ISBN 978-0-333-51957-8

9 780333 519578
 BRICKWORK 3
AND ASSOCIATED STUDIES
Related volumes
Brickwork 1 and Associated Studies ~ Harold Bailey and David Hancock
Brickwork 2 and Associated Studies S

Other title of interest

The Skills of Plastering, Mel Baker
 BRICKWORK 3
AND ASSOCIATED STUDIES

Harold Bai ley

Sometime Senior Lecturer
Stockport College of Technology

David Hancock
Senior Lecturer
Stockport College of Technology

Second Edition

palgrave
macmillan
© (The estate of) H. Bailey and D. W. Hancock 1979, 1990

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission

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First published 1979

Reprinted 1987, 1989
Second edition 1990
Reprinted 1990

Published by
MACMILLAN EDUCATION LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS
and London
Companies and representatives
throughout the world

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Bailey, Harold
Brickwork.-2nd ed.
Vol. 3
1. Brickwork
I. Title II. Hancock, David III. Bailey, Harold
Brickwork and associated studies
693'.21

ISBN 978-0-333-51957-8 ISBN 978-1-349-11381-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-11381-1

This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully
managed and sustained forest sources. Logging. pulping and manufacturing
processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the
country of origin.
 CONTENTS

Preface vii Ventilation of drains 48

Inspection chambers 50
Setting out and laying drains 51
1. Safety on Site 1 Testing drains 51
Repairs and alterations to drains 54
Safety on site 1 Calculation of invert levels 56
Accident procedure 1
After an accident 1
Keeping records 2 6. Scaffolding 60
The Health and Safety at Work
Act 1974 2 Construction Regulations 60
Safety equipment 2 Tubes, fittings and boards 60
Some further points 2 Types of scaffold 66
Protection of eyes 2 Ladders 73
First aid 3 Lifting equipment 73
Protection of the public 4

7. Maintenance, Repair and Fixing Equipment 84

2. Decorative and Functional Features 6
Replacing defective firebacks 84
String, dentil and dog-tooth courses 6 Defective chimney stacks 86
Decorative treatment of quoins 6 Defective brick-on-edge window sill 89
Pattern walling 10 Repointing old buildings 90
Decorative brick panels 12 Alteration to wall lengths and thicknesses 92
Bonding plinth courses 18 Increasing the thickness of existing walls 94
Corbelling brickwork 20 Fixing cantilever brackets 95
Tumbling-in 23 Fixing rag bolts 95

3. Reinforced Brickwork 26 8. Paving 99

Types of reinforcement 26 Types of paving slab 99

Positioning of reinforcement 29 Brick paving 101
Compound paving 107

4. Step Construction 31
9. Quantities of Materials 108
Requirements for brick and concrete steps 31
Bricks and mortar 108
English and Flemish bonds 112
5. Drainage 35 Blocks and mortar 112
Volumes of concrete 114
Subsoil drainage 35 Dry material requirements 115
General principles of drainage 39 Number of floor tiles or paving slabs 116
Drainage systems 45 Bricks for paving 119
v
vi Contents

Some Useful Conversion Factors 121 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions 130

Multiple Choice Questions 122 Index 131

 PREFACE

This series of three volumes is designed to provide an introduction to the brickwork craft and the construction
industry for craft apprentices and all students involved in building. All too often, new entrants to the construction
industry are expected to have a knowledge of calculations, geometry, science and technology irrespective of their
previous education. It is the authors' aim to provide a course of study which is not only easily understood but is
also able to show the relationship that exists between technology and associated studies.
The construction industry recognises that the modern craftsman, while maintaining a very high standard of
skills, must be capable of accepting change - in methods, techniques and materials. Therefore it will be necessary
for apprentices to develop new skills related to the constant advancements in technology.
This third volume concludes the complete Craft Certificate course for the City & Guilds of London Institute,
and includes the many other areas of work in which the craftsman is required to demonstrate his ability.
To become a highly skilled technician in the modern construction industry, the apprentice should recognise
that physical skills must be complemented by technology, and that planned methods of construction must be
used in all work situations.
The apprentice and young craftsman will be able to appreciate the diversity of the bricklayer's craft, and to
relate his own abilities and ambitions to the immense scope offered by today's construction industry.

