions.; It is important that stray animals be kept off of the
construction site since they can cause disruptions to the building works as well as harm to the
workers
16

Laying Out Simple Buildings/Structures

Theodolite; a tripod mounted instrument designed to measure angles in the horizontal or vertical plane.
Measurement; a telescope provides for focal location between instrument and subject. Position of the scope is
defined by an index of angles. The scale and presentation of angles varies from traditional micrometer readings to
computer-compatible crystal displays. Angles are measured in degrees, minutes and seconds, e.g. 165°, 53°, 300°.
 17

Setting out the Building Outline

This task is usually undertaken once the site has been cleared of any debris or obstructions and any reduced-level
excavation work is finished. It is usually the responsibility of the contractor to set out the building(s) using the
information provided by the designer or architect. Accurate setting out is of paramount importance and should
therefore only be carried out by competent persons and all their work thoroughly checked, preferably by different
personnel and by a different method.
The first task in setting out the building is to establish a baseline to which all the setting out can be related. The
baseline very often coincides with the building line which is a line, whose position on site is given by the local
authority in front of which no development is permitted.
18

Setting Out a Framed Building

Framed buildings are usually related to a grid, the intersections of the grid lines being the centre point of an isolated
or pad foundation. The grid is usually set out from a baseline which does not always form part of the grid. Setting
out dimensions for locating the grid can either be given on a drawing or they will have to be accurately scaled off a
general layout plan. The grid is established using a theodolite and marking the grid line intersections with stout
pegs. Once the grid has been set out offset pegs or profiles can be fixed clear of any subsequent excavation work.
Control of excavation depth can be by means of a traveller sighted between sight rails or by level and staff related
to site datum.
 19

Setting out Trenches

The objective of this task is twofold. First, it must establish the excavation size, shape and direction; and second,
it must establish the width and position of the walls. The outline of building will have been set out and using this
outline profile boards can be set up to control the position, width and possibly the depth of the proposed trenches.
1. Profile boards should be set up at least 2.000 clear of trench positions so that they do not obstruct the
excavation work.
2. The level of the profile crossboard should be related to the site datum and fixed at a convenient height above
ground level if a traveller is to be used to control the depth of the trench.
3. Alternatively, the trench depth can be controlled using a level and staff related to site datum.
4. The trench width can be marked on the profile with either nails or saw cuts and with a painted band if
required for identification.
20

Excavation and Timbering

Setting Out Reduced Level Excavations

The overall outline of the reduced level area can be set out using a theodolite, ranging rods, tape and pegs working
from a baseline. To control the depth of excavation, sight rails are set up at a convenient height and at positions
which will enable a traveller to be used.
 21

Excavation
All subsoils have different abilities in remaining
stable during excavation works. Most will assume a
natural angle of repose or rest unless given
temporary support. The presence of ground water
apart from creating difficult working conditions can
have an adverse effect on the subsoil's natural angle
of repose. Time factors such as period during which
excavation will remain open and the time of year
when work is carried out. The need for an assessment
of risk with regard to the support of excavations and
protection of people within is a legal responsibility
under the Health and Safety at Work Act and the
Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
(BS).

Operations
Temporary Support; in the context of excavations this is called timbering irrespective of the actual materials used.
If the sides of the excavation are completely covered with timbering it is known as close timbering whereas any
form of partial covering is called open timbering. An adequate supply of timber or other suitable material must be
available and used to prevent danger to any person employed in an excavation from a fall or dislodgement of
materials forming the sides of an excavation. A suitable barrier or fence must be provided to the sides of all
excavations or alternatively they must be securely covered. Materials must not be placed near to the edge of any
excavation, nor must plant be placed or moved near to any excavation so that persons employed in the excavation
are endangered.
22

Poling Board; a form of temporary

support which is placed in position
against the sides of excavation after
the excavation work has been carried
out. Poling boards are placed at
centres according to the stability of
the subsoils encountered.
Runner; a form of temporary support
which is driven into position ahead of
the excavation work either to the full
depth or by a drive-and-dig technique
where the depth of the runner is
always lower than that of the
excavation.
Trench sheeting; form of runner
made from sheet steel with a trough
profile can be obtained with a lapped
joint or an interlocking joint.

timbering in firm soils

Water if present or enters an excavation, a
pit or sump should be excavated below the
formation level to act as a collection point
from which the water can be pumped away.

timbering in loose soils

 23

BASIC ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS

Preparing detailed drawings
Buildings are designed and built for people. Detailed information concerning their goals, tastes, and habits of all
the building’s inhabitants must be matched with the conditions of site, building and zoning code limitations, and
the available funds and financing. The first step to a design project is to gather a multitude of personal information
from the occupants who will be living or working in the building concerning:
• Occupants’ living and working habits
• Number of occupants and their gender
• Building site conditions
• Preferred size of the home
• Preferred size on home
• Age and any physical impairments of inhabitants
• Preference of architectural style
• Number of occupants present and future
• Price range and monthly mortgage limits
• Special needs: amount of space, work areas, interests
The second step is to analyse the physical properties of the building site and the local zoning ordinances
• The dimensions of the property lines
• Minimum lot frontage, depth, and square footage
• Structure setbacks
• Calculate the buildable area
• Calculate the maximum land coverage for the house
• Building heights
The next step is to note the orientation of the building site by the:
• Compass orientation
• Path of Southern sun
• Views
• Direction of noise
• Direction of usual breezes
• Occupant’s wishes
24

The final step is a list of the needs (must haves) and the wants (flexible) of the occupants. It is often impossible to
fulfil all the needs and wants of a client, so be ready for compromises. A typical example for one family may be:
• Bedrooms on cool north side • Kitchen of east side to receive the
morning sun
• Bedroom facing the breeze
• Fireplace
• Two bedrooms
• Two-car garage
• One bathroom
• Separate entry (want)
• Adequate storage and closets
• Half-bath in service area (want)
• Large U-shaped kitchen
• Den (want)
• Dining area
• Separate laundry room (want)
• Service area blocking noise
• Exercise room (want)
• Garage on southwest corner to block
the sun’s heat
Designing the Floor Plan
A floor plan has four major areas. They are the:
1. Entry
2. Living area—living room, dining room, entertainment rooms
3. Sleeping area—bedrooms, closets, bathrooms
4. Service area—kitchen, laundry, utility room, work rooms, garage
A well-planned design will have the entry adjacent to the living, sleeping, and service areas. This will help to create
an efficient and minimal traffic flow. Regardless of the basic shape of a floor plan, it should have an efficient traffic
flow. It is also important to know if the plan is to be a formal or informal design.
Floor Plan
A two-dimensional drawing of all the exterior and interior walls.
Elements: dimensions, interior and exterior walls, doors, windows, plumbing fixtures, electrical fixtures, stairs,
door and window schedules, scale of the drawing, annotation
Reading and interpreting architectural drawings
Plot plans:
A drawing of the building site with the structure/s oriented on the property. A basic plot plan shows the zoning
setbacks and the setbacks locating the buildings on the site.
Elements: property lines, shape, location and size of the building, elevation of each corner of the site, utilities,
septic tanks, scale of the drawing, property description.
Foundation plan; a two-dimensional plan of all the concrete work and floor framing systems.
Elements: footings, columns, foundation walls, floor joists, drains, footing/foundation sections and details,
dimensions, scale of the drawing, annotation.
 25

Sectional Views
26

TIMBER TECHNOLOGY
Classification of Trees:

Bark - Every species of tree has its own bark which is a means of identification. The bark is the outer layer of a
tree that protects it. Without it the tree cannot survive.

Cambium layer - This is the growing part of the trunk. Here new cells are constantly developing. Some becoming
bark while others become wood.

Medullar Rays - Food is distributed to all parts of the tree by means of these small cells. These wood cells grow
in length radially and can be easily seen in oak, beech, and mahogany.

Annual Rings - The age of the tree can be determined by the counting of these rings, as each ring represents one
year of growth.

Pith or Medulla - This is the core of the tree. It may be sound or solid, but in many cases it is filled with a cork
like substance. It has a dark, brown colour.

Sapwood - Light coloured outer concentric rings of woody tissue that is found next to the cambium. It contains
only a few living cells and functions mainly in the storage of plant food. Its thickness varies from 13mm to as much
150mm in some species.

Heart wood - The inner concentric rings of woody tissue which consists of inactive cells.
These cells of heartwood may contain many minerals which contribute to its darker colour, great beauty and
resistance.

Bast - The channel that is found between the cambium layer and bark which transport food from the root to the leaf.
The tree can be regarded as one of nature’s gift to man. It provides food, shelter and fuel. The tree is a
living organism, the components parts performing specific “life” functions. Timber is the oldest building material.
The growth process of certain species encourages the production of various by-products.
 27

To those studying botany a tree is just another plant. To the carpenter and the joiner it is the plant which
produces the material with which he is mainly concerned namely wood or (timber). The growth of a tree is affected
by the soil and by the climate in which it grows.
Softwood and Hardwood Trees
Commercial timbers are classified into soft woods and hard woods. The most common method of
identifying them is by their leaf. Soft woods have narrow needle like leaves where as hard woods have a broad leaf.

Softwoods
Soft woods (gymnosperms) are not all soft; some soft woods are very hard e.g. Yew, pitch pine strong and
durable. Soft woods are all for practical purposes, derived from a group of trees called conifers. Coniferous trees
are mainly evergreen and grow chiefly in the northern cold to temperate zone. Soft woods comprise about 75% of
the timber used in the U.K.
Soft woods are non- flowering and have needle shaped leaves and naked seeds contained in cones, their
branches normally arises in whorls with more than two at the same level. Even after the tree is converted, most
lumber can be easily identified as hard wood or soft wood. Conifers are simpler and more uniformed in structure
than broad leaved trees. They have mainly one type of cell, the tracheid. These cells appear as regular rows of
holes, with the cells formed during spring and summer (wet seasons) having thin walls and those formed during
autumn and winter (dry seasons) have thick walls. It is this difference in the formation of cells that indicates a
year’s growth or annual rings.
Soft woods main features include:
1. They have an open grain texture, which is easier to work on than hard wood.
2. They have a lighter colour than hard wood.
3. They do not shed their leaves seasonally.
4. Their leaves are usually needle or cone shaped.
5. They grow quite quickly.
6. The timber produced needs to be protected from the weather by applying paint, varnish or preservatives.
7. They need to be protected from insect attack.

Examples of soft woods are:

Douglas fir Sugar pine
Western red cedar Southern pine
Pitch pine Yellow pine
White pine Caribbean Pine
Red wood Alaska cedar
Red pine Honduras cedar

Hardwoods
Hard woods (angiosperms) are not all hard, some hard woods are very soft e.g. balsa. Most hardwoods are
deciduous or broad-leaved trees. Hard woods include densest, strongest, and most durable timbers. Some hard
woods contain resins and oil which interfere with the hardening of paint such as teak. The cheapest hard woods
approximate in cost to the costlier soft woods.
Hard woods can be recognized by their broad leaves on their branches which usually grow out at different levels,
at the most two at the same level. These trees produce flowers from which their seeds come
enclosed in a fruit. These trees grow in cool to tropical climates and may be deciduous or evergreen.
Hard woods unlike soft woods have a more complex structure with mainly two distinct cells. One type is fibrous
and similar to the tracheid and the other type is known as vessel or pore cells. The latter appears as pores or holes
in the end grain, and as vessel lines on longitudinal surfaces.
28

Cell structure in both soft woods and hard woods affect the grain, texture, density and figure in these woods. The
grain in soft wood is generally straight, the texture is fine and the figure is plain to pleasing. In hard woods, the
grain may be straight, sloping or interlocked. The texture is fine to coarse because of the size and arrangement of
the pores and the figure plain to highly figured. These are dense hard boards and more difficult to work with
tools.

Hard wood’s main features include:

1. They are harder to work with hand tools than soft wood trees.
2. They are darker in colour or have distinctive colours.
3. They shed their leaves seasonally.
4. They are slow growing and cannot be cultivated.
5. They are more expensive to use for timber.
6. They are selected for decorative appearance.

Examples of hard woods are:

Mahogany Crab wood
Tamarind Wallaba
Teak Cedar
Mora Oak
Green heart Birch
Bullet wood Beech
Satin wood Balsa
Mahoe
Conversion of Timber
Conversion is the process of cutting up timber in marketable sizes. It is a common feature that “decorative”
cuts are made during conversion. The two general methods of selling lumber are plain sawing, (flat or slash sawing)
and quarter sawing.
Plain Sawing
The log is slabbed on either two or four sides to form a slant from which other plain sawed lumber is cut.
Plain sawed lumber has several advantages over quarter sawed:
1. More lumber is produced when grain figures are not considered.
2. It dries more rapidly.
3. It is cheaper to cut.
4. It has lower unit cost.
 29

Plain sawing (1,2,3,4) and quarter sawing (5,6)

Quarter Sawing
Quarter sawing can be done any of four methods: radial, tangential, combined radial tangential and quarter
tangential.
Quarter sawing has the following advantages:
1. Fewer tendencies to warp or twist.
2. Fewer tendencies to cut or twist.
3. Less shrinkage.
4. More durability strength.
5. More attractive grain pattern.
6. More rapid kiln drying.
It is used in the manufacture of high class joinery, furniture and quality work. It wears more evenly when used
as flooring.
Disadvantage
The method of conversion is time consuming and produces much waste.
30

Seasoning of Timber
Timber cannot be used for carpentry and joinery immediately after it is converted, since there is a lot of
moisture present in the wood. A large portion of this sap must be removed, if distortion resulting from shrinkage
is to be avoided. The process of moisture removal from the wood is called seasoning. This can be done in either
one of two ways: natural or artificial terms known also as curing or conditioning. It is realized that, the lower the
moisture content in the wood the greater its strength.

Natural Seasoning
After conversion, the wet timber is stacked with strips of wood, usually of the same kind, or stickers
separating each layer. This allows proper circulation of air which removes the moisture. A suitable roof is needed
to protect the timber from sun and rain. Air seasoning reduced the moisture content to about 17% under ideal
conditions and even takes up to two years. The moisture content must be in equilibrium with that of the atmosphere.
The weather and thickness of the material will vary the length of time required for seasoning. End splits may be
controlled by tacking on straps or metal or wood, or by putting paint wax or oil on the ends of the boards.

