UNIT-V

IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT
A.C bridges – Measurement of inductance, capacitance – Q of coil – Maxwell Bridge – Wein’s bridge –
Schering bridge – Anderson bridge – Campbell bridge to measure mutual inductance – Errors in A.C. bridge
methods and their compensation – Detectors – Excited field – A.C. galvanometer – Vibration galvanometer

Alternating current bridges are most popular, convenient and accurate instruments for measurement of
unknown inductance, capacitance and some other related quantities. In its simplest form, ac bridges can be
thought of to be derived from the conventional DC Wheatstone Bridge. An Ac bridge, in its basic form,
consists of four arms, an alternating power supply, and a balance detector.

Sources and Detectors in AC Bridges

For measurements at low frequencies, bridge power supply can be obtained from the power line itself.
Higher frequency requirements for power supplies are normally met by electronic oscillators. Electronic
oscillators have highly stable, accurate yet adjustable frequencies. Their output waveforms are very close to
sinusoidal and output power level sufficient for most bridge measurements.
When working at a single frequency, a tuned detector is preferred, since it gives maximum sensitivity at the
selected frequency and discrimination against harmonic frequencies. Vibration galvanometers are most
commonly used as tuned detectors in the power frequency and low audio-frequency ranges. Though
vibration galvanometers can be designed to work as detectors over the frequency range of 5 Hz to 1000 Hz,
they have highest sensitivity when operated for frequencies below 200 Hz.
Head phones or audio amplifiers are popularly used as balance detectors in ac bridges at frequencies of 250
Hz and above, up to 3 to 4 kHz. Transistor amplifier with frequency tuning facilities can be very effectively
used as balance detectors with ac bridges. With proper tuning, these can be used to operate at a selective
band of frequencies with high sensitivity. Such detectors can be designed to operate over a frequency range
of 10 Hz to 100 kHz.

General Balance Equation For AC Bridge

An Ac bridge in its general form is shown in Figure, with the four arms being represented by four
unspecified impedances Z, Z2, Z3 and Z4.

Balance in the bridge is secured by adjusting one or more of

the bridge arms. Balance is indicated by zero response of the
detector. At balance, no current flows through the detector,
i.e., there is no potential difference across the detector, or in
other words, the potentials at points B and C are the same.
This will be achieved if the voltage drop from A to B equals
the voltage drop from A to C, both in magnitude and phase.

Thus, we can write in terms of complex quantities:

V 1 = V 2 or I 1 Z 1 = I 2 Z 2
Also at balance, since no current flows through the detector,
V
I1 = I 3 =
Z 1 +Z 3
Combining above Equations, we have
V V
Z1 = Z
Z 1 +Z 3 Z 2 +Z 4 2
Z1 Z2
Z1 Z2 + Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z1 + Z2 Z3 ⇒ =
or Z3 Z4

1
When using admittances in place of impedances, the above equations can be re-oriented as
Y1 Y4 = Y 2 Y3
The above Equations represent the basic balance equations of an Ac bridge. Whereas the impedance
expression is convenient for use in bridge configurations having series elements, admittance expression is
more useful when bridge configurations have parallel elements.
Impedance Equation indicates that under balanced condition, the product of impedances of one pair of
opposite arms must be equal to the product of impedances of the other pair of opposite arms, with the
impedances expressed as complex numbers. This will mean, both magnitude and phase angles of the
complex numbers must be taken into account.
Re-writing the expressions in polar form, impedances can be expressed as where Z represents the magnitude
and θ represents the phase angle of the complex impedance.
If similar forms are written for all impedances and substituted, we obtain:
Z 1 ∠θ 1 × Z 4 ∠θ4 = Z 2 ∠θ 2 × Z 3 ∠θ 3
Thus, for balance we have,
Z 1 Z 4 ∠(θ 1 +θ 4 ) = Z 2 Z3 ∠(θ2 + θ3 )
This equation shows that two requirements must be met for satisfying balance condition in a bridge.
The first condition is that the magnitude of the impedances must meet the relationship;
Z1 Z 4 = Z2 Z3
The second condition is that the phase angles of the impedances must meet the relationship;
∠(θ1 +θ4 ) = ∠(θ2 + θ3 )