H. BAILEY
D.W.HANCOCK

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance and cooperation of: The Clay Pipe Development Association Ltd,
for figures 5.19, 5.20 and 5.21; S.G.B. Scaffolding (Great Britain) Ltd, for figures 6.6 to 6.21, 6.29 and 6.33;
Hilti Ltd for figures 6.26, 6.27 and 6.28; The Brick Development Association, for figure 6.30; Walter Somers
(Materials Handling) Ltd, for figures 6.40, 6.41 and 6.42.

vii
 1
SAFETY ON SITE

In this chapter we review the two main aspects of ACCIDENT PROCEDURE

safety in construction. First, we look at the safety
of workers on, and visitors to any construction opera- The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous
tion. Secondly, but of equal importance, is the safety Occurrences Regulations 1985 (RIDDOR) came into
of the public in the area of the site, in particular the force on 1 April 1986. Full details and guidance on
protection of pedestrians. these and other aspects of the Regulations are to be
found in Guidance booklet HS(R)23 which is avail-
able from HMSO. The following is a brief introduc-
tion to these Regulations:
Whenever any of the following events occurs it
SAFETY ON SITE must be reported in writing within 7 days on form
F2508 to the enforcing authority, usually the
The Construction Industry has always had an excep- Health and Safety Executive, and events a, band
tionally high accident rate. In the year 1987-1988, c notified as quickly as possible, that is, by phone.
157 operatives lost their lives, 3624 suffered major (a) The death of a person resulting from an
accidents (see below) and around 20,000 reportable accident at work.
accidents (those involving at least three days off (b) Any person suffering a major accident such as
work) occurred. How many accidents occur involving a large bone fracture, amputation, loss of sight
less than three days off is anyone's guess, certainly etc. or any other injury which results in
measured in hundreds of thousands. Figures published hospital admission for a period in excess of
by the Health and Safety Executive show that over 24 hours.
1000 operatives have lost their lives in the last eight (c) A dangerous occurrence such as failure or
years. overturning of a lift, crane, hoist, scaffold
Such was the concern in the Construction Industry over 5 m high, or the collapse of a structure or
part of a structure.
that 1983 was designated 'Site Safety Year', but
(d) A person at work being incapacitated for
regrettably even then the abysmal record did not
more than three days as a result of an injury
really improve nor has it since.
caused by an accident at work.
The word 'accident' is defined as 'something that
(e) The death of an employee if this occurs with-
cannot be avoided', but since a great many ofthe so-
in a period of one year of the reported injury
called accidents could certainly have been avoided, it
and can be solely attributed to the accident.
is obvious that the safety record will not improve
until the operative on site wakes up to the potential
dangers, shakes off his macho image and starts to take
a responsible attitude towards his own safety and that
of his workmates. AFTER AN ACCIDENT
It is not proposed to list typical 'accidents' here, it
would take too much space. Suffice it to say that Where an accident has occurred and an Injury sus-
using inferior scaffolds or poor timbering to trenches, tained, the procedure to be followed depends on the
lifting heavy objects by bending from the waist, not circumstances. The obvious starting point is to tend
wearing safety boots (resulting in nails in the feet, or the injured person, but firstly make sure it is safe to
crushed feet), being too tough to wear a hard hat etc. do so. For example, if an operative is lying uncon-
is asking for troUble. And the figures I've previously scious and bleeding at the foot of a scaffold - first
given surely prove this to be so. look upwards and assess if the situation is dangerous

1
2 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

and likely to cause further injury to the injured SAFETY EQUIPMENT

operative or to yourself. Is the operative unconscious
in a closed room in a gas-filled atmosphere? Is the Regulations apart it is surely commonsense to be
operative lying unconscious holding an electric drill sensibly and safely 'dressed' when working on a build-
which is still connected to the mains? The procedure ing site:
then is:
(1) Wear safety helmets at all times. A nut from a
(1) Attend to the injured person if it is safe to do so. scaffold fitting will go straight through the skull
(2) Ensure no-one else is injured for the same reason. from a height of 4Y2 metres!
(3) Send for the qualified first-aider. (2) Wear protective footwear at all times. A nail
(4) Determine the cause of the accident. through the foot, or even a crushed foot, is a
(5) Obtain statements from witnesses while the common result of wearing trainers or similar
incident is fresh in their minds. inadequate footwear.
(6) Notify the Health and Safety Executive as (3) Wear eye protectors in the form of goggles,
previously explained. safety spectacles, visors or face screens when
(7) Record the incident in the accident book. using abrasive wheels/discs, saws, drills etc., and
also when cutting bricks.
(4) Wear face masks when working in - or causing-
a dusty atmosphere.
KEEPING RECORDS (5) Wear ear defenders when exposed to high noise
levels.
A record must be made and kept of all reportable (6) Wear suitable gloves when lifting or working with
injuries and dangerous occurrences, each containing: 'abrasive' materials; and also where the skin may
come into contact with an irritant substance.
(1) Date and time of accident etc.
(2) Name, occupation and nature of the injury to the
person affected. SOME FURTHER POINTS
(3) Place of injury or where the dangerous occurrence
happened. • Every hour, someone in the building industry is
(4) Brief description of the circumstances. either killed or seriously injured.
• Over 40 per cent of major accidents/injuries on
sites involve falls from heights. Every year around
40 operatives lose their lives in this way.
THE HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK ACT 1974 • 20 per cent of all accidents in the building industry
involve injuries sustained while manually lifting
This Act made further provision for ensuring the and handling materials and equipment.
health, safety and welfare of operatives at work, • There are over 1000 eye injuries every working
placing the responsibility on both employer and day, some resulting in total blindness.
employee alike. Some of these are listed below. • A large number of abrasive wheels/discs accidents
occur, nearly 70 per cent of which are caused by
Employers must:
using the wrong type of wheel/disc!
(1) Provide and maintain safe plant and systems of
• Dermatitis is a non-infectious, inflammatory skin
work.
condition, normally caused when the skin comes
(2) Ensure that their activities do not endanger any-
into contact with an irritant substance such as
one.
cement or lime. This problem accounts for over
(3) Provide information, instruction, training and
half of all working days lost through industrial
supervision as necessary.
sickness.
(4) Ensure a safe working place, including methods
• There are over 3000 reportable accidents each year
of access and egress.
of operatives being struck by falling or flying
Employees must: objects.
(1) Take reasonable care of the health and safety of • In 1988 there were 157 deaths in the industry. Yet
themselves and all other persons who may be another increase!
affected by their acts or omissions.
(2) Co-operate with management in all health and
safety matters. PROTECTION OF EYES
(3) Not interfere with or misuse anything provided
in the interests of health and safety etc. The Protection of Eyes Regulations came into force
 Safety on Site 3