Advantages
- High quality of lumber.

Disadvantages
- Length of time, limited availability of large quantities.
- May be more costly
- Needs more space for drying
- No control over drying process.

Artificial Seasoning
Artificial seasoning has improved greatly and the kiln which is the storage house for it can now be
completely computerized to control the drying process even without attendance or human inspection. Accurate
moisture content readings are readily available at any time. The materials are stacked in a similar manner of that
of the natural.
 31

Advantages
- Relatively short time
- Early use of material
- May result in greater availability and reduced cost.
- Some wood worms are destroyed by the heat
- Moisture content can be controlled to as low as 12%

Disadvantages
- Case Hardening
- Rapid drying can cause it to check or become honey combed.

Moisture content
When a tree is felled it contains a great deal of moisture. The timber will need to have some moisture
content, whatever its commercial use is to be. The purpose of drying the timber is to minimize the subsequent
movement when it is used; which means, different uses demands different moisture content levels. The timber for
internal use should have lower moisture content than timber which is used externally. This is because internal
timber would be reduced by the warmth of the atmosphere. This can cause excessive shrinkage and possibly other
more serious defects.
Moisture content is always expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the timber. The formula used to
calculate this formula is:

Wet weight- Dry weight x 100

Dry weight
= moisture content (%)

A sample of timber is cut and weighed. This is the wet weight. It is placed in a kiln 100°C and taken out at intervals
until no further weight is loss. This is the dry weight. A piece of timber weighs 132.5g
Its dry weight is 108.7g
Moisture content weighs 23.8g
% of moisture (23.8/108.7) x 100= 21.9%

Example:
132.5- 108.7
23.8 x100
108.7
= 21.9%
32

Timber Defects
A defect is a fault in the timber that will result in some reduction in strength, appearance which is usually
cause by natural elements during growth or during conversion and seasoning which could and should be avoided.

Natural defects
Knots are caused by branches growing out of the tree in which case the grain in the tree trunk becomes
twisted. Forest grown tree usually have less knot because of lack of sunlight. The branches always start at the
centre of the tree at the pith.

Sound Knots
They will not fall out of the position they occupy but they tend to crack. This allows the inlet of fungus to
attack the wood. Provided that they are not too large or close to the edge they don’t posed a problem.

Dead Knots
These are a source of real weakness, whatever is the size. They are produced when a branch is broken off
before the tree is finish growing. The tree starved this broken off part of the trunk causing it to die. It is identified
by a very dark colour around the decayed knot, making it liable to fall out eventually leaving a knot hole. Such a
timber is classified as low grade and is unsuitable for structural use.

Shakes- Take the form of splits in the wood and detracts from its strength quite considerably.

Heart Shake- These occur in the heart wood of a tree when it is left too long after
it has matured before being felled for use. It is due to lack of food.
 33

Checks- These are separation of the wood fibres along the grain. They usually occur along the ends of lumber. In
artificial seasoning checks are caused by rapid drying.

Ring Shake- These follow the contour of the growth ring. They usually result from excessive swaying of the tree
in high winds bringing about separation of the fibres.

Cup Shake- These are brought about by similar conditions as ring shakes, but without results. They
also position themselves in the growth rings.
Star Shake- These are fine cracks in the appearance of a star as a result of the sun drying up the
cellular tissue, when the bark has been damaged or when the timber has been season too quickly.
34

Dry Rot- This is caused by a fungus (merious lacrymans) a growth which lives in the wood and destroys it. It
thrives on wood in dark, damp unventilated conditions causing it to dry up and disintegrate into dust.

Wet Rot- Wet rot (cellar) fungus attacks only wet timber, and is found in damp, poorly ventilated cellars. The
disintegration of timber is due to exposure to alternate wet and dry weather which is favourable conditions for
growth of fungus.

Up Sets- This is a form of shake, the cause of which is uncertain. The effect of it is in a zigzag crack across the
grain, where the affected boards are likely to snap very easily under little pressure. Probable causes are:
1. The tree being struck by lightning during growth.
2. The tree falling awkwardly when felled causing a fracture to run through the log.

Bowing- This often results when the boards are stacked with too much distance
between the sticks.

Warp- This is any distortion from the true form and may include any one or a combination of the following: cup,
bow, twist. This is caused by the exposure to the elements and poor stacking in the process of seasoning and usage.

Wood Preservation
Timber for construction work should be treated in order to increase its ability to resist fungal and insect
attack. Insects break down the cellular structure of the wood and destroy its strength and appearance. Timber being
exposed needs to be protected.
Timber preservation is costly, extending to the life of the timber. Preservation is cheaper in long term.
Some preservatives, such as creosote are used exclusively underground or in roofs where the material will
not be visible. Other types have pleasing effects, example: Cuprinol, ‘Atlas A’ which change the colour of the
wood to a light green.
Application requires some care since preservatives are highly toxic and others may attack the skin.
There are three groups of preservatives:
1. Tar- oil type
2. Water solution type
3. Organic solvent type
 35

Tar-oil
These preservatives are distilled from coal tar. Creosote is probably the best know. They are very efficient
but have a strong odour. This can be done by steeping or can be brushed on, where the lumber becomes saturated
after a period of time. It becomes resistant to insect attack and moisture penetration.

Water Solution
Water is used as a vehicle to take the chemical into the timber and afterwards it evaporate leaving the
chemical to fight off attack from sodium fluoride, zinc chloride and copper sulphate solutions which are commonly
used as preservatives but are odourless and can be painted over quite easily.
Organic Solvents
This can be done as non-pressure and pressure impregnation.

Pressure Treatment
This is done by forcing liquid Wolman Salt under pressure into the timber- this ensures better penetration.

Non-Pressure
Brushing- A suitable material is brushed on the lumber. This is a simple process but slow to allow the liquid to
soak in.
Spraying- This is used in areas difficult to get into, such as roof spaces. It is much quicker and effective than
brushing while using a spray gun.

Dipping- The timbers are submerged in a bath of preserving liquid for 5-15 minutes. Excess preservatives are
allowed to drain into the bath which can produce fairly good results.

Steeping- Similar to dipping, however, the timbers are left submerged for at least (2) weeks especially with solution
types of preservatives.

4.2.2 Types of Timber Boards According to:

(i) sizes (boards, lath, posts);(ii) grading (select
timber for commercial purposes).
Dressed and Rough Timber
See chart
36

Production of Common Building Construction Materials:

Uses of Construction Materials
Boards:
 37

Production of Manufactured Boards

Ranges of sheet material are widely used in woodworking and building industries. Some are made from solid
timber while others are made from low-grade timber. Standard size for building boards is 1220 x 2440 mm.
Thickness varies according to use.
1 laminboard 10 multi-ply
2 core 11 crossbanding
3 blockboard 12 star formation
4 battenboard 13 parallel-grain plies
5 cellular board, cellular plywood 14 single layer chipboard, standard grade chipboard
6 composite board 15 multilayer chipboard
7 hardwood plywood 16 peg board, perforated hardboard
8 mixed plywood 17 hardboard
9 softwood plywood
Ply-Wood;
Plywood is one the most extensively used boards which is made up of an unequal number of sheets and veneers
called plies. Three- ply plywood consists of three veneer of equal thickness glued together with the centre or core
veneer, having its grain running at right angles to the outer veneers. This gives it considerable strength. It has
extensive uses which may include panelling and lining as well as other forms of covering. The grade is usually
stamped on the board by the manufacturer and these must be recognized when deciding the usage of the board.
Int - Denotes for internal use only and indicates that is has been glued together with glue having low moisture
resistance. If such timber is exposed to moist conditions there would a separation of the veneers.
MR - Fair resistance to moisture.
BR- High resistance in exposed conditions because it is boil resistant.
WBP- Indicates that it is weather and boil condition and also in the boat building industry.

Laminated Panels
These panels are constructed of thin layers of material glued together to form special effects. These panels will
resist warping and shrinkage.
Hard Boards
This is yet another of the wood waste product. Hard board are made from wood chips and logs. The wood is pulped
by machine, and bonded with adhesive and finally pressed to a thickness of 3mm- 6mm. With such a thickness
they usually have a width of 1.2m. With lengths of 2.4 – 3 m. Their usage includes panelling, wall and floor
covering.
Bagasse Board
Bagasse is the residue left after milling cane during the manufacture of sugar. The material is crushed to a pulp,
mixed with adhesive and compressed with a heat treatment. This results in a hard durable board suitable for interior
work.

Chip Board
This board makes use of machine chips of wood, glued and compressed into large sheets. The core section consists
of larger chips than the surface. A disadvantage is that it is unable to take a screw. It is used for cheaper range of
furniture as well as wall coverings.
38

Lumber Classification
 Lumber is sold by standard cubic measurement, board measure.
 Any size over 30mm and 100mm is boards. (31mm thick and 100mm wide) 37mm thick is planks
 Measurement in length is called linear.
 Measurement in length and breadth is called square measure.
 Measurement in length, breadth and thickness is called cube measure.
 “N”- Number of pieces in stock.
 “T”- Thickness in mm.
 “L”- Length in metre.
Note:
- 1 inch=25.44mm
- 1 foot = 304.8mm
- 1 metre = 3.281ft
Formula to calculate board in m is:
Foot board measure 10 pieces of 2” x 6’ x 12’0
= 10 x 2 x 6 x 12’ 0
12
= 120 FBM

L (M) x W mm x T mm = m3
1000 1000

If L = 5m W = 175mm T= 5mm

Then volume of board or lumber =

5 x 175 x 25
1000 1000
= 0.02m3
 39

Plastic Foam Board; a lightweight board made of thermoplastic foam in varying thicknesses and used especially
for insulation or in mounting art.
Cement Board; a combination of cement and reinforcing fibres formed into 4 foot by 8 foot sheets (or 3 foot by 5
foot sheets), 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick that are typically used as a tile backing board
Gypsum Wall Board; thin plasterboard, 9.5 mm thick, made from a thin layer of gypsum plaster cast between two
sheets of paper, suitable for receiving a finish on at least face, used for lining partitions and internal walls.
MDF (medium density fibreboard); a dense and versatile fibreboard formed through a dry process in which the
fibres are bonded together with urea formaldehyde resin; its density does not exceed 600 kg/m3.

Plastics:
Types of Plastics
The property of plastics can be changed due to increase or decrease in temperature.
Based on that the plastics are classified into two types:
1. Thermoplastics
2. Thermosetting plastics

1. THERMOPLASTICS
These plastics become soft when heated and hard when cooled. Thus it is possible to shape and reshape these
plastics by heat and pressure as the process of softening and hardening may be repeated for an indefinite time
unless the heat is not so high causing chemical decomposition. The main advantage is old scrap materials can be
used again and again.
2. THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
This plastic become rigid when moulded at suitable pressure and temperature. This type of plastic passes originally
through thermo-plastic stage. When they are heated to the temperature range of 127° C to 177° C they set
permanently and further application of heat does not alter their form or soften them. The thermosetting plastics are
soluble in alcohol and certain organic solvents. The thermosetting plastics are strong, durable and hard and are
available in various colours and are also used in engineering applications.
PVC; Polyvinyl Chloride.
Polymer resin; Polymer resin is a clear liquid plastic product that hardens to create a thick, durable, glossy
coating. Once hardened, it is fade-proof and water-resistant. This type of resin is commonly used on furniture to
seal finishes and create a durable, glass-like surface

Types of Plastics Application

1. Thermo-Plastics Conduits, pressure and non-pressure pipes

2. Polyvinyl Tiles, mouldings

3. Polythene Sheeting, bags

4. Nylon Ropes, coverings, garments

5. Thermo-setting Resins
40

Building tools and Equipment

Portable electric power tools are designed for a wide variety of uses in construction. Electric power tools increase
production and reduce time and manpower. Although there are many varieties of electric power tools. They are
the electric drill, hammer, impact wrench, circular saw, chain saw, sander, and accessories for these tools.
In order to achieve and maintain maximum performance, all electrical power tools must be given proper care. The
following is a list of guidelines that will help keep your power tools in a “ready to use” condition.
1. Keep all power tools, especially the housing intake and exhaust holes, clear and free of dust and
dirt at all times.
2. Examine power tool cords for exposed loose wires and for damaged insulation.
3. Wipe power cords frequently to prevent deterioration from oil or grease.
4. Check cord plugs for loose prongs or cracked casings.
5. Never hold or drag electrical tools by the cord at any time.
6. To prevent rusting, apply a light coat of oil to cutting surfaces of tools. Store power tools in
properly designated containers’ when not in use.

Types of Tools:
1. cutting 5. levelling
2. marking 6. percussion/impelling
3. finishing 7. boring
4. measuring 8. gripping/holding;

Equipment:
Ladders; A frame, usually of wood or metal, consisting of two side pieces (called “stiles”) which are connected
by crosspieces, usually round (called “rungs”); used as a means of climbing up or down.
Scaffolds; temporary platforms to provide a safe working place at a convenient height. Usually required when the
working height is 1.500 m or more above ground level.
Using and dismantling simple scaffolds;
Suspended Scaffolds
Supporting outrigger beams must be able to support 4 times the intended load. To keep a scaffold from falling to
the ground, it must be attached to the roof, tied to a secure anchorage, or secured with counterweights. The
suspension ropes and rigging must support at least 6 times the intended load.
1. Counterweights must be attached to secure and strong places on a building so they won’t move.
2. Do not use bags of sand or gravel, masonry blocks, or roofing materials that can flow or move.
3. Do not use gas-powered equipment or hoists. A hoist must have an automatic brake for
emergencies.
4. A 1-point or 2-point suspended scaffold must be tied or secured to prevent swaying.
 41

Guidelines for checking a scaffold

 If a scaffold is more than 2 feet above or below a level, there must be a way to get on or off — such as a
ladder, ramp, or personnel hoist. The way to get on or off must not be more than 14" away from the scaffold.