Measurement of Self-Inductance

Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

This bridge is used to measure the value of an unknown inductance by comparing it with a variable standard
self-inductance. The bridge configuration and phasor diagram under balanced condition are shown in Figure
The unknown inductor L1 of resistance R1 in the branch AB is compared with the standard known inductor
L2 of resistance R2 on arm AC. The inductor L2 is of the same order as the unknown inductor L1. The
resistances R1, R2, etc., include, of course the resistances of contacts and leads in various arms. Branch BD
and CD contain known non-inductive resistors R3 and R4 respectively.
The bridge is balanced by varying L2 and one of the resistors R3 or R4. Alternatively, R3 and R4 can be kept
constant, and the resistance of one of the other two arms can be varied by connecting an additional resistor.
Under balanced condition, no current flows through the detector. Under such condition, currents in the arms
AB and BD are equal (I1). Similarly, currents in the arms AC and CD are equal (I2). Under balanced
condition, since nodes B and D are at the same potential, voltage drops across arm BD and CD are equal (V3
= V4); similarly, voltage drop across arms AB and AC are equal (V1 = V2).

2
As shown in the phasor diagram, V3 and V4 being equal, they are overlapping. Arms BD and CD being
purely resistive, currents through these arms will be in the same phase with the voltage drops across these
two respective branches. Thus, currents I1 and I2 will be collinear with the phasors V3 and V4. The same
current I1 flows through branch AB as well, thus the voltage drop I1R1 remains in the same phase as I1.
Voltage drop ωI1L1 in the inductor L1 will be 90° out of phase with I1R1 as shown in phasor diagram. Phasor
summation of these two voltage drops I1R1 and ωI1L1 will give the voltage drop V1 across the arm AB. At
balance condition, since voltage across the two branches AB and AC are equal, thus the two voltage drops
V1 and V2 are equal and are in the same phase. Finally, phasor summation of V1 and V3 (or V2 and V4) results
in the supply voltage V.
R 1 + jωL1 R2 + jωL2
=
At balance, R3 R4
R1 R 4 + jωL1 R4 = R 2 R3 + jωL2 R3
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have
R1 R3 L1 R3
= =
R2 R 4 also L2 R4
R 1 R 3 L1
= =
Thus, R2 R 4 L2
Unknown quantities can hence be calculated as
R3 R3
L1 = L2 × and R1 = R2 ×
R4 R4
Care must be taken that the inductors L1 and L2 must be placed at a distance from each other to avoid effects
of mutual inductance.
The final expression shows that values of L1 and R1 do not depend on the supply frequency. Thus, this bridge
configuration is immune to frequency variations and even harmonic distortions in the power supply.

Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge

In this bridge, the unknown inductance is measured by comparison with a standard variable capacitance. It is
much easier to obtain standard values of variable capacitors with acceptable degree of accuracy. This is
however, not the case with finding accurate and stable standard value variable inductor as is required in the
basic Maxwell’s bridge.
Configuration of a Maxwell’s inductance–capacitance bridge and the associated phasor diagram at balanced
state are shown in Figure.

The unknown inductor L1 of effective resistance R1 in the branch AB is compared with the standard known
variable capacitor C4 on arm CD. The other resistances R2, R3, and R4 are known as non– inductive resistors.
The bridge is preferably balanced by varying C4 and R4, giving independent adjustment settings. Under
balanced condition, no current flows through the detector. Under such condition, currents in the arms AB
3
and BD are equal (I1). Similarly, currents in the arms AC and CD are equal (I2). Under balanced condition,
since nodes B and D are at the same potential, voltage drops across arm BD and CD are equal ( V3 = V4);
similarly, voltage drops across arms AB and AC are equal (V1 = V2).
As shown in the phasor diagram, V3 and V4 being equal, they are overlapping both in magnitude and phase.
The arm BD being purely resistive, current I1 through this arm will be in the same phase with the voltage
drop V3 across it. Similarly, the voltage drop V4 across the arm CD, current IR through the resistance R4 in the
same branch, and the resulting resistive voltage drop IRR4 are all in the same phase [horizontal line in]. The
resistive current IR when added with the quadrature capacitive current IC, results in the main current I2
flowing in the arm CD. This current I2 while flowing through the resistance R2 in the arm AC, produces a
voltage drop V2 = I2R2, that is in same phase as I2. Under balanced condition, voltage drops across arms AB
and AC are equal, i.e., V1 = V2. This voltage drop across the arm AB is actually the phasor summation of
voltage drop I1R1 across the resistance R1 and the quadrature voltage drop ωI1L1 across the unknown inductor
L1. Finally, phasor summation of V1 and V3 (or V2 and V4) results in the supply voltage V.