as long ago as 1975 and can be summarised as far as FIRST AID

bricklayers are concerned by the following four
points: The Construction (Health and Welfare) Regulations
1966 and the Health and Safety (First Aid) Regula-
(1) The Regulations relate, among other situations, tions which came into operation on 1 July 1982 state
to "building operations and works of engineering the requirements regarding the provision and contents
construction. " of first aid boxes.
(2) The employer must provide eye protectors to Where an employer has more than five persons in
each person carrying out such work listed in 4 his employment he must provide a sufficient number
below, and every person so provided shall wear of first aid boxes. Such boxes must be clearly marked
them while employed in that task. •FI RST AID' and be under the charge of a responsible
(3) Persons provided with eye protectors have a duty person whose name must be prominently indicated
to take care of them, not to misuse them and to either near or on the first aid box. Depending upon
report any loss or damage to them immediately the number of persons employed on a site, the first
to the employer for replacement. aid box should be equipped as shown in table 1.1.
(4) Eye protectors must be worn when "breaking, First aid is defined as "the skilled application of
cutting, cutting into, dressing, carving or drilling accepted principles given on the occurrence of any ill-
by means of power or handtools, other than a ness or injury." Courses to train operatives to become
trowel." In other words, students in workshops qualified first-aiders are held regularly throughout the
using lump hammers and bolster, brick hammers, country, since employers are required by law to have
scutches and the like must be provided with - a trained first-aider on site, depending on the number
and should wear - eye protectors. of operatives on that site.

Table 1.1
Numbers of employees
Item
1-5 6-10 11-50 51-100 101-150
Guidance leaflet
Individually wrapped
sterile adhesive 20 20 40 40 40
dressings
Sterile eye pads with
attachments 2 4 6 8
Sterile coverings for
serious wounds (where 2 4 6 8
applicable)
Safety pins 6 6 12 12 12
Medium sized sterile
unmedicated dressings 3 6 8 10 12
Large sterile
unmedicated dressings 2 4 6 10
Extra large sterile
unmedicated dressings 2 4 6 8

Notes
1. The provision of triangular bandages and also sterile coverings for serious wounds
is recommended. However, where the triangular bandage is sterile, this product
satisfies both requirements.
2. Scissors are not to be kept in a first aid box. These should be kept in a locked
drawer under the supervision of the first aider, along with any tablets such as
aspirins, paracetamols etc.
4 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