 Put a standing scaffold on a firm foundation (with base plates attached to feet) for instance, with one piece of
wood under each pair of legs (across the shortest distance), extending at least 1 foot past each leg.

 Uprights must be vertical and braced to prevent swaying; platforms must be level

 A scaffold that is more than 4 times higher than its base is wide must be tied to supports.

Scaffold setup and use

Scaffolds must be capable of supporting at least four times the maximum intended load. Provide a ladder or
equivalent safe access to all levels. The “ladder-like” rungs on some brands of commercial scaffolding are not to
be used as a ladder. Note that a ladder leaned against scaffolding on unlocked casters could cause the scaffolding
assembly to roll away from the ladder.
1. Ensure planks extend between 6 and 18 inches over their end supports unless they are secured
from movement, such as being attached with wire to the metal supports.
2. Use a tag line when hoisting equipment onto a scaffold.
3. Do not allow tools, materials, and debris to accumulate and cause a falling hazard.
4. Wire or fibre rope used for scaffold suspension must be in good condition and capable of
supporting at least six times the intended load.
5. Install guardrails and toe boards at all open sides more than 3 m (10 feet) above the ground or
floor. Guardrails are not less than 5 x 10 cm (2 x 4 inches) cross section, or the equivalent, and
0.9 to 1.1 m (36 to 42 inches) high. Diagonal or X-bracing can only be used as part of a guardrail
system in some specific situations. The minimum height for a toe board is 4 inches (10 cm).
6. Working on scaffolds is not only potentially hazardous for workers on the platforms, but for
people working below. Objects can fall on them despite the presence of toe boards and the best
intentions of the workers on the scaffold.
7. Restrict access and/or require hard hats for those below.
8. Ensure all wheel brakes are engaged except when movement is required.

Basic Safety

 Most scaffold platforms and walkways must be 18" wide or more. If a work area is less than 18" wide,
guardrails and/or personal fall-arrest must be used.

 Ten-foot planks must extend at least 6" past the end supports, but not more than 12"; no more than 1"
between planks or between planks and uprights.

 Wood planks must be unpainted, so any cracks will show.

42

Mixers

Vibrators;

Bucket and skip

 43

Preparing Mortar
Mortar
The most characteristic type of mortar is cement–lime mortar, made of Portland cement, hydrated lime, an inert
aggregate, and water. The aggregate, sand, must be clean and must be screened to eliminate particles that are too
coarse or too fine for mortar sand. The Portland cement is the bonding agent in the mortar.
Sand; Sand accounts for at least 75% of the volume of masonry mortar and grout. Manufactured sands have sharp,
angular grains, while natural sands obtained from banks, pits, and riverbeds have particles that are smoother and
more round. Natural sands generally produce mortars that are more workable than those made with manufactured
sands
Water; mortar requires the maximum amount of water consistent with workability. Water for masonry mortar
must be clean and free of harmful amounts of acids, alkalis, and organic materials.
Cement; mortar cements are pre-packaged cements that do not require the addition of lime by the mason on the job
site. Their main advantages are convenience, consistency (since they are premixed), and good workability. Masonry
cements are proprietary formulations that may contain Portland cement or blended hydraulic cements, lime or other
plasticizing ingredients, and other additives.
For the majority of masonry construction, the single most important property of mortar is bond strength and
integrity. For durability, weather resistance, and resistance to loads, it is critical that the bond between units and
mortar be strong and complete. The term mortar bond refers to a property that includes:
■ Extent of bond or area of contact between unit and mortar
■ Bond strength or adhesion of the mortar to the units
44

There are five common mortar types, designated as M, S, N, O, and K. Each of the five types is based on
standardized proportions of the various ingredients and has certain applications to which it is particularly suited.
1. Type M, for instance, is a high-compressive-strength mix recommended for masonry which may
be subject to high-compressive loads.
2. Type S is a high-bond-strength mortar recommended for structures which require resistance to
significant lateral loads from soil pressures, winds, or earthquakes. Because of its excellent
durability, Type S mortar is also recommended for structures at or below grade and in contact with
the soil, such as foundations, retaining walls, pavements, sewers, and manholes.
3. Type N is a good general-purpose mortar for use in above-grade masonry. It is recommended for
exterior masonry veneers and for interior and exterior loadbearing walls. This medium-strength
mortar represents the best compromise among compressive and flexural strength, workability, and
economy and is, in fact, recommended for most masonry applications.
4. Type O is a high-lime, low-compressive-strength mortar. It is recommended for interior and
exterior non-loadbearing walls and veneers which will not be subject to freezing in the presence of
moisture. Type O mortar is often used in one- and two-story residential work and is a favourite of
masons because of its excellent workability and economical cost.
5. Type K mortar has a very low compressive strength and a correspondingly low flexural bond
strength. It is seldom used in new construction and is recommended only for tuck pointing historic
buildings constructed originally with lime and sand mortar.
 45

Tools and equipment for mortar and concrete

46

Preparing Concrete
The Manufacturing of Portland Cement
Cement is a substance that binds aggregates together into a very dense material that possesses great compressive
strength.
Portland Cement
Portland cement is used in the manufacturing of concrete and mortar. It may also be used as a bed for clay
and cement tiles. Ordinary Portland Cement is made by mixing ground chalk or limestone and clay with water to
form a semi-liquid mixture, or slurry. Local materials such as shale may be used instead of clay in the manufacturing
of Portland Cement. The slurry is screened and is passed into a storage tank where it is kept agitated in preparation
for passage into a kiln, which is a rotating cylinder, approx. 90 meters long, inclined at an angle and fired by
pulverized coal or oil.
The slurry is fed into the upper end of the kiln and flows down to the direction of the heat. As the kiln
revolves, it dries the slurry. Water evaporates under this intense temperature heat (raised to about 1500 Celsius)
fusing the materials into a clinker or cement noodles. The clinker is cooled and ground to a fine powder. A small
amount of gypsum is added to retard the setting time of the cement.
Characteristics of different Types of Cement
Portland Cement is the most commonly used cement since it hardens rapidly. There are several other
cements that can be used for special purposes.
The ratio of Portland Cement to aggregates varies with the strength requirements for the concrete. Additives
may be put into the mixture or cement to enhance the strength or provides additional qualities such as quicker
drying, waterproofing, resistance to sulphate corrosion etc.
During the manufacturing of cement, various chemical components are produced. This compound which
influences the properties and behaviour of the cement includes:
(1) Strength Development:
(2) Setting Time and Heat Production
By varying the components, the properties can be modified. These properties can influence the ability of
the cement to resist sulphate attack, which is the rate at which cements sets and heat is produced.
Some types of cements are low heat (used for concreting large masses) and some high heat (for cold weather
conditions).
The five common types of cement used in construction are Types 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Type 1- Normal
This type is ordinary Portland Cement. It has normal qualities, a reasonable setting time and is used for
general concrete work, when conditions are normal. Such example include: masonry work, filling of pockets, and
ordinary strip foundation.
Type 2 – Moderate
This type of cement gives off less heat than type 1, and has a moderate resistance to sulphate. It is suitable
for use in foundations where there are low levels of sulphate but offers good resistance to soils with high
sulphate level such as those adjacent to chemical plants.
Type 3 - Low Heat
This type is ideal for use in mass concrete work, such as large foundations or dam retaining walls. It
develops strength slowly and generates less heat, thus reducing cracking.
Type 4 - High Early Strength/Rapid Hardening
 47

This type is used when the weather is bad (rainy season), or when formwork has to be removed early. It
develops strength earlier than types 1 and 2.

Type 5 – Aluminium
This type contains aluminium ore. It is darker in colour than Normal Portland Cement. It hardens very
rapidly and has great strength.
Notable Behaviour of Concrete
Climatic conditions can influence the setting time of concrete and its’ used. For maximum strength
development, concrete should be wetted down for 28 days.
Characteristics of Aggregates
Aggregates generally make up the bulk of the concrete. These are available in fine and coarse grades. For
mortar the size of aggregates is very small
ranging from 0-4mm, and for general concrete
work the size varies from 5-20mm.

Requirements of Aggregates
All aggregates should be:

 clean
 free from sediments
 sound
 strong – not easily crushed
 well graded
 well shaped
Types of Aggregates
Coarse Aggregate
Gravel – This consist of small pieces of stone which are somewhat rounded in shape. It makes good coarse
aggregate because it is hard and closed textured. When using gravel as a coarse aggregate the pebbles should be
graded in size. (Source= gravel banks, river beds).
Crushed Stones – Trap rock is the hardest and most durable stone that can be crushed and used for making concrete.
This stone is dark, heavy and close-grained, and is of igneous origin. Granite makes good crushed stone and is less
expensive than trap rock. The stone should be graded in sizes 6mm-20mm.
Fine Aggregates
For concrete work these are sand, crushed stones or gravel screening. The most important of these is sand.
Sand is a fine divided material of rock which will pass through a standard 5mm sieve. Sand is not subjected to
disintegration, decay or expansion.
48

Importance of Proportioning or Batching

Proportioning aids in determining the strength, durability, permeability, workability and economy of the concrete.
Proportioning is essential to ensure a good mix.
Batching is the determination of the exact amount of each ingredient that is placed into a specific concrete mix.
The following are some results of Batching.
Strength– In order to obtain maximum strength, the aggregates must produce little or no voids in the concrete.
This increases the density of the concrete thus increase its strength.
Economy– Cost is a major factor in concrete work. Cost is influenced by careless use of ingredients. The most
costly ingredient is cement. A poor mix often increases the cost of the job or reduces the strength of the concrete.
Workability– This is the ability of the wet concrete to be placed and worked with ease. This property is
enhanced by the correct proportioning of the cement and aggregates and water-cement ratio.
Volume Batching
This is generally used but it is a less accurate method of mixing concrete. A measuring box is used to
determine the amount of cement and aggregates. A change in the moisture content will impact upon the volume
of the materials and affect the quality of the concrete.

figure showing a Gauge or Measuring Box

Batching by Weight
In this method the materials are measured by weight. This is a more reliable system of batching than that
of volume. Variation in volumes owing to compacting is eliminated when using this method.
Water
 49

The water used in the making of concrete must be clean and free
from impurities which could affect the quality of the concrete. A
proportion of water will set up a chemical reaction that will harden the
cement. The rest is required to give the mix workability and will evaporate
from the mix while it is curing. An excess amount of water will give a
porous concrete or reduced durability and strength.
The water/cement ratio is the amount of water used in the mix and is
expressed as:
The total weight of water in the concrete
Weight of cement
For most mixes, the ratio is between 0.4 and 0.7. Concrete mixes can be expressed as volume ratios, thus:
1:2:4 = 1 part cement 2 parts fine aggregates and 4 parts coarse aggregates
1:5 = 1 part cement and 5 parts all in aggregates
Some common mixes –
1: 10 = not a strong mix but it is suitable for filling weak pockets in excavation and for binding layers
1:8 = slightly better – suitable for paths and paving
1:6 = a strong mix suitable for mass concrete
1:3:6 = the weakest mix
1:2:4 = the strongest mix suitable for reinforced concrete
Concrete is a mixture of fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, cement and water that possesses great compressive
strength.
Mortar is a mixture of cement, sand and water in definite proportion.

Slump test
Compacting concrete; Compaction is done by shaking, or vibrating, the concrete which liquefies it, allowing the
trapped air to rise out. The concrete settles, filling all the space in the forms.
50

When to Compact. Compaction must be done as concrete is placed, while it is still plastic. Never let concrete dry-
out and stiffen because it will be too hard to compact.
Why Compact? Properly compacted concrete is more dense, strong and durable. Off-form finishes will also be
better. Screeding levels and compacts thin concrete slabs and the top layers of thicker slabs. A screed board will not
compact the concrete very well. Mechanical vibration or hand rodding is required to provide adequate compaction.
For concrete of average workability (ie slump of 80 mm) with a poker size between 25–75 mm, concrete should
usually be vibrated for between 5 and 15 seconds. It is worse to UNDER-VIBRATE than to OVER-VIBRATE
concrete.
Curing Concrete spray, sandbags, ponding);
Curing means to cover the concrete so it stays MOIST. By keeping concrete moist the bond between the paste
and the aggregates gets stronger. Concrete doesn’t harden properly if it is left to dry out.
When to Cure. Curing is done just after finishing the concrete surface, as soon as it will not be damaged.
Precautions:
When curing leave the formwork in place to help reduce water loss. In hot weather (above 30°C), or during high
winds and low humidity, concrete can dry out easily. In these conditions take extra care while curing. Concrete
that is cured is:
 LESS LIKELY TO CRACK.
 More DURABLE.
Cured concrete has a surface that wears better, lasts longer and better protects the steel reinforcement.
How to Cure:
1. Moist Curing; applying extra water to the surface of the concrete, or STOPPING water loss from the
concrete. The spray must be a very fine mist or else it will damage the surface of the concrete.
2. Cover with PLASTIC SHEETS to slow down water loss. The sheets must be held down to stop them
blowing away and the concrete surface drying out. The sheets can be overlapped and stuck together
and/or held down with sand, timber or bricks.
3. Applying a CURING COMPOUND which slows water loss. This should be applied soon after finishing.
Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions carefully. Curing compounds may be sprayed or brushed
on.
How Long to Cure
Concrete keeps getting harder and stronger over TIME. Household concrete jobs MUST be cured for at least 3
days. For better strength and durability, cure concrete for
7 days. The longer concrete is cured, the closer it will be
to its best possible strength and durability.
Placing Concrete
When transporting and placing concrete, avoid:
1. delay
 51

2. segregation and
3. Wastage.