R 1 + jωL1 R2
=

( )
R3 R4
1 + jωC 4 R4
At balance,

R1 R 4 + jωL1 R4 = R 2 R3 + jωC 4 R 2 R 3 R4

Equating real and imaginary parts, we have

Equating real and imaginary parts, we have the expression for unknown quantities
R
R1 =R2 × 3
R4 also L1 = C 4 R 2 R3
Once again, the final expression shows that values of L1 and R1 do not depend on the supply frequency.
Thus, this bridge configuration is immune to frequency variations and even harmonic distortions in the
power supply.
It is interesting to note that both in the Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge and Inductance-Capacitance Bridge,
the unknown Inductor L1 was always associated with a resistance R1. This series resistance has been included
to represent losses that take place in an inductor coil. An ideal inductor will be lossless irrespective of the
amount of current flowing through it. However, any real inductor will have some non-zero resistance
associated with it due to resistance of the metal wire used to form the inductor winding. This series
resistance causes heat generation due to power loss. In such cases, the Quality Factor or the Q-Factor of such
a lossy inductor is used to indicate how closely the real inductor comes to behave as an ideal inductor. The
Q-factor of an inductor is defined as the ratio of its inductive reactance to its resistance at a given frequency.
Q-factor is a measure of the efficiency of the inductor. The higher the value of Q-factor, the closer it
approaches the behavior of an ideal, loss less inductor. An ideal inductor would have an infinite Q at all
frequencies.
ωL
Q=
The Q-factor of an inductor is given by the formula R , where R is its internal resistance R (series
resistance) and ωL is its inductive reactance at the frequency ω. Q-factor of an inductor can be increased by
either increasing its inductance value (by using a good ferromagnetic core) or by reducing its winding
resistance (by using good quality conductor material, in special cases may be super conductors as well).
In the Maxwell’s Inductance-Capacitance Bridge, Q-factor of the inductor under measurement can be found
ω C4 R2 R3
Q= = ω C4 R4
ω L1 R3
Q= R2 ×
at balance condition to be R1 or, R4

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The relation for the inductor Q factor indicate that this bridge is not suitable for measurement of inductor
values with high Q factors, since in that case, the required value of R4 for achieving balance becomes
impracticably high.

Advantages of Maxwell’s Bridge

1. The balance equations are independent of each other, thus the two variables C4 and R4 can be varied
independently.
2. Final balance equations are independent of frequency.
3. The unknown quantities can be denoted by simple expressions involving known quantities.
4. Balance equation is independent of losses associated with the inductor.
5. A wide range of inductance at power and audio frequencies can be measured.

Disadvantages of Maxwell’s Bridge

1. The bridge, for its operation, requires a standard variable capacitor, which can be very expensive if high
accuracies are asked for. In such a case, fixed value capacitors are used and balance is achieved by varying
R4 and R2.
2. This bridge is limited to measurement of low Q inductors (1< Q < 10).
3. Maxwell’s bridge is also unsuited for coils with very low value of Q (e.g., Q < 1). Such low Q inductors
can be found in inductive resistors and RF coils. Maxwell’s bridge finds difficult and laborious to obtain
balance while measuring such low Q inductors.

Hay’s Bridge
Hay’s bridge is a modification of Maxwell’s bridge. This method of measurement is particularly suited for
high Q inductors. Configuration of Hay’s bridge and the associated phasor diagram under balanced state are
shown in Figure.