The following basic principles of first aid should Before a hoarding can be erected in any· public
be the minimum common knowledge of all. thoroughfare, the contractor must obtain a licence
from the Local Authority who must be provided with
(1) Check for dangers, and ensure complete safety
full constructional details of the hoarding prior to
exists before proceeding.
issuing a licence, which usually takes between 10 and
(2) Ensure the casualty is breathing.
20 days.
(3) Check for circulation. Is there a pulse?
A hoarding is of course a temporary structure,
(4) Stop severe bleeding; the loss of three pints of
consisting basically of posts, rails and sheeting of
blood can result in loss of life.
some kind (see figures 1.2 and 1.3). It should be not
(5) Never move a casualty with a back injury unless
less than 2 m in height, and if it needs to be higher
there are other dangers.
than this it may also require rakers and anchors
(6) With electrical injuries, turn off at plug or mains.
(figure 1.4). Concrete posts (spurs) may be used for
(7) Turn an unconscious or semi-conscious casualty
the initial supports, let well into the ground and held
into the recovery position (figure 1.1).
in position by a mass concrete surround. Timber
(8) Immobilise fractures in the position found. Do
posts are bolted to these spurs and connected by
not attempt to straighten broken limbs.
horizontal rails which in turn support the sheeting
(9) Reassure all casualties. Stay with them and send
(figure 1.4). Scaffold tubing too is useful for hoard-
by-standers for help.
ings, faced for example with corrugated sheeting. A
To conclude this chapter on safety, the authors hoarding should be painted white and bulkhead warn-
feel the need to stress the importance in the correct ing lights should be attached at intervals along its
use of plant, equipment, tools and apparel. All site length.
personnel should ensure that all safety aids are used
whenever there is the slightest possibility of an acci-
dent occurring.
When measuring the efficiency of a completed
construction project, it is necessary to take into
account the following:
(a) Did any accidents occur during the project?
(b) Were any injuries of a serious nature incurred?
(c) What were the total operative hours lost through
accidents?
(d) Could the accidents have been avoided? Were
adequate precautions taken? Has remedial action
been taken?
No less important to safe work on a construction
site is the protection of the public outside the site.

PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC

Where the boundary of a site is adjacent to a public

footpath or highway, a close-boarded fence must be Figure 7.7 The recovery position
erected to the satisfaction of the Local Authority,
prior to the commencement of building operations.
Under the Highways Act 1959, adequate protection It is important for obvious reasons that any doors
of the general public must be provided in such a in a hoarding are sliding or open inwards and that if
situation. The close-boarded fence, or hoarding as it the hoarding encroaches on the footpath the ends are
is known, not only protects the public, but also the splayed rather than square (figure 1.5). Furthermore,
site and materials thereon, and defines the boundary if a footpath is so restricted that pedestrians have in-
for the contractor, ensuring for example that mechan- sufficient space, further permission must be obtained
ical plant does not transgress beyond the work area. to erect a temporary walkway in the road.
A hoarding must be robust in its construction and Where operatives are working on scaffolding, above
capable of resisting impact damage and wind pressure, hoardings, the scaffold may need to be completely
also acting as a shield between the site and the general enclosed in heavy gauge, polythene sheeting or
public against dust and noise. similar; alternatively a fanguard may be considered
 Safety on Site 5

Typical hoarding details

night warning light

200 X 100 posts 100 X 50 rails

ex. sleepers 100 X 100 posts at 2 m c/c

75 X 50 rails

corrugated
sheeting etc.
100 X 75
anchors

surround in
well-rammed
exc. material concrete
or mass spurs set in
concrete .. mass concrete
mass concrete surround

Figure 7.2 Internal elevation showing a return end of

a hoarding consisting ofposts, rails and boards Figure 7.3 Figure 7.4

adequate to protect the public from falling objects

(see figure 1.6).
The fan transom is fastened below the inside
ledger and above the outside ledger, giving a mini- 1c::::TI;======:~~!....--ledger
mum slope of 1 in 12. Both the platform and the fan
must be fully boarded out whether or not this lift is a II----standard
working platform. A fan transom must be situated in
every bay.
The arrangement shown in figure 1.6 is described
as light/medium duty, this being considered as a suit-
able form of protection against falling bricks and
similar small objects. The strength of the fan transom ~~F:;:;~=====~~---through
tie
may need to be supplemented by raking tubular struts
supported by the ledger below if anything heavier
than this is likely to fall (such as for demolition work
etc).
Where fans extend over roadways, the minimum
height should be 5 metres.

adjoining fanguard transom

building
building undergoing alterations etc. (fall approx. 1 in 12)
existing sliding door access
footpath \ - for operatives. I f4---fi'------H----standard
temporary footpath
H·----tt----transverse or
formed in roadway
cross brace
line of handrail temporary
1 crossover
access for
IE::~~=====~~ -transom __
line of hoarding
vehicles
site plan section

Figure 7.5 Where a hoarding encroaches on a footpath Figure 7.6 Scaffold with fanguard
 2
DECORATIVE AND FUNCTIONAL
FEATURES

In the construction industry designers are now taking edge rather than the upper edge in order to provide a
advantage of the modern technology that enables the perfectly straight line (figure 2.1d).
manufacturers to supply materials considerably
superior in quality to those available years ago. The Dog-tooth Courses
result is that many newly constructed buildings have
fas;ades consisting of contrasting-coloured bricks with Dog-tooth courses are another means of forming a
surface textures chosen to suit the particular environ- decorative