Transportation
The method used to transport concrete depends on which one is the lowest cost and easiest for the job size. Some
ways to transport concrete include: a concrete truck, a concrete pump, a crane and bucket, a chute, a conveyor or a
hoist. On small jobs a wheelbarrow is the easiest way to transport concrete.
Always transport concrete as little as possible to reduce problems of segregation and wastage.
Placing
When placing concrete be careful not to damage or move the formwork and reinforcement. Place concrete as near
to its final position as possible. Start placing from the corners of the formwork or, in the case of a sloping site, from
the lowest level.
Delay
Delay can cause the concrete to dry-out and stiffen. Delay is more of a problem on a hot, and/or windy, day when
the concrete will dry-out and stiffen more quickly. To avoid delay plan ahead. Check that all labour, tools and
containers are ready and that all preparations for placing have been done before the concrete is delivered.
Never just add water to the concrete to make it more workable, always use a mix of cement paste (ie water and
cement)
Segregation; is when the coarse and fine aggregate, and cement paste, become separated. Segregation may
happen when the concrete is mixed, transported, placed or compacted. Segregation makes the concrete: weaker,
less durable, and will leave a poor surface finish.
To avoid segregation:
Check the concrete is not 'too wet' or 'too dry'. Make sure the concrete is properly mixed. It is important that the
concrete is mixed at the correct speed in a transit mixer for at least two minutes immediately prior to discharge. The
concrete should be placed as soon as possible. When transporting the mix, load carefully. If placing concrete straight
from a truck, pour vertically and never let the concrete fall more than one-and-a-half metres. Always pour new
concrete into the face of concrete already in place.
52

Foundations
Constructing a Concrete Foundation
The function of any foundation is to safely sustain and transmit to the ground on which it rests the combined dead,
imposed and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any settlement or other movement which would impair
the stability or cause damage to any part of the building.
Foundations should meet the following requirements;
(1) Building loads must be supported and transmitted to the ground;
(a) safely; transmit and sustain to the ground the total dead and imposed loads so as not to cause any settlement
or
(b) without causing deflection or deformation of the building;
(c) without affecting adjacent buildings.
(2) They must be of such depth or be so constructed as to avoid damage by shrinkage of the subsoil.
(3) They must be capable of resisting chemicals in the sub-soil.
The explanation of common terms associated with soils in foundation work is given below:
Settlement: Ground movement, which may be caused by:
(a) deformation of the soil due to imposed loads.
(b) volume changes of the soil as a result of seasonal conditions.
(c) mass movement of the ground unstable areas.
 Made Ground: Refuse, excavated rock or soil deposited for the purpose of filling in a depression or for
raising the site above its natural level.
 Bearing Pressure: The pressure produced on the ground by the loads.
 Bearing Capacity: Safe load per unit area which the ground can carry.
 Back Fill: Lateral excavated from site and if suitable used to fill in around the walls and foundations.
 Sub-Soil: Sub-soil lies below the topsoil to a depth about 300 mm.

Types of Foundations
Foundations are usually classified by their type such as strips, pads, rafts and piles. It is also possible to combine
foundation types such as strip foundations connected by beams to and working in conjunction with pad
foundations. Various types of foundations are used in domestic buildings. The type of foundations selected
depends on three factors:
(1) The total load of the building ("live” and "dead" loads).
(2) The nature and bearing capacity of the subsoil.
(3) The design of the building.
 53

Strip
These are suitable for most types of subsoil and light structural loadings such as those encountered in low to
medium rise domestic dwellings where mass concrete can be used. Reinforced concrete is usually required for all
other situation. The majority of domestic structures have a strip foundation in which a continuous strip of concrete
provides a continuous support under load-bearing walls. This type of foundation is composed of plain concrete
usually to a mix 1: 3: 6 volumes (1 part cement, 3 parts sand 6 parts coarse aggregate). The thickness of the
foundation must not be less than the projection (P) and in no case less than 150 mm. Reinforcement bars are
sometimes used in small domestic building. These bars strengthen the structure, and make it less vulnerable to earth
tremors.

Wide Strip Foundation

Where the load bearing capacity of the ground is low, as for example marshy ground, soft clay and made-up ground,
wide strip foundations may be used to spread the load over a large area of soil. It is usual to provide transverse
reinforcement in the base of the footing to withstand tensions that will arise. This is usually placed near the bottom
of the footing. The depth below ground level should be the same as for normal strip foundations. All reinforcements
should be lapped at the corners and junctions.

Deep-strip Foundations
These foundations are used in shrinkable clay soils (to reduce the cost of normal strip foundation) in depths of 900
mm or more, and to counteract the variable soil conditions in different seasons. In reducing the width of the
foundation trench, the quantity of excavation, backfill and surplus, soil-.removal is also reduced. The deeper
foundation also provides greater resistance to fracture from unequal settlement (by increasing the load bearing
strength of the section).
Stepped Foundations; these are usually considered in the context of strip foundations and are used mainly on
sloping sites to reduce the amount of excavation and materials required to produce an adequate foundation.
54

Raft foundation
These can be used for lightly loaded buildings on poor soils or where the top 450 to 600 mm of soil is overlaying
a poor quality substrata.
 55

Pad Foundation
Suitable for most types of subsoil except loose sands, loose gravels and filled areas. Pad foundations are usually
constructed of reinforced concrete and where possible are square in plan.

Short-bored pile foundation

These are a form of foundation which are suitable for domestic loadings and clay subsoil where ground movements
can occur below the 1.000 m depth associated with traditional strip and trench fill foundations. They can be used
where trees are planted close to a new building since the trees may eventually cause damaging ground movements
due to extracting water from the subsoil
and root growth.
56

Constructing formwork

Formwork
Formwork is used to shape the fluid concrete mixture and hold it in place while it cures. It must be strong enough
to withstand the pressure of the wet mix, which can exert a considerable force until it begins to harden and hold
its own shape. Reinforcement is used to add tensile strength to the concrete and to help resist shrinkage cracking.
Timber formwork
Lumber and plywood are used to build forms or moulds to contain the concrete mix and shape it. Usually, 2 x 4s, 2
x 6s or 2 x 8s are used for the actual form or mould, and 1 x 2s, 1 x 4s, or 2 x 4s for stakes and braces to hold it in
place. Metal landscape edging or 1/4-in. plywood or hardboard can be used to form curved slab edges. Plywood
 57

used to form curves will bend more easily if it is cut in strips perpendicular to the face grain rather than along the
grain. Form boards should be free of holes, cracks, loose knots, and other defects that might reduce strength or mar
the finished surface. Any type of lumber that is straight and smooth can be used for temporary forms that will be
removed when the concrete is cured.
No. 2 or No. 3 grade yellow pine, spruce, or fir make good, sturdy form boards. Green lumber works better than
kiln-dried lumber, which will swell when it absorbs water from the concrete mix. Forms that are too absorptive also
reduce the quality of the concrete by removing too much water from the mix and leaving insufficient moisture for
cement curing. Plywood for forms should be exterior type with grade B face veneers. For forms or divider strips
that will stay in place, use redwood, cedar, cypress, or lumber that has been pressure-treated with a chemical
preservative. Coat redwood, cypress, or cedar lumber with a clear sealer to protect it from the alkalis in the fresh
concrete. Pressure-treated lumber does not require a sealer.
Constructing lintels and beams

Lintel; A horizontal structural member (such as a beam) over an opening which carries the weight of the wall
above it; usually of steel, stone, or wood.

Beams;
1. Structural horizontal members whose prime function is to carry transverse loads, such as a joist, girder,
rafter, or purlin.
2. A horizontal load bearing members which are classified as either main beams which transmit floor and
secondary beam loads to the columns or secondary beams which transmit floor loads to the main beams.
58
 59

Walls
Definition

 This term refers to a unit that is used to sub-divide or partition space.

 It is also considered to be a unit that encloses a space thus giving it a degree of protection from the
elements.

Categories of Walls
There are essentially two categories of walls namely:
1. Load bearing walls and
2. Non-load bearing walls.
Load bearing Walls
These are walls that are designed to transmit imposed and super-imposed loads in addition to their own weight to
a suitable foundation. They can either be external or internal walls.

Non-load bearing Walls

These walls are designed to accommodate their own weight in addition to fixings placed on them. Most often
these are used internally.
Functional Requirements for Walls
A wall should be:
 Fire Resistant;
 sound insulated;
 weather resistant;
 thermally insulated;
 design to accommodate fixings such as doors and windows or openings, and
 Designed to safely transmit all loads encountered to a suitable foundation
Types of Walls:
1. Rubble walls 6. Cavity walls
2. Brick walls 7. Timber Framed walls
3. Parapet walls 8. Dwarf walls
4. Party walls 9. Concrete walls (In-situ and Prefabricated)
5. Block walls
Brick walls
The materials used in the manufacture of bricks is clay or it may be from sand or lime and are available in a wide
variety of strength, types, textures, colours, and special shaped bricks.
60

In the manufacturing process, the raw material (usually clay) is dug and then prepared either by weathering or
grinding before being mixed with water to the right plastic condition. It is then formed into the required brick
shape using a mould / form before being dried and fired in a kiln.

 Bricks are generally manufactured to a length of 337.5mm, a width of 225mm and a height of 112.5 mm.

 However, the usual size of bricks for common use is 215 mm in length, width 102.5 mm and a height of
65 mm where 10 mm of mortar joint thickness is added to 3 faces.
Bonding
Types of Bonds

This is an arrangement of bricks in a wall, column or pier laid to a set pattern to maintain an adequate lap. The
bond is set along the length of the wall working from each end to ensure that no vertical joint is above another in
consecutive courses.
Purpose of Bonding
1. To ensure that maximum strength is obtain whilst the load to be transmitted through the wall, column or
pier is being distributed.
2. To ensure that there is lateral stability and resistance to side thrusts.
3. To create an aesthetic (acceptable) appearance.
English Bond
This bond is formed by laying alternate courses of stretchers and headers. It is one of the strongest forms of
bonding pattern used.
 61

Flemish Bond
This bond is formed by laying headers and stretchers consecutively in each course. It is not as strong as English
bond but is considered to be aesthetically superior.
Stretcher Bond
This bond consists of alternate courses of stretchers and is used extensively for block wall construction.
Parapet Walls
This is a low wall projecting above the level of a roof, bridge or balcony forming a guard or barrier at the edge.
Parapets may be exposed to the elements on three faces namely front, rear and top and will therefore need careful
design and construction if they are to be durable and reliable.

Party Walls
Party wall is an interior lot line used or adapted for joint service between two buildings.
Cavity Walls
These consist of an outer brick or block leaf or skin separated from an inner brick or block leaf or skin by an air
space called the cavity. These walls provide better thermal insulation and weather resistant than block or brick
wall. The two leaves of a cavity are tied together with wall ties at not less than 900mm width and vertical heights
of 450mm.
62

Cavity wall details

Timber Constructed Walls

Types: -
1. Balloon Framed
2. Platform Framed
Members:-
Foundation Footing, sill plate, sole plate, studs, Noggins, Top plate, wall plate, trimmer stud, cripple stud, header,
window sill.
63
64

Columns
These are the vertical load bearing members of the structural frame which transmits the beam loads down to the
foundations. They are usually constructed in storey heights and therefore the reinforcement must be lapped to
provide structural continuity.
 65

Wall Finishes
Rendering
External rendering is the process of applying a cement and sand plaster coat to the outside walls of a building.
You render to:
(1) to improve the appearance of concrete block walls;
(2) provide a waterproof finish to porous blocks
(3) Provide a base for a colour finish.
Smooth render is a cement and lime mixed with sand and a 1:2:9 mixture. It is put on as a finishing coat and
trowelled to a smooth finish. If an undercoat is needed, then the proportions should be reduced to 1:1:5. This is
the least satisfactory finish because the trowelling can bring too much cement to the surface, which causes cracks.
Roughcast render is a top coat of cement, lime and sand in a 1:2:9 mix over a 1:3 cement and sand backing coat.
While the top coat is soft, you throw 6-13mm cement-coated aggregate into it.
Scraped render is a 1:1:6 or 1:2:9 mix of cement, lime and sand. You scrape the top 2mm off with a saw blade
just before it hardens to remove the smooth skin.
Pebbledash render is a final coat in a 1:1:6 cement, lime and sand render with 6-12 mm pebbles lightly pressed
into it so that the aggregate is exposed.
Tyrolean (popcorn) render is produced by a machine that throws a 1:3 cement and mixture onto the wall for a
deeply textured finish. The cement can be coloured to produce a permanent coloured finish. The background can
be rendered or the Tyrolean render can be applied directly to a raw wall and built up in layers.
Plastering
The term plastering means the application of a smooth coat of material to walls and ceilings. The purpose of
plastering is to provide a joint less, hygienic, and easily decorated smooth finish to walls. Plaster is mixed with
water to make a plastic mixture, which can be spread directly on a surface in a thin 10mm layer. The surface absorbs
the water in the mix by a process called suction. The suction process stiffens the plaster rapidly so that you can level
it while it hardens and sets. When the plaster dries it leaves a hard, smooth finish for decoration. The type of concrete
that you might plaster would be the soffit of a floor slab. The concrete may be quite smooth from the concrete was
poured. To prepare concrete, you need to wash off all traces of oil and hack the surface to provide enough key for
the plaster. You may apply one, two or three coats of plaster to achieve a smooth finish. Generally, you need to
apply two coats unless you using plasterboards, which need only one. Three coats are only used if the surface is
extremely uneven. The first coat in a three-coat finish, called a screed coat, is applied to level the surface and to
ensure that the plaster is the correct thickness.
How to plaster a wall
(1) put mounds of cement and sand mortar across the wall in columns of three about 1200mm apart, smooth
the mounds to a thickness of 10mm and leave them to hard.
(2) Apply 75mm vertical strips of plaster over the mounds and leave them to set
(3) Mix the plaster by hand or with a small mixer.
66

(4) Apply a rough plaster coat to the wall between the screeds by putting it on with an upward sweeping
movement.
(5) Move the screed board from the bottom to the top of the wall in a sawing motion to smooth and level the
plaster
(6) Scratch the first coat before it sets to provide a key for the second coat and leave to dry.
(7) Apply a finish coat of 2mm neat plaster with a steel float to produce a thick, smooth finish.