The unknown inductor L1 of effective resistance R1 in the branch AB is compared with the standard known
variable capacitor C4 on arm CD. This bridge uses a resistance R4 in series with the standard capacitor C4
(unlike in Maxwell’s bride where R4 was in parallel with C4). The other resistances R2 and R3 are known no-
inductive resistors. The bridge is balanced by varying C4 and R4.
Under balanced condition, since no current flows through the detector, nodes B and D are at the same
potential, voltage drops across arm BD and CD are equal (V3 = V4); similarly, voltage drops across arms AB
and AC are equal (V1 = V2).
As shown in the phasor diagram, V3 and V4 being equal, they are overlapping both in magnitude and phase
and are draw on along the horizontal axis. The arm BD being purely resistive, current I1 through this arm
will be in the same phase with the voltage drop V3 = I1R3 across it. The same current I1, while passing
through the resistance R1 in the arm AB, produces a voltage drop I1R1 that is once again, in the same phase
as I1. Total voltage drop V1 across the arm AB is obtained by adding the two quadrature phasors I1R1 and
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ωI1L1 representing resistive and inductive voltage drops in the same branch AB. Since under balance
condition, voltage drops across arms AB and AC are equal, i.e., (V1 = V2), the two voltages V1 and V2 are
overlapping both in magnitude and phase. The branch AC being purely resistive, the branch current I2 and
branch voltage V2 will be in the same phase as shown in the phasor diagram. The same current I2 flows
through the arm CD and produces a voltage drop I2R4 across the resistance R4. This resistive voltage drop
I2R4, obviously is in the same phase as I2. The capacitive voltage drop I2/ωC4 in the capacitance C4 present in
the same arm AC will however, lag the current I2 by 90°. Phasor summation of these two series voltage
drops across R4 and C4 will give the total voltage drop V4 across the arm CD. Finally, phasor summation of
V1 and V3 (or V2 and V4) results in the supply voltage V.
R 1 + jωL1 R2
=

( )
R3 j
R4 −
ωC 4
At balance,
L jR
R1 R 4 + 1 + jωL1 R 4 − 1 = R 2 R3
C4 ωC 4
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have
L R
R1 R 4 + 1 = R2 R 3 ωL1 R 4 = 1
C4 and ωC 4
Solving above Equations we have the unknown quantities as
2
R2 R 3 C 4 R 2 R 3 R4 ω C 2
4
L1 = 2 R1 = 2
1 + ω R 2C 1+ω R C
4 and
42 42 42

Q factor of the inductor in this case can be calculated at balance condition as

ω L1 1
Q= =
R1 ω C 4 R4
Hay’s bridge is more suitable for measurement of unknown inductors having Q factor more than 10. In those
cases, bridge balance can be attained by varying R2 only, without losing much accuracy. The unknown
R RC
L1 = 2 3 4 2
inductance value can be written as 1 +( 1/Q )
For inductors with Q > 10, the quantity (1/Q) 2 will be less than 1/100, and thus can be neglected. In such a
case, the inductor value can be simplified to L1=R2R3C4, which essentially is the same as obtained in
Maxwell’s bridge.

is the same as for a Maxwell's bridge.

Advantages :
1. This bridge gives very simple expression for unknown inductance for high Q coils and is suitable for coils
having Q> 10.
2. This bridge also gives a simple expression for Q factor.
1
Q=
3. If we examine the expression for Q factor: ω C 4 R4 we find that the resistance R appears in the
4
denominator and hence for high Q coils, its value should be small, Thus this bridge requires only a low
value resistor for R4, whereas the Maxwell's bridge requires a parallel resistor, R4, of a very high value.

Disadvantages:
1. The Hay's bridge is suited for the measurement of high Q inductors, especially those inductors having a Q
greater than 10, For inductors having Q values smaller than 10, the term (l/Q) 2 in the expression for
inductance L1 becomes rather important and thus cannot be neglected. Hence this bridge is not suited for
measurement of coils having Q less than 10 and for these applications a Maxwell's bridge is more suited.

Anderson's Bridge.

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This method is a modification of Maxwell’s inductance–capacitance bridge, in which value of the unknown
inductor is expressed in terms of a standard known capacitor. This method is applicable for precise
measurement of inductances over a wide range of values.
The following figure shows Anderson’s bridge configuration and corresponding phasor diagram under
balanced condition.
The unknown inductor L1 of effective resistance R1 in the branch AB is compared with the standard known
capacitor C on arm ED. The bridge is balanced by varying r. Under balanced condition, since no current
flows through the detector, nodes B and E are at the same potential.
As shown in the phasor diagram, I1 and V3 = I1R3 are in the same phase along the horizontal axis. Since
under balance condition, voltage drops across arms BD and ED are equal, V3 = I1R3 = IC/ωC and all the three
phasors are in the same phase.
The same current I1, when flowing through the arm AB produces a voltage drop I1(R1 + r1) which is once
again, in phase with I1. Since under balanced condition, no current flows through the detector, the same
current IC flows through the resistance r in arm CE and then through the capacitor C in the arm ED. Phasor
summation of the voltage drops ICr in arm the CE and IC /ωC in the arm ED will be equal to the voltage drop
V4 across the arm CD. V4 being the voltage drop in the resistance R4 on the arm CD, the current I4 and V4
will be in the same phase. As can be seen from the Anderson’s bridge circuit, and also plotted in the phasor
diagram, phasor summation of the currents I4 in the arm CD and the current IC in the arm CE will give rise to
the current I2 in the arm AC. This current I2, while passing through the resistance R2 will give rise to a
voltage drop V2 = I2R2 across the arm AC that is in phase with the current I2. Since, under balance, potentials
at nodes B and E are the same, voltage drops between nodes A -B and between A -C -E will be equal.
Thus, phasor summation of the voltage drop V2 = I2R2 in the arm AC IC r in arm the CE will build up to the
voltage V1 across the arm AB. The voltage V1 can also be obtained by adding the resistive voltage drop I1(R1
+ r1) with the quadrature inductive voltage drop ωI1L1 in the arm AB. Finally, phasor summation of V1 and
V3 (or V2 and V4) results in the supply voltage V.

At balance, I2 = IC = I4

1
I 1 R3 = I C ×
and VBD = VED or jω C therefore I C = jω I 1 R 3 C
the other balance equations are
VAB = VAC + VCE or I 1 (r 1 +R1 + jω L1 )= I 2 R2 + I C r

and VCD = VCE + VED or

(
IC r +
1
jω C )
= ( I 2 − I C )R 4

substituting values for IC and rearranging the equations we get,

R2
I 1 (r 1 +R1 + jω L1 − jω R3 Cr )= I 1 ( jω R3 Cr + R 3 + jω R 3 CR 4 )
R4
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
R R R
R1 = 2 3 − r 1 L1 = C 3 [ r ( R2 + R4 ) +R 2 R4 )
R4 and R4
Advantages:
1. In case adjustments are carried out by manipulating control over resistor, they become independent of
each other. This is a marked superiority over slidlng balance conditions met with low Q coils when
measuring with Maxwell's bridge. A study of convergence conditions would reveal that it is much easier to
obtain balance in the case of Anderson’s bridge than in Maxwell's bridge for low Q-coils.
2. A fixed capacitor can be used instead of a variable capacitor as in the case of Maxwell's bridge.
3. This bridge may be used for accurate determination of capacitance in terms of inductance.

Disadvantages:
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1. The Anderson's bridge is more complex than its prototype Maxwell's bridge. The Anderson's bridge has
more parts and is more complicated to setup and manipulate. The balance equations are not simple and in
fact are much tedious.
2. An additional junction point increases the difficulty of shielding the bridge.

Considering the above complications of the Anderson's bridge in all the cases where Q variable capacitor is
permissible the more simple Maxwell's bridge is used instead of Anderson's bridge.

Schering Bridge
Schering bridges are most popularly used these days in industries for measurement of capacitance,
dissipation factor, and loss angles. The Figure illustrates the configuration of a Schering bridge and
corresponding phasor diagram under balanced condition.

The unknown capacitor C1 along with its internal resistance r1 (representing loss) placed on the arm AB is
compared with the standard loss-less capacitor C2 placed on the arm AC. This capacitor C2 is either an air or
a gas capacitor to make it loss free. R3 is a non-inductive resistance placed on arm BD. The bridge is
balanced by varying the capacitor C4 and the non-inductive resistor R4 parallel with C4, placed on arm CD.
Under balanced condition, since no current flows through the detector, nodes B and C are at the same
potential, i.e., V1 = V2 and V3 = V4.
As shown in the phasor diagram, V3 = I1R3 and V4 = IRR4 being equal both in magnitude and phase, they
overlap. Current I1 in the arm BD and IR flowing through R4 are also in the same phase with I1R3 and IRR4
along the horizontal line. The other resistive drop namely, I1R1 in the arm AB is also along the same
horizontal line. The resistive current IR through R4 and the quadrature capacitive current IC through C4 will
add up to the total current I2 in the branch CD (and also in A C under balanced condition).
Across the arm AB, the resistive drop I1r1 and the quadrature capacitive drop I1/ωC1 will add up to the total
voltage drop V1 across the arm. At balance, voltage drop V1 across arm AB will be same as the voltage drop
V2 = I2/ωC2 across the arm AC. It can be confirmed from the phasor diagram that the current I2 has
quadrature phase relationship with the capacitive voltage drop I2/ωC2 in the arm AC. Finally, phasor
summation of V1 and V3 (or V2 and V4) results in the supply voltage V.