Types of paints
The main types of paint are: gloss, undercoats for gloss, primers and water-thinned.
Gloss paints are based on resins produced in laboratories which have improved the quality of gloss paints the two
main types of gloss paints are paints thinned with white spirit and paints thinned with water. White spirit is
turpentine which is used to dilute gloss paint and to clean brushes and paints spills. The gloss paints that are
thinned with water are easier to use and clean up after.
Undercoats for gloss paints are modified gloss paints that dry with flat finishes. This makes it easier to rub them
down and improves the adhesion of the gloss coat. Undercoat also fill in the colour over the primer and
consolidate the final colour.
Primers are applied to seal unpainted metal and wood surfaces, typical wood primers are: pink primer,
aluminium wood primer, acrylic primers.
Metal primers are calcium plumbate, zinc chromate.
Water-based (acrylic) these are less durable than gloss paints, but they are also easier to apply. Because they
don’t seal surfaces, you can use these paints on new plaster. Water-thinned paints have the primer, undercoat and
finish in the same container. Two types of water-thinned paints are: lime washes and emulsions.
Varnish is a transparent solution that solidifies into a protective coating. Opaque and coloured varnishes are
called lacquers.
Properties of Paints and Varnishes
Paint
The properties of paint are: a pigment, a binder and a solvent or thinner to make the mixture suitable for application.
Paint pigment is a fine powder that either strongly scatters light, to yield a white effect, or absorbs certain
wavelengths of light, producing a coloured effect. After application, the paint undergoes changes which convert it
from a fluid to a tough film which binds the pigment. The nature of these changes varies with different types of
paint. Some such as size- bound distemper and chlorinated rubber paint lose the thinner by evaporation. With most
paints containing drying oils, part of the change on drying results reaction of the oil with oxygen from the air. In
emulsion paints and oil-bound distempers, the binding material is emulsified or dispersed as fine globules in an
aqueous liquid. After application the water evaporates and the globules coalesce to form a tough, water resistant
film.

Varnishes
Varnishes are transparent solutions produced by heating a drying oil, resin, drier, and solvent together. If applied as
a thin film, varnish gives a hard transparent coating upon evaporation, oxidation, and polymerization of the solvent.
The numerous variations in composition and preparation of varnish make its classification difficult. The so-called
 67

spirit varnish, for example, is a resin dissolved in a volatile solvent that contains no drying oil, and asphalt varnish
is a solution of asphalt and a solvent that gives opaque, black coatings. Opaque and coloured varnishes are called
lacquers.
Stains; A stain is a chemical dye or pigment used to color glass, paper, textiles, or wood. The staining substance,
which uses alcohol, oil, or water as a vehicle, is transparent and thinner than paint or coating, and it penetrates
into the grain of material being dyed.

Methods of Application
Paints are applied to:
- Masonry by roller, air brush, hand brush or spray.
- Metal by roller, air brush, hand brush or spray.
- Wood surfaces by air brush, hand brush, roller or spray.
Varnishes are applied to:
- Wood surfaces by roller, air brush, spray or by hand brush.
Stains are applied to:
- Wood surfaces by airbrush, hand brush, spray or roller.
Brushes and rollers are used in many different sizes according to convenience.
The Purpose of Solvents
Solvents
The purpose of solvents is to dry paint when applied by causing it to evaporate, oxidize or polymerize.
Laying tiles on concrete sub-floors
Tiles are made from a variety of materials and laid on sub-floor in individual units to form a complete covering.
They are laid on an adhesive or mortar bed, depending on the tile material. Some tiles are having wide joints,
which are filled separately, while others are filled so tightly that no joint filling is needed.
PVC Tiles

PVC tiles have precise measurements (300 300 3 mm). They must be laid on a perfectly smooth screed because
they are so thin and fixed with adhesive. However, they can be fitted so closely that they do not have a gap in the
joints.
PVC tiles are usually:
Resistant to grease and oil;

 Waterproof;

 Durable.
Although they come in a wide range of colours and texture, PVC tiles are one of the cheapest floor finishes you
can buy and lay. They are maintained by applying a surface coating of wax and then washing with soapy water.
68

Quarry and Ceramic Tiles

Ceramic tiles are clay tiles with a hard semi-glazed finish. They are usually measure about 150  150 mm or 100
100 mm and are 15-20 mm thick. Since they are fired in a kiln they are not shaped as precisely as PVC tiles, so
they have a 3-mm joint between the tiles.

Quarry are made of natural stone and cut from the slabs in quarries. These tiles are bedded in mortar so a levelling
screed is not necessary. The level of the finish floor is determined by battens, which are the thickness of the tile,
fixed temporarily to the floor and levelled. The bedding should be a 1:10 mix of cement and sand mortar. You
spread the mortar on the concrete and the bed the tiles level to the battens. The joints should be grouted with 1:1
sanded grout.

Finishes on Timber Floor

It is usually not practical to lay any cement-based finishes on timber floor. Because timber moves and flexes, it is
liable to cause crack in the floor finish. The added weight of a cement-based finish would also mean that the floor
construction would have a heavier and stronger.

The finishes that can be laid on timber floors are:

1. PVC tiles, which can be laid on the flooring as long as the boards are flush at the joints. It is safer to lay a 3-
mm hardboard cover over standard 100-mm strip flooring to avoid the joints showing through;

2. Carpet, which can be from a wide range of qualities and styles. And underlay will protect the carpet and
extend its lifespan. You can lay carpet loosely as squares and rectangles, fit it from wall to wall in seamless areas
or lay carpet tiles on adhesive back.

Types of Tiles

Square tiles are the most popular. They come in three varieties to suit the expose ends of the tile runs. The basic
tile, which is glazed on the surface only, has unglazed edges. The surface of the basic tile can be:

1. Slightly rounded near the edges. This is a cushion-edges tile;

2. rounded on one edge;

3. Rounded on the two edges.

Tiling Techniques

To produce good tiling you need to know how to:

1. level;

2. cut tiles;

3. set out and measure;

4. Grout joints
 69

Floor Finishes

Solid Timber Flooring

1 plank flooring

2 Tung and groove strip flooring

3 end-grain woodblock flooring

4 block flooring, wood strip, solid Parquet –

chequered pattern

5 parquet block flooring – basket weave

pattern

6 mosaic parquet, wood mosaic –herringbone

pattern

7 wood tile flooring, parquet tile, floor square

Veneered Parquets,

Multilayer Parquets

8 veneered strip parquet

9 parquet tile composite flooring, laminated

floor square

Tiled Flooring

10 stone tile or cement tile

11 clinker tile, vitreous tile

Glass Blocks
12 mosaic tile
Glass blocks are very thick blocks of glass made with metal reinforces between them.
13 terrazzo screed
Glass blocks have been in use since the early 1900- they timeless projects that can be
used in any type of architecture. Polymer Flooring

14 vinylImaginative
Glass blocks are usually used as walls, windows, or floors. sheet flooring,
new vinyl sheet
design
elements make for new more exciting looks for building projects. They also require very
15 studded rubber flooring, raised or coin-
little maintenance. pattern flooring
Glass blocks are one of the sound insulating materials. Compare with windows made
from other materials, glass block windows have a much better heat insulation making it
somewhat fire proof. The heat insulation plays a role in avoiding frosting in the winter.
70

Roofs
Definition:
A roof is a unit which covers the top of a building. It serves to protect the structure from the weather and adds
beauty to the design. Roofs are built with wood, concrete or steel frames that are covered with decking and then a
weather resistant roofing material.

Functional Requirements
• It should provide adequate weather exclusion
• It should be designed to provide the required degree of sound insulation
• It should be structurally sound so that maintenance can be done
• It should be providing light and ventilation
• It must be able to support its own weight, attached fixings, wind loads and imposed loads
• It should be thermally insulated
Factors Determining Roof Shape & Design
The shape chosen by architects and engineers depends upon factors such as:
• The size of the structure
• The design of the structure
• Climatic conditions
• Cost
• Appearance
Roof Classifications
• Roofs can be classified as either a Flat roof or a Pitched roof.
• A flat roof is one whose angle of slope lies between 0.0˚. to 10.0˚.
• A Pitched roof has a sloping angle over 10.0˚.but less than 70.0˚.
 71

Types of Roofs
Lean-to Roof
This type is not often used on large spans, but more often
found as a covering for a rear or side extension to a larger
building. The lean-to varies to suit requirements and the
upper end of the rafter is fixed to a wall piece which can be
corbelled or bolted to the wall. The foot of the rafter is
normally birds-mouthed (notched) over a wall plate.

Couple Roof
This is a double pitched roof of the simplest kind, consisting of common rafters birds-mouthed over the wall plate
and fixed to a ridge board at the apex. In general the birds-mouth notching should not cut into the rafter any more
than one third of the depth of the rafter. The
maximum span for this type of roof is 2.5 m.

Closed Couple Roof

This type is suitable for spans up to 4 m. It is stronger
than the couple roof, having a ceiling joist spanning the
wall plates. This new Span member prevents the spread
created by the forces distributed to the wall plates by the
rafters, thus making it suitable for the larger span.
72

Collar Roof
This type of roof is suitable for spans
greater than 4 m, but up to a
maximum of 5.5 m. There is no
specified position of the collar, but its
effectiveness would be reduced
considerably if it was placed any
more than half-way between the wall
plates and ridge The most common
position used is one third of the
height of the rise above the plates. If
the collar is halved into the common
rafter with a dovetailed halving, as shown, the full strength of the tie will be achieved.

Gable-end Roof
This is a double-pitched roof having two
sloping surfaces and which terminates at the
end with a triangular section of block, wood,
or brickwork.
Hipped-end Roof
This is a double-pitched roof where the roof
slope is returned around the shorter sides of
the building to form a sloping triangular end.
Eaves
The portion at the foot of the rafters which
overhangs the wall face is called the eaves. It
serves various purposes which include:
1. protection of roof members
2. protection of walls
3. it offers good ventilation
4. it shows attractiveness
 73

Types of Ceilings
There are generally two types (suspended and close boarded) of ceilings, which serve the following purposes:
1. tying together opposite walls and roofs
2. supporting upper floors
3. it offers good insulation
4. it offers aesthetics appearance
Advantages of using Roof Trusses
1. time
2. cost
3. strength
4. materials saving
5. weight reduction
6. quality control
7. ease of prefabrication
Types of Roof Covering shown below

1. Asphalt 2. Bituminous felt

3. Thatch

5. Interlocking tiles 6. Corrugated sheet metal

4. Plain tiles
74

7. Slates 8. Wood shingles

Parts of a Roof

Technical Words for Parts of a Roof

Covering- is the external material that is laid over the roof structure to protect the inside of the building.
Coverings can be: asphalt; bituminous felt; thatch; plain tiles; interlocking tiles; corrugated sheet metal
Eaves- the bottom end of the roof where it meets the wall
Fall – the slope required on flat roofs for water run-off
Fascia– a thin timber board that is fixed to the end of rafters or roof joists to support the gutters
Hip – the point where two inclined roof surfaces meet over an external angle
Jack rafter – a short rafter that spans the hip and eaves or valley and ridge
Pitch – the angle formed by the slope of the roof
Purling/ lath/batten – can be:
1. a horizontal timber that provides support to the rafters
2. a timber member spanning between roof trusses that supports roof sheets
 75

Rafter – the timber member that spans from the eaves to the ridge in a pitched roof
Ridge Tile – a tile that caps the top of the roof
Ridge – a timber at the apex of the roof that takes the tops of the rafters
Soffit – the horizontal distance between the supports of structural members such as the rafters
Valley – the point where two inclined roof surfaces meet over an internal angle
Verge – the edge of a roof that meets a gable wall
Wall plate – is the timber member fixed to the top of a wall to secure a flat roof joist or rafter.
Truss Types
76

Doors
Functions of doors:
A door is a movable barrier that separates internal and external spaces. It is usually attached to a frame on one
side by hinges. As it is, it performs various functions which include:
1. Protection/ Security 4. Lighting
2. Aesthetics. 5. Sound insulation;
3. Privacy 6. Ventilation
Types of Doors
Panel Doors
These can be described as one-panel, two-panel three panels etc. up to as many as twelve panels. Panel doors
consist of panels, stiles, top, bottom and middle rails and sometimes muntins, which are vertical intermediate
pieces tenoned to the top,
bottom or middle rails.
Panels to doors can be glass,
plain plywood, and plain solid
timber or raised solid timber.
These doors are suitable for
both internal and external use.

French door; a door having rectangular glass panes extending throughout its length and
often hung in pairs. Also called a casement door.
 77

Match boarded; a simple ledge door faced with tongued and grooved boards
Flush Door; are very popular, on the account of their plainness, low cost and ease of construction. A flush door
consists of a core of either laminated solid timber or skeleton framework with a facing of plywood. The strongest
type of flush door is the solid core, which is constructed using
strips of timber that are laminated to form a solid board, with a
facing of plywood on both sides.

Louvered door; a door having a louvered opening for the passage or circulation of air. Also called a blind door.
78

Door Frames; these are available for all standard external doors and can be obtained with a fixed solid or glazed
panel above a door height transom. Door frames are available for doors opening inwards or outwards. Most door
frames are made to the recommendations set out in BS 4787: Internal and external wood doorsets, door leaves and
frames

Door Ironmongery; available in a wide variety of materials, styles and finishers but will consist of essentially the
same components:
Hinges or Butt; these are used to fix the door to its frame or lining and to enable it to pivot about its hanging
edge.
Locks, Latches and Bolts; the means of keeping the door in its closed position and providing the required degree
of security. The handles and cover plates used in conjunction with locks and latches are collectively called door
furniture.
Letter Plates; fitted in external doors to enable letters, etc. to be deposited through the door.
Other items include Finger and Kicking Plates which are used to protect the door fabric where there is high usage,
 79

Draught Excluders to seal the clearance gap around the edges of the door and Security Chains to enable the door
to be partially opened and thus retain some security.