( r1 +
1
jωC 1 ) =
( )
1
jωC 2

( )
R3 R4
1 + jωC 4 R4
At balance conditions,
jR 4 R 3 R4 C 4 jR 3
R4 r 1 − = −
ωC 1 C2 ωC 2
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have the unknown quantities:
RC R
r1 = 3 4 C1 =C 2 4
C2 and R3
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Dissipation Factor
I 1 r1 R4 R 3 C 4
D1 =tan δ 1 = =ωC 1 r 1 = ω × C2 × =ω R 4 C 4
I1 R3 C2
ωC 1

Thus, using Schering bridge, dissipation factor can be obtained in terms of the bridge parameters at balance
condition.

Wien’s Bridge
Wien’s bridge is primarily used for determination of an unknown frequency. However, it can be used for
various other applications including capacitance measurement, in harmonic distortion analysers, where it is
used as notch filter, and also in audio and HF oscillators.
Configuration of a Wien’s bridge for determination of unknown frequency and corresponding phasor
diagram under balanced condition is shown in Figure.
Under balanced condition, since no current flows through the detector, nodes B and C are at the same
potential, i.e., V1=V2 and V3=V4.
As shown in the phasor diagram, V3 = I1R3 and V4 = I2R4 being equal both in magnitude and phase, they
overlap. Current I1 in the arm BD and I flowing through R4 are also in the same phase with I1R3 and
I2R4along the horizontal line. The other resistive drop, namely, I2R2 in the arm AC is also along the same
horizontal line. The resistive voltage drop IRR2 across R2 and the quadrature capacitive drop I2/ωC2 across C2
will add up to the total voltage drop V2 in the arm AC. Under balanced condition, voltage drops across arms
AB and AC are equal, thus V1 = V2 both in magnitude and phase. The voltage V1 will be in the same phase
as the voltage drop IRR1 across the resistance R1 in the same arm AB. The resistive current IR will thus be in
the same phase as the voltage V1 = IRR1. Phasor addition of the resistive current IR and the quadrature
capacitive current IC , which flows through the parallel R1C1 branch, will add up to the total current I1 in the
arm AB. Finally, phasor summation of V1 and V3 (or V2 and V4) results in the supply voltage V.

( R1
1 + jωC 1 R 1 ) (
=
R2 −
j
ωC 2 )
At balance conditions, R3 R4
R1 R 4 C R R − jR 3
= 2 2 3
1 + jωC 1 R 1 ωC 2
2
or ω(C 2 R1 R 4 ) = ω(C 2 R 2 R3 + C1 R1 R 3 ) − j( R3 − ω C 1 C2 R 1 R 2 R3 )
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have:
C 2 R 1 R 4 = C 2 R 2 R 3 + C 1 R1 R3
2
R 3 = ω C 1 C 2 R 1 R2 R 3

or
ω=
√ 1
C 1 C 2 R 1 R2 of frequency
f=
1
2 π √ C 1 C 2 R1 R 2

In most bridges, the parameters are so chosen that,

R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C
1
f=
Then, we get 2 π RC
Sliders for the resistors R1 and R2 are mechanically coupled to satisfy the criteria R1 = R2.

Wien’s bridge is frequency sensitive. Thus, unless the supply voltage is purely sinusoidal, achieving balance
may be troublesome, since harmonics may disturb balance condition. Use of filters with the null detector in
such cases may solve the problem.

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Campbell's Bridge:
This bridge measures an unknown mutual inductance in, terms of a standard mutual inductance,

Let M1 = unknown mutual inductance,

L1=self-inductance of secondary of mutual inductance M1
M2 = variable standard mutual inductance,
L1=self-inductance of secondary of mutual inductance M2

and R1, R2, R3, R4, =non-inductive resistances.

There are two steps required in the balancing process.

1. Detector is connected between b and d, the circuit now becomes a simple self-inductance
comparison bridge.

L1 R1 R3
= =
The requirement for balance is L2 R 2 R4
The bridge may be balanced by adjustment of R3 (or R4) and R1 (or R2)
2. Detector is connected between b' and d', Keeping adjustments as in step 1 above, the .
M1 R3
=
variable mutual inductance M2 is varied to get balance. Then M 2 R4

Different sources of errors in a.c. bridges and its compensation for elimination of these errors
Errors can occur in AC bridges because of stray coupling between one bridge arm and another or from an
element to ground. These stray coupling modify the balance conditions making a definite balance
impossible or may lead to false balance. Thus these effects will cause incorrect values of unknown
components to be determined,

Sources of Error in bridge Circuits. We have assumed in the derivation of basic circuit relation-ships that
a bridge consists of lumped impedance units connected only by the wires e, that are placed in the circuit for
making connections. This idealized conditions exit in bridge circuits to a lesser or, greater extent. The
idealized arrangement works fairly well if the frequency is low, if
component impedances are not high and if accuracy desired is not
high. But in practice there are certain factors which we have not
considered yet and these complicate the behavior or the bridge
circuits considered so far.
Some of these factors are stray couplings between one bridge
arm and another and from elements to ground. These stray
couplings modify the balance conditions making a definite
balance impossible or may lead to false balance. Thus these
effects will cause incorrect values of unknown components to be
attained.

10
 Factors causing errors. The various factors causing errors in
a.c. bridge circuits are listed below:
(i) stray-conductance effects, due to imperfect insulation;
(ii) mutual-inductance effects, due to magnetic coupling
between various components of the bridge:
(iii) stray-capacitance effects, due to electrostatic fields
between conductor at different potentials.
(iv) ‘residuals' in components - e.g., the existence of small
amount of series inductance or shunt capacitance in
nominally non-reactive resistors.

VIBRATION GALVANOMETER

Definition: The galvanometer in which the oscillation frequency

of the moving element and the measurand current becomes equal
is known as the vibration galvanometer. It uses for detecting
the alternating current or alternating electromotive force.

Working Principle OF Vibration Galvanometer

When an alternating current is passing through the moving element of the galvanometer, deflecting torque
produces because of which the coil vibrates. If the vibration frequency of the moving element is equal to the
frequency of the measurand current, the moving element vibrates with large amplitude.

Types OF Vibration Galvanometer

The vibration galvanometer are of two types
Moving Iron Type Vibration Galvanometer
Moving Magnet Type Vibration Galvanometer

Moving Iron type Vibration Galvanometer

In moving coil type instrument, the coil suspends between the poles of the permanent magnet. The
measurand AC when passes through the moving coil produce the deflection torque on it.

Construction of Vibration Galvanometer

In vibration galvanometer, the moving element is suspended between the gap of a permanent magnet or in
the field of an electromagnet. The moving element suspends with the help of fine bronze or platinum wire.
The wire is attached to the pulley at the top. The pulley with the help of the spring keeps the string or wire
tight.
The wire or string stretches between the two ivory bridges, the position of the bridges can be adjusted
according to the requirement. The tension on the spring depends on the position of the ivory bridges. The
mirror is placed on the string or thread between the ivory bridges. When the measurand current passes
through the coil, the reflected beam through the mirror focus on the scale.
The natural oscillation frequency of the moving element is tuned to the specified frequency. The tunning is
the adjustment of the natural frequency oscillation so that it is equal to the frequency of measurand current
passing through it.
The tuning of the vibration galvanometer depends on the tension of the suspension spring. The tension on
the spring means the pulling force acts axially on the spring. The tuning increases the amplitude of vibration
because of which the wide band of light is reflected on the screen.

THEORY OF VIBRATION GALVANOMETER

Let, i be the current passing through the coil of a vibration galvanometer.

Deflecting Torque, 
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The equation of motion is 

The equation of motion is also expressed as 

Where, G – Displacement Constant
J – Constant of Inertia
D – Damping Constant
K – Control Constant
θ – Angle of deflection

Note – The amplitude of the vibration galvanometer increased by increasing the damping constant G. The
constant damping increases by using the coil of the large area along with the maximum number of turns

Moving Magnet type Vibration Galvanometer

The operation of the moving magnet type vibration galvanometer depends on the magnetic field of the
resonance frequency. The resonance is the phenomenon in which the one oscillating system oscillates
the other system with the great amplitude at the fixed frequency. The frequency at which the relative
amplitude becomes maximum is known as the response frequency.

In moving magnet type instrument the small piece of magnet is suspended between the poles of two
permanent magnets along with the mirror. The measurand current passes through the coil because of which
the magnetic field develops around them.
The small magnetic field starts rotating between the poles of a magnet. The electromagnets are also used in
place of the permanent magnets. The electromagnet energises through the measurand current passes through
the coil.
In moving magnet type vibration galvanometer, the tuning between the moving system and the frequency
can be done by adjusting the tension or suspension of the spring and the magnetic field between the pole of
magnets.

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