Most doors are hung with the loose-pin butt hinge. The pin may be removed and as a result, the door can be removed
without the hinges being unscrewed. Doors should be hinged so that they open in the direction of the natural entry,
open out in public buildings, and swing against a blank wall whenever possible and never into a hallway. Exterior
doors use three hinges to reduce warpage caused by the difference in exposure on opposite sides and to support
wider and heavier exterior doors. Interior doors use two hinges. When installing hinges, the gain is the cutout or
mortise made to receive a leaf of the hinge. The depth is determined by the hinge's thickness, and the width is
determined by the hinge's size. Setback is the distance that the hinge is placed away from the side of the door,
usually 3/16 inch. The door closer is a device that closes a door and controls the speed and closing action of the
door.
Install the door closer according to the manufacturer's instructions.
80

Door Installation
Doors, both mill-built and job-built, are installed in the finished door frames:
Step 1. Cut off the stile extensions, if any.
Step 2. Plane the edges of the stiles until the door fits tightly against the hinge side and clears the lock side of the
jamb by about 1/16 inch. Be sure that the top fits squarely to the rabbeted recess and that the bottom swings free
of the finished floor by about 1/2 inch. The lock stile of the door must be bevelled slightly so that the edge of the
stile will not strike the edge of the door jamb.
Step 3. After proper clearances have been made, tack the door in position in the frame and wedge it at the bottom.
Step 4. Mark hinge positions with a sharp-pointed knife on the stile and the jamb. Hinge positions on the stile
must be placed slightly higher than the lower door rail and slightly lower than the upper door rail to avoid cutting
out part of the door-rail tenons that are housed in the stile. Three measurements must be marked:
 The location of the butt on the jamb.
 The location of the butt on the door.
 The thickness of the butt on both the iamb and the door.
Step 5. Door butts (or hinges) are mortised into the door frames. Use three butt hinges on all full-length exterior
doors to prevent warping and sagging. Place the butts and mortise them with the utmost accuracy so that the door
will open and close properly, and so that the door, when open, will not strike the casing. The butt pin must project
more than half its thickness from the casing.
Step 6. Using the butt as a pattern, mark the butt dimension on the door edge and face of the jamb.
Step 7. Cut the marked areas, called gains, on the door jambs and door to fit the butts. Use a 1- inch chisel and
mallet.
Step 8. Test the gains. The butts must fit snugly and exactly flush with the edge of the door and the face of the
jamb.
Step 9. Screw half of each of the butt joints on the door and the other three parts on the jamb. Place the butts so
that the pins are inserted from the top when the door is hung.
Step 10. Set the door against the frame so that the two halves of the top butt engage. Insert the top pin. Engage
and insert pins in the bottom and centre butts
 81

Windows
82

Functions of windows:
Windows on a building provide natural light and ventilation to the interior while excluding rain and insects.
Windows are usually made of steel or timber, but other materials such as plastics or aluminium are also popular.
As such windows serve various functions which are:
(1) Provides lighting and ventilation (4) External viewing
(2) Sound reduction (5) Emergency exit
(3) Appearance (6) Security
Building Regulations for Windows
Windows are usually put together in combinations of openings and fixed lights to comply with the regulations for
health and hygiene in habitable rooms. The standard requirements in most buildings regulations are usually:
(1) The minimum area of window in a habitable room should be 10 per cent of the floor area.
(2) The minimum opening area of the window in a habitable room should be 5 per cent of the floor area
Glazing
The glazing is the glass part of the window. Glass is essential to let in daylight, but to exclude wind and rain.
The thickness of the pane depends on its height, width and the amount of likely wind pressure. These types of
glass are commonly used in small buildings:
1. Clear Glass, which is about 3 to 4 mm thick;
2. Obscure Glass, which is used in private areas such as toilets and bathrooms. It is usually 4mm thick and
comes in a variety of patterns;
3. Special Glass, which is used in internal or external doors that require stronger safety glass
There are two main types of special glass:
1. Wired Glass, which can be clear or obscure. It is about 6 mm thick and is reinforced with wire;
2. Toughened Glass, which is manufactured to a specific size and cannot be cut. When this glass breaks it
shatters into harmless pieces. Car windshields are made from toughened glass.
Technical Terms for parts of a window and frame:
Bottom rail – the bottom member of a sash or light
Head – the top piece of a window, which is fixed to the underside of the masonry
Casement – a side-hung opening window
Sill – the bottom piece of a window, which is fixed to the bottom of the opening
Jamb – the vertical sidepiece fixed to the surface of the window opening
Mullin – a fixed vertical piece in the window framework, which separates the fixed and moving parts
Opening light – another word for sash
 83

Sash – the whole moving part of a window including the glass

Stile – the side member of the sash
Top rail – the top member of the sash
Transom – the fixed horizontal piece that separates the fixed and moving parts of the window
Ventilator – a small sash, which is often top-hung to provide secure ventilation
84

Types of windows:

 Fixed windows consist of a frame and stationary sash.

When used in conjunction with operable window units, the
thickness of the fixed sash should approximate the cross-sectional
dimension of the operating sashes.
 Casement windows have operating sashes that are side
hinged and usually swing outward. When open, the sash is able to
direct ventilation. The inner end of the sash may slide along a
track on the sill or jamb as the sash swings outward. A pair of
sashes may close on a vertical mullion or have a floating astragal
to close on each other.
 Awning windows have operating sashes that swing
outward on hinges attached to the top of their frames.
 Hopper windows have operating sashes that swing
inward on hinges attached to the bottom of their frames. When
open, the sash is able to direct ventilation. The sashes may be
stacked vertically with sashes closing on each other or on meeting
stiles.
 A horizontal sliding window has two or more sashes, of
which at least one slides along horizontal grooves or tracks.
 Vertical sliding windows have two vertically sliding
sashes, each in separate grooves or tracks, closing different parts
of the window. The sashes are held in the desired position by
means of counterweights, pretension springs, or friction. Single-
hung vertical sliding windows have two sashes, of which only
one is movable.
 Jalousie/ louver windows have horizontal glass or
wood louvers that pivot simultaneously in a common frame.
These are used primarily in mild climates to control ventilation
and to cut off visibility from the outside.
 Pivoting windows have sashes that rotate 90° or 180°
about a vertical or horizontal axis at or near their centres.
Pivoting sashes are used in air-conditioned multi-storey or high-
rise buildings and operated only for cleaning, maintenance, or
emergency ventilation.
 85

Floors
By definition, the function of any floor is to provide a level surface that is capable of supporting all the live and
dead loads imposed.
Functional Requirements
The primary functions of floors are to:
• Provide a level surface with sufficient strength to support the imposed loads of people and furniture.
• Exclude the passage of water and water vapour to the interior of the building.
• provide resistance to unacceptable heat loss through the floor
• Provide the correct type of surface to receive the chosen finish.
• Be reasonably durable.
86

Categories of Floors
There are basically three types of floors widely used in the building industry, these are:
1. Solid Ground Floors
2. Suspended Timber Ground Floors
3. Precast Concrete Floors

Solid Ground Floors

A domestic solid ground floor consists of three components:-

 Hardcore

 Damp Proof Membrane

 Concrete Bed
Hardcore
This should be a suitable filling material to make up the topsoil removal and reduced level excavations. It should
have a top surface, which can be rolled out to ensure that cement grout is not lost from the concrete. It may be
necessary to blind the top surface with a layer of sand or fine ash especially if the damp proof membrane is to be
placed under the concrete bed.
Damp Proof Membrane
This is an impervious layer such as heavy-duty polythene sheeting that is used to prevent moisture passing
through the floor to the interior of the building. Other materials are,
• cold/hot poured bitumen,
• rubber solutions, and
• Asphalt or pitch mastic.
Concrete Bed
This is the component providing the solid level surface to which screeds and finishes can be applied. The
thicknesses that are generally specified are:
• Plain in-situ concrete (no reinforcement) 100-150mm thick
• Reinforced concrete, 150 mm minimum.
Suspended Timber Ground Floor
This type of floor consists of timber boards or other suitable sheet material fixed to joists spanning over sleeper
walls. They are:
• Susceptible to dry rot (a fungus that attacks damp timber).
 87

• Adequate ventilation under the floor coupled with damp proof courses at an appropriate position will
control or alleviate this problem.
• The use of airbricks is employed to allow for ventilation and should be spaced at 2 m centre around the
perimeter of the building.

Concrete Floors
The over site should not be less than 100mm thick
although it is often 150 mm thick. The mix of concrete
should be at least 1:3:6 with a maximum size of coarse
aggregates of 38 mm, but a mix of 1:2:4 is to be
preferred incorporating coarse aggregates with a
maximum size of 19 mm. the concrete mix of 50 kg of
cement to not more than 0.11 m3 of fine aggregates
and 0.16 m3 of coarse aggregates. It should be noted
that the edges of the slab are not to be built into the
surrounding walls to allow the two elements with their
differing loads to move independently of one another.
88

Concrete floor

Timber Floors
A timber floor finish laid directly on the bedded in a material which may also serve as a damp proof membrane.
Timber fillets laid in the concrete as a fixing for a floor finish should be treated with an effective preservative unless
 89

they are above the DPM. The DPM must not be lower than the highest level of surface of the outside ground and it
must be continuous with, or joined and sealed to, the DPM in any adjoining wall, floor pier, column or chimney.

Floor members
Joists-A steel or timber beam that supports a floor or roof
Sill- A ledge below a window or door
Sub floor- an underlying or rough unfinished material supporting a finished floor.
Header-A brick laid in a wall so that the smallest surface is visible
Bridging- are small metal pieces placed diagonally between floor joists.
Skirting- narrow boards around the margin of a floor sometimes called the baseboard
Sleeper wall
• (Honeycomb built)
• Hardcore
• Over site concrete
• Wall plate
Floor framing members
Joists:
• Common, trimmed, trimming, and trimmer types
• Floor boarding
• Skirting
• Air bricks
Joist supports
The honeycomb built sleeper walls
• These are usually built two or three courses high to allow good through ventilation.
• They are spaced at 2,000 mm centres which give an economical joist size.
• Wall plate is secured to the sleeper wall along with a DPC material. The joists are then toe-nailed to it.
Floor Joists
The floor joists are pieces of timber that span between the wall plates and support the floor boards. The size of
the joists depends on the spacing of the sleeper walls. The table is a guide to the appropriate lengths for joists that
are spaced 400mm apart. Judging the length of the joists correctly will reduce waste and time spent cutting the
timber.

Span(mm) Joists size(mm) Joists length( mm)

1200 38 x 75 3800

1800 38 x 100 3100 or 4800

2000 50 x 100 4100

90

Trimmer, Trimming and Trimmed

A stair case will go through the first floor. Since you must form an opening, you will need to cut into the joists.
The joists around the opening are called (1) Trimmed Joist- they are shortened by the opening, (2) Trimmer Joist-
they support the trimmed joists, and Trimming Joist- they support the end of the trimmer joists. This type of work
is expensive and must be done very carefully to minimize damage to the joists. The main principal is to join the
end of the trimmer joists firmly to the end of the trimming joists because the load is greatest at that point. You can
use a metal hanger or a house joint in the upper half to avoid cutting into the trimming joist.

Joist Supports
The ends of the joists are supported or fixed to the load bearing walls by building them in or by using special
metal fixings called joist hangers among other methods, which are rarely used.
Strutting
• Timber is known to be hygroscopic, i.e. it is made up of cells, which will absorb moisture readily.
• Significant changes in temperature and humidity may cause timber to expand, contract, deform or twist.
• Shrinkage in timber joists will cause twisting to occur which can cause movements of the ceiling below
and surface cracks to the finishes applied.
• This problem can be overcome by inserting strutting between the joists if the span exceeds 2,400 mm.
The strutting is usually placed at mid-span.
• Typical arrangements of strutting are herringbone (metal or wood), inline solid and staggered solid
strutting.
 91

Joist Sizing (depth)

The sizing of joist can be determined by BC tables or by formulas:
Formula 1
Rule of thumb:
Span in mm + 50 mm = depth of joist in mm.
24
It is assumed that the breadth joist is 50mm and is spaced at 400 c/c
92

Formula 2
Rule of thumb:
• BM = Wl/8 = fbd2/6
• Where;
• W = span x spacing of joist x floor loading kN/m2
• f = fibre stress of the material
• b = breadth (width) of joist (assumed to be 50mm)
• d2 = joist depth
• l = length of span

In-situ RC Suspended Floors

These are reinforced concrete slabs that incorporate beams spanning between columns. The beams may span in
one or two directions.
Slab variations are:
• One way spanning slab
• Two way spanning slab
• Two way spanning flat slab
• Other arrangements

Precast Concrete Floors

These floors are available in several basic formats and provide an alternative form of floor construction to
suspended timber floors and In-situ reinforced concrete suspended floors.
Advantages
The main advantages of precast concrete floors are:
• They eliminate the need for formwork innermost cases.
• Curing time for concrete is eliminated therefore the floor is available at an earlier stage to be used as a
working platform.
• Superior quality control of product is possible with factory-produced products.

Disadvantages
• Higher degree of site accuracy is required to ensure that the precast concrete floor units can be
accommodated without any alterations.
• Less flexible in design terms
• Formation of large openings to accommodate ducts, shafts and stairwells usually have to be formed by
casting an in-situ reinforced concrete floor strip around the opening position.
 93

• Types of Precast Floors

• PCC Beam and Pot Composite Floor
• PCC Channel Units
• PCC Plank and Pot Composite Floors
• Waffle Floors
Floor Finishes
These are finishes usually applied to a structural base but may form part of the floor structure as in the case of
floor boards. Most finishes are chosen to fulfil a particular function based on several factors.
Types of Floor Finishes- see also finishes
• Quarry tiles
• Tongue and Groove Boarding
• Timber strip Flooring
• Wood Blocks
• Ceramic Tiles
• Floor Screed
• PVC Tiles
• Carpets and Carpet tiles
Factors of Floor Selection
• Appearance – chosen mainly for their aesthetic appeal or effect but should however have reasonable
wearing properties. Examples are carpets, carpet tiles and wood blocks.
• High resistance – chosen mainly for their wearing and impact resistance properties and for high usage
areas such as kitchens. Examples are quarry tiles and granolithic paving.
• Hygiene – chosen to provide an impervious easy to clean surface with reasonable aesthetic appeal.
Examples are quarry tiles and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheets and tiles.
Important Steps in Constructing a Timber Floor
Steps:
1. A timber joisted floor maybe covered with timber boards, or sheets or strips of clipboard pr plywood. The
majority of timber floor are finished or furnished with salt wood board between 100mm and 150mm with
a thickness of 25mm.
2. The boards are laid at right angles to the joists with two floor brads, of a width of the brads being 40mm
in length than thickness of the boards and the heads of the brads well punched down below the top of the
surface boards.
94

3. When constructing a timber floor the floor boards are normally joined together in tongued and grooved
joints, although in other expensive work, plain or square boards can be used.
4. With a timber covered solid floor it is important to pressure impregnate the battens and to apply a brush
coat of preservative as a safe guard to prevent decay.
5. Where it is considered desirable to avoid punch holes for brads, boards may be secret nailed and by using
splay rebated, tongued and grooved joints, to help reduce the risk of splitting the tongue when nailing.
This method of nailing and jointing is really suited for floor boarding.
6. Floor boards should preferably be rift sawn, when are cut as near radially from log as near radially from
log as practicable on conversation.
7. The edges of floor boards should be kept 13mm away from the surrounding walls to allow movement and
reduce the risk of damp penetration.
8. The gap is closed by skirting at the base of the wall or partition, which also masks the gap between the
button edge of the wall plaster and the floor, provides adequate resistance to kicks.

STAIRS
Buildings have stairs so that people can:
(1)Gain access from one floor to another
(2)A way to make emergency escape
(3)Decorative purposes
(4)Means of transportation of goods from
one floor to another
(5) Join two or more floors together
Some common terms associated with Stairs
Rise - The vertical distance between the top of
adjacent treads
Tread - The horizontal surface of a step where you
place your feet
Stringer/String - A structural member that supports
the tread and riser
Going/Run - The horizontal distance between the nosing of the adjacent treads
Step - A combination of treads and risers
Flight - A series of steps between floors
Handrail - A rail fixed in a position to give assistance to the user of the stair, which is either fixed a wall or
supported by a Balustrade
Balustrade - The protection erected on the other edge of the staircase to prevent anything falling off the edge
Baluster - Rails between the hand rail and the string
Stair well/case - The opening in which stairs to be constructed
Newel- The post at the end of a flight of stairs to which the stringers and handrail are fixed, usually 100 x 100m
 95

Building Regulations regarding Stairs

(1) Maximum pitch must be 42°
(2) Going of any step must not be less than 220mm
(3) The rise of any step must not be more than 220mm
(4) For any flier the sum of going plus twice the rise must not exceed 700mm or less than 500mm (2 riser +
going = 500mm
(5) Headroom must not be less than 2m above the pitch line vertically
(6) Any stairway less than 1m wide should have one handrail or two handrails more than 1m wide
(7) Handrails should not be less than 840mm vertical height on the pitch line and not less than 900mm above
the landing
Given a stair to construct, distance from the finished lower to the finished upper floor is the total rise.
The ceiling height is 3m and floor thickness is 150mm.
The total rise is the sum of ceiling height and floor thickness which is 3.0m + 150mm = 3.150m assuming that the
total going is 3.60m.
Calculate the tread and riser:
Total rise
Rise = Number of risers (an ideal height for a riser is 187mm) an formula used is
(2 risers + going) = 550mm – 700mm
Divide the total rise 3.150m by 187mm = 16.3 risers or 17 risers
Each rise = 3.150 = 185mm
17
Total going
Going = Number of treads (number of treads is always one less than the number of risers)
Going =3.60m = 225mm
16
Therefore – 2 risers + Going = 550mm – 700mm
(2 x 185mm) + 225mm =
595mm = 550mm – 700mm
96
 97

Basic Plumbing and Related Services

The Principles of Plumbing Pipes
The principles of plumbing pipes are:

 Types
 Size
 Materials
 Methods of Joining
 Fittings
Types
Drainpipes can be made from a variety of materials. Your
choice of drain pipe will depend on availability, price and
suitability for the purpose. This list describes some of the most
common materials for drainpipes:
1. Vitrified Clay, which is clay that was fired at a very high temperature to make it waterproof;
2. Cast Iron, which is a very hard metal alloy. This material is quite expensive and is normally only used for
commercial buildings.
3. Concrete, which is cast using the methods of production used for concrete.
4. Pitch Fibre, which is made from pitch fibres or waste fibres and bitumen or pitch;
5. Plastic, commonly known as polyvinyl chloride (PVC). This is a popular material because it comes in
long lengths, is light and makes joints easily.
Size
Common sizes are 50 mm for wash basins and WC flushing, cisterns and 50 mm for multiple sinks and baths. A
minimum 100 mm drain is usually adequate for a domestic plot. About 20 small houses can be connected to a
100 mm drain because only one or two will discharge water at the same time. If required, then a larger pipe one
with a 150mm diameter is available.
Materials
UPVC is the most popular material because it does not need decoration, it is light weight and easy to fix. It does
not rot or corrode. However this material is easily damaged and is not suitable for areas where it could be hit by
moving vehicles. Fibre cement is a durable and heavier material than the plastic and requires more joints and
supports.
A variety of materials is available for water supply pipes, of which probably the most popular is light gauge copper
tube, largely on account of its durability, flexibility, smooth bore, neat appearance and ease of jointing. Polythene
pipes are rather soft, not completely resistant to ground gases, need ample support and cannot be used for grounding
electrical instillations. Polythene pipes are flexible and their smooth bore speed water flow and prevents the
formation of scale. Lead pipes are now little used on the account of their high cost, weight and suitability with soft
98

or acid water and their use in new dwellings is not permitted. Mild steel pipes are relatively strong and inexpensive,
and are made in three categories- light, medium and heavy.

Methods of Jointing and Fittings

Methods of joining chosen depend on whether you are using:
Rigid Pipes with Rigid Joints
Rigid pipes made from clay, concrete or cast iron need rigid joints with sockets that are wide enough to insert
pipes with straight ends, called spigots. There should be enough space around the jointing material.
Rigid pipes with Flexible Joints
Recent developments in pipe technology have made it possible to use rigid pipes with joints that allow some
flexibility. This is useful because rigid joints may crack with slight movement. Two types of flexible joints are:
1. Spigot and socket combinations
2. Polypropylene sleeves.
These combinations can be used to make to make flexible
joints for concrete pipes.

Flexible pipes with Flexible Joints

Flexible pipes distort under loads. This distortion should be
limited to 5 per cent of the pipes diameter to maintain the flow
of water. Similarly, the flexibility of the joint should only take
up slight movement so that the pipe maintains the correct falls.
You can join pitch fibre pipes with polypropylene sleeves with
gaskets or by tapering the ends of the pipe and driving them
into collars. PVC pipes are made with socket and spigot ends.
They can be joined by using a solvent weld the pipes together
so that one pipe sits slightly inside the other or by inserting
rubber rings into the grooves of the sockets and spigots.
- The most common form of joining mild steel pipes is
screwed and socket.
- In plastics compression is probably the best method of
jointing.
- Soldered joints are normally used in lead pipes.
In the house the main sanitary fittings are:
- WC;
- Bath;
- Sink;
- Basin:
 99

- Shower.
They should be made of materials that are easy to clean, durable
and water proof.
The Principles of Roof Drainage and Disposal are:

 Pitch/Slope

 Gutters

 Down pipes

 Soak away
Pitch/Slope
The pitch or slope is the angle of the slope of the roof measured
from the horizontal. A steeper pitch needs more roof-covering
material, which increases the weight to be supported. The surface is affected by wind so therefore the roof needs
to be strong enough to allow for the factors.
Gutters
A gutter is a channel fixed to the long edge of a roof. The bracket on fixings on the fascia should be at 900mm
intervals. A gutter will have an outlet which is a spout that points down to connect with a rain water pipe. In most
domestic buildings, one outlet is usually enough to take the rainwater during normal wet weather. The distribution
of water along the length of the gutter pushes it naturally towards the outlet. Any residue of water usually
evaporates.
Gutters are available in various lengths and are made from various materials such as:
- Cast Iron
- Asbestos and cement
- PVC-U
- Pressed steel galvanize
- Aluminium
- Wrought copper and wrought zinc
Down pipes
Down pipes convey rain water from roof gutters to underground drains, often through a back entry water gully at
ground level. When used with projecting eaves they generally require a swan-neck consisting of a fitting with two
bends to negotiate the soffit. Flat roofs parapet gutters may discharge into may discharge into rain water heads at
the top of down pipes.
There are various materials which down pipes are made form such as:
- Cast iron spigot and socket down pipes
- Asbestos cement spigot and socket down pipes
100

- PVC-U down pipes

- Pressed steel galvanized light gauge down
pipes
- Aluminium down pipes
Wrought copper and wrought zinc down
pipes.
Wire balloons of galvanized steel, aluminium or
copper should be inserted in gutter outlets to prevent
blockages occurring down pipes.
The Combine System of Drainage
This is a system whereby foul water from sanitary
appliances and surface water from roofs and paved
areas discharge through a single drain to the same
combined sewer. This simplifies and cheapens the
house drainage system, ensuring that the drains are
well flushed in time of storm so that the house drain cannot be connected to the wrong sewer. On the other hand
silting may occur in large pipes and it may entail storm overflows on sewers and high cost of pumping and sewage
treatment. Building regulations describe foul water as waste water which comprises or includes;

The Separate System of Drainage

A separate drainage system is one in which foul wastes pass through one set of drains to a foul sewer, whereas
surface water is conveyed to a separate surface sewer or soak- away. This arrangement reduces pumping and
sewage treatment costs to the main drainage authority but result
in additional expense in the house drainage system, eliminates
the flushing action of the surface water in foul drains and
permits the possibility of an incorrect connection.
The Principles of Drain Runs
 Methods of sewage disposal
 Building regulations requires any cesspool, septic tank or
settlement tank to be:
a) of adequate capacity and so constructed that it is
impermeable to liquids;
b) adequately ventilated; and
c) so sited and constructed that-

 it is not prejudicial to the health of any person,

 it will not contaminate any underground water or water

supply, and

 There are adequate means of access for emptying.

 101

Cesspool
A cesspool is an underground chamber constructed for the reception and storage of foul water from the building
until it is emptied. It is a requirement that cesspools should be constructed so as to prevent leakage of its contents
and ingress of subsoil water. Adequate
ventilation, is sited so as not to prejudicial
to health nor to contaminate water
supplies, as well as permit satisfactory
access from emptying and have a
minimum capacity below the level of
invert of 1800 litres (18m3). Cesspools if
they are to be emptied using a tanker,
should be sited within a 30m of a vehicle
access and at such levels that they can be
emptied and cleaned without hazard to the
building occupants or the contents being
taken through a dwelling or place of
work. When sitting a cesspool attention
should be paid to the slope of the ground,
direction of the prevailing wind, access for emptying and possibility of future connection to a sewer. It should be
sited a minimum of 15m away from any inhabited building. Cesspools should only be used when no alternatives
are available.
Septic Tank
A septic tank is a brick- lined tank set into the ground, which receives the discharges from a building. After
treatment from natural processes, the discharge leaves the septic tank and filters into the soil. If a house does not
have a pipe system for removing waste, a septic tank can be installed. Depending on the size, septic tanks can serve
one plot or a small community. The smallest septic tank should have a capacity of at least 3000 litres or 3m 3. A
two metre deep tank which is 2 x 2 x 1m has an internal volume of 4m3or 4000 litres. A septic tank works by using
anaerobic bacteria, which do not need oxygen, to break down solid sewage into liquid and sludge. Raw sewage
enters one end and emerges as liquid effluent at the other end. A drain takes the liquid to a soak-away where it
filters into the soil. Inside the tank, gases cause the solids to liquefy and break up. After the solid settles as sludge,
then anaerobic bacteria breaks it down until it forms scum on the surface, which at six month intervals should be
pumped out. The residue in the tank starts the bacterial action again.
The location of a septic tank depends on these principles:

 Access for pumping it out; it must be convenient.

 It should be at least 3 m from a building.

 It should be down wind

 The effluent should not discharge into water supplies or streams.

102

Soak away (soak pit)

A soak-away is a rubble filled pit in the ground which absorbs water quickly and if rainwater flowed off the roof
of a building in an uncontrolled way, then it could flood the building and inconvenience the occupants. Water can
also flow off of shallow eaves and find its way into a building through walls and windows. For these reasons, it is
better to collect water at eaves in a gutter and direct it down to the ground in a rain water pipe. The rainwater can
then drain away underground and discharge into the soak away.

SOAK AWAY
Absorption Pits- An absorption pit is a critical component of the system and refers to the area in which the water
from the septic tank flows through.
 103

A chemical Chamber- This chamber function is to detoxify the sludge sediment and make it environmentally
safe. This sludge may be neutralized for safe land application, and the metals can be recovered from the water
using existing conventional dewatering techniques separating the detoxified, acidic sludge and the acidic, heavy
metal containing water.
Disposal Fields- It is from here that the sewage after been collected to the septic tank the liquid portion of it is
then dispersed naturally into the surrounding area via underground.
104

FURNITURE TECHNOLOGY
Features of furniture designs
Queen Anne and Georgian

Victorian.

19 – 21st century
 105

tapered and carved legs and components.

Preparing a Portfolio of Furniture Designs for each Style and Period

Furniture Design Periods
1. Colonial Period, 1600-1780

 Seventeenth Century

 William and Mary Style, 1700-1725

 Queen Anne Style, 1720-1755

 Chippendale Style, 1755-1780

106

Colonial; noting or pertaining to the styles of architecture, ornament, and furnishings of the British colonies. In
America in the 17th and 18th centuries, many mainly adapted to local materials and demands from prevailing
English styles. Colonial styles are generally fancy, with a little causality. Building styles in the 13 colonies were
influenced by styles from England, as well as traditions brought by settlers from other parts of Europe. A lot of
settlers wanted to imitate the Queen’s style, but make it less expensive and simpler for the common person.
Vocabulary
a) Turning: A method of adding shape to wood, such as legs and spindles using a lathe
b) Chair Table: 17th century chair with a large back that protected the occupant from drafts and could be
tipped forward to form a table
c) Trestle Table: Table with a long rectangular top and a wide vertical support on each end
d) Cabriole Leg: A furniture leg that curves out at the middle and then tapers inward just above an
ornamental foot
e) Gateleg Table: Table with legs on each side that swing out to support drop leaves that are pulled up from
the sides
f) Highboy: Chest of drawers mounted on legs
g) Trundle Bed: Low bed that can be stored under a higher bed during the day
h) Colonial Era Vocabulary
i) Jappaning: Process of applying glossy black lacquer to furniture
j) Wing Chair: An upholstered armchair with a high back and highsides
k) Windsor Chair: A wood chair with stick legs and a spindle back inserted into a saddle-shaped plank seat
2. Postcolonial Period, 1780-1840

 Federal Style, 1780-1820

Most popular in New York, Washington, and Philadelphia. The architecture were straight-lined and uncluttered.
Designs were small and rectangular, and the furniture was light, delicate, and symmetrical. Two rival English
designers- George Hepplewhite and Thomas Sheraton. This reduced manufacturing costs and made the furniture
more accessible to the middle class. By the beginning of the 19th century, the classical federal style was the
leading fashion

 Empire Style, 1820-1840

It got his name form the ruler of the French Emperor Napoleon. The Empire Style is a continuation of the
neoclassical style. The empire style was elaborated and much more dramatic. Designers incorporated Egyptian
decorations. Duncan Phyfe was the most famous designer in America during the Empire Style. With the industrial
revolution mass production caused the quality to decline.

 Shaker Furniture
A plain and simple style furniture created by the shakers. The Shakers is a religious group that settled in New
England. Emphasized utility, not ornamentation.
 107

3. Victorian Period, 1840-1900

 Happened between the 1830’s and the 1900’s

 Known for cross-culture influences from the Middle East and Asia

 Design was very ornate and ornamental

 Dining room was second important, with the sideboard generally the focal point

 Not one dominant furniture style, designers borrowed from other styles
Influences to Victorian Era
Designers used and modified many of styles taken from various time periods in history like
 Gothic
 Tudor
 Elizabethan
 English Rococo
 Neoclassical
4. Modern Period, 1901-Present
Characteristics of Modern Furniture
Furniture of this period is usually made of marble, wood, glass, PVC, & various types of plastics. The shapes of
the furniture are designed to fit the human form. Modern furniture embraces the idea of the new and original.
There is no single influence that developed this Period; it evolved out of a combination of different factors: the
discovery of unique materials that hadn’t yet been used for furniture and several innovative methods of
manufacturing.
Vocabulary
a) Modular furniture; Can be arranged & rearranged to suit the changing needs of the people using them.
b) Reproductions; Exact copies of originals.
c) Adaptations; Furniture that has characteristics of other designs.
1900’s
Furniture from 1901 was usually made of plywood, Balsa, or Pine wood brushed with black lacquer. Wooden
chairs, tables, & dressers/drawers featured curved and straight lines, arches, & exposed construction.

1920’s
The Furniture features strong and streamlined shapes. Geometric and angular furniture items became popular &
these pieces echoed the glamour and sophistication of early Hollywood. Cocktail cabinets became an essential
piece in the home. Materials frequently used: Wood, chrome, glass, tiles, and mirrors. The taste for the exotic also
became prevalent; Touches of the Orient, Africa and Egypt were obvious throughout bedroom and living room
furniture.
108

1960’s
Pop art and Op art both had a firm footing in the furniture of the 1960s, via the work of artists like Andy Warhol
& David Hockney. Materials Used: Plastic/PVC, Balsa Wood, various Metals. Styles/Keywords: Disposable,
throwaway, multi-purpose, low-level, revivalist, fun/whimsical. Influences: Art nouveau (whiplash lines &
stylized flower shapes), the Space age (in 1969, Buzz Aldrin landed on the moon; capsule and pod-shaped
furniture became popular), & exotic travels (anything brought back from trips to other countries).

2000’s to present
Difficult to classify today's broad range of home furnishings into just a few groups. Present Day furniture styles
include Traditional, Contemporary/Modern, Country/Cottage, Asian, Bohemian, South-western, and Transitional.
Lines vary; furniture can be elaborate or simple, big or small, and textured or smooth.

How Styles are identified:

 Some furniture styles are identified by the person who originated the design

 Some furniture styles are identified by the general design movement of the time

 Some furniture styles are identified by the era in which they were first made.
1. Called “Period Pieces”
2. Often named for the king or queen who was in power during that time
Classic and Fads

 Classics – Stand the test of time; now in museums or collector’s homes; replicas created

 Fads – Come in and out; some fads never return

 Furniture pieces from different periods are apt to look good together if the pieces are taken from the same
stage within each period
Basic Furniture Manufacturing
Materials:
1. nuts and bolts;
2. hinges;
3. handles;
4. knobs;
5. staples;
6. glass;
7. metal;
8. upholstery materials;
9. Dressed timber products.
 109

Using Furniture Making Tools

Measuring and Marking Out Tools
The rule or tape is used for measuring where accuracy is not an extremely critical factor. They can be rigid or
flexible, come in various lengths, and can be made of wood, metal, cloth, or fiberglass.

1 Rules and tapes used for measuring lengths.

2 Measuring the outside diameter of pipe.
3 Measuring the inside diameter of pipe.
4 Measuring the circumference of pipe.
5 Measuring inside dimensions.
6 Measuring the thickness of stock through a hole
Cutting and Boring Tools;
The saddler’s sewing and stitching awl has a round wooden handle and interchangeable blades. The awl is used to
punch holes in leather and as an aid during sewing. Cover points when not in use. Saws are tools with thin, flat
steel blades that have a row of spaced notches or “teeth” along the edge. The blade is fastened to a handle. Saws
are available in various sizes and designs depending on their use and the material to be cut. The most common
types of saws are handsaw, (crosscut and ripsaw), backsaw, one-man crosscut saw, two-man crosscut saw, nested
saw (keyhole and compass) and hacksaw.
110

Holding and Supporting Devices

An essential part of the “gluing up” process, cramps are used to hold a carcass together until the glue has had time
to fully cure. Cramps are also used to check for squareness. This is a vital consideration – if just one section of a
piece is not square, it can affect the whole work.
Different jobs require different types of cramps and you should always keep a good selection in your workshop.
The key to successful cramping is careful preparation

Finishing and abrasives tools and materials;

Abrasive paper
The abrasive grit on abrasive paper is bonded onto backing paper, which can be folded or cut to size to suit the
timber being finished. The type of bonding agent and the weight of paper used vary according to the intended use.
Sanding Block
Abrasive papers should be used in conjunction with a sanding block. This is simply a block of wood around
which the woodworker wraps a piece of abrasive paper. The block will help support the paper and enable you to
improve the quality of the finish. When sanding rough timber, using a block will also reduce the risk of sustaining
injury from splinters.
Webrax
A commercial web-like material, Webrax is highly flexible, which makes it ideal for use on contoured timber. It
does not easily clog up with dust, and is also available in a non-abrasive form for applying finishes
 111

Power Hand Tools:

Electric drills
Portable power drills have generally replaced hand tools for drilling holes because they are faster and more
accurate. With variable-speed controls and special clutch-drive chucks.

Circular saw;
Portable Electric Circular Saw is determined by the diameter of the largest blade it can use. The most commonly
used circular saws are 7 1/4- and 8 1/4-inch saws. There are two as a great labour-saving device in sawing wood
different types of electric saws, as shown in framing members on the job.
112

Planers;
The portable electric power plane is widely used for trimming panels, doors, frames, and so forth. It is a precision
tool capable of exact depth of cut up to 3/16 inch on some of the heavier models.

Sanders; belt and orbital

There are three types of portable sanders: belt, disk, and finish sanders. When using a belt sander be careful not to
gouge the wood. The size of a belt sander is usually identified by the width of its sanding belt. Belt widths on
heavier duty models are usually 3 or 4 inches. Depending make and model, belt lengths vary from 21 to 27 inches.
Different grades of-abrasives are available.
 113

Routers; the router is a versatile portable power tool that can be used free
hand or with jigs and attachments.

Jig saws; cuts smooth and decorative curves in wood and light metal. Most jig
saws are light-duty machines and not
designed for extremely fast cutting. There
are several different, easily interchangeable
blades

Nail gun, automatic pins and staple drivers; there is a wide variety of power
nailers and staplers available. A heavy-duty nailer
is used for framing or sheathing work; finish
nailers are used for panelling or trimming.

Using Furniture Equipment

Table saw; consisting of a flat table through which a rotary saw-blade protrudes, the
table saw is the workhorse of the workshop. Mainly used for cutting solid timbers and
flat boards, the size of the machine is defined by the size of the blade. A typical blade
has a diameter of 250–450mm (10–18in).
Operations;
 mounting and removing saw  rebating;
blades;  bevelling;
 ripping;  chamfering;
 cross cutting;  grooving
 cut mitring;  cleaning, greasing, oiling
Observe the following safety precautions when operating a band saw:
1. Keep your fingers away from the moving blade.
2. Keep the table clear of stock and scraps so your work will not catch as you push it along.
3. Keep the upper guide just above the work, not excessively high.
4. Don’t use cracked blades. If a blade develops a click as it passes through the work, the operator should
shut off the power because the click is a danger signal that the blade is cracked and may be ready to
break. After the saw blade has stopped moving, it should be replaced with one in proper condition.
5. If the saw blade breaks, the operator shoul shut off the power immediately and not attempt to remove any
part of the saw blade until the machine is completely stopped.
6. If the work binds or pinches on the blade, the operator should never attempt to back the work away from
the blade while the saw is in motion since this may break the blade.
114

7. The operator should always see that the blade is working freely through the cut.
It is used for cutting:
 a mitre;
 tenons;
 curves;
 circles;
 irregular patterns;
Related Maintenance:
(a) mounting and removal of blades;
(b) Greasing and oiling
The planer: A single planer surfaces stock on one face (the upper face) only. (Double surfacers, which surface
both faces at the same time, are used only in large planning mills.) The single surfacer cuts with a cutter head like
the one on the jointer, but, on the single surfacer, the cutter head is located above instead of below the drive
rollers.
Operations:
 surfacing;
 thicknessing
The jointer; The jointer is a machine for power planning stock on faces, edges, and ends. The planning is done by
a revolving butterhead equipped with two or more knives.
When operating the jointer, observe the following safety precautions:
1. Always plane with the grain. A piece of wood planed against the grain on a jointer may be kicked
back.
2. Never place your hands directly over the inner cutter head. Should the piece of wood kick
Operations:
 surfacing;
 edging;
 chamfering;
 bevelling;
 tapering;
 rebating
Drill press;
1. Make sure that the drill is properly secured in the chuck and that the chuck key is removed before starting
the drill press.
2. Make sure your material is properly secured.
3. Operate the feed handle with a slow, steady pressure to make sure you don’t break the drill bit or cause
the V-belt to slip.
4. Make sure all locking handles are tight and that the V-belt is not slipping.
5. Make sure the electric cord is securely connected and in good shape.
6. Make sure you are not wearing hanging or loose clothing.
7. Listen for any sounds that may be trouble.
8. After you have finished operating press, make sure the area is clean. signs of the drill
A drill press is generally used for countersink holes.
 115

Operations
 boring;
 drilling;
 mortising
The Wood Turning Lathe: The lathe is used in turning or shaping round drums, disks, and any object that requires
a true diameter. The size of a lathe is determined by the maximum diameter of the work it can swing over its bed.
There are various sizes and types of wood lathes, ranging from very small sizes for delicate work to large surface
or bull lathes that can swing jobs 15 feet in diameter.
Operations:
Cutting:
 tapers;
 cylinders;
 turning between centres;
 face plate turning;
 concave and convex shapes
The grinder: to grind the blades of tools such as planes and chisels. To remove large amounts of metal, you will
need a high-speed grinder. However, for general re-sharpening, a motorize whetstone is preferable. The slower
speed of this machine makes it easy to control, and the grindstone is cooled by water, which prevents overheating
and helps to preserve a blade’s temper
Operations:
 Sharpening
 Shaping
 honing
116

Woodworking Joints
 117

Constructing Simple Household Furniture;

Gluing and cramping; are important stages in any woodworking project. Glue has long been used to join wood
(traditional animal glue is still used by some woodworkers and restorers), and is often the strongest part of a joint.
You should keep more than one type of glue in your workshop, as different glues have different properties, and
therefore different advantages for the woodworker. For example, slow-drying glues are useful for complex joints
that will take time to assemble, while fast-setting glues may be more appropriate for smaller, quicker jobs. Once
glue has been applied, cramping holds the joint firmly together while the glue cures (sets), and ensures that the
joint is square.
Furniture Manufacturing
Make and install wall and floor level cabinets:
1. Construct the base first. Use straight 2-by-4 lumber for the base. Nail the lumber to the floor and
to a strip attached to the wall. If the floor is not level, place shims under the various members of
the base. Later, you can face any exposed 2-by-4 surfaces with a finished material, or the front edge
can be made of a finished piece, such as base moulding.
2. Next, cut and install the end panels. Attach a strip along the wall between the end panels and level
with the top edge. Be sure the strip is level throughout its length. Nail it securely to the wall studs.
3. Cut the bottom panels and nail them in place on the base. Follow this with the installation of the
partitions, which are notched at the back corner of the top edge so they will fit over the wall strip.
4. Finally, plumb the front edge of the partitions and end panels. Secure them with temporary strips
nailed along the ceiling and wall. Nail the mounting strips through the wall into the studs. At the
inside corners, end panels can be attached directly to the wall. Remember to make your
measurements for both base and wall units carefully, especially for openings for built-in appliances.
Refer frequently to your drawings and specifications to ensure accuracy.
Shelves
Shelves are an integral part of cabinetmaking, especially for wall units. Cutting dadoes into cabinet walls to fit in
shelves may actually strengthen the cabinet. When adding shelves, try to make them adjustable so the storage
space can be altered as needed.
118

NOTES

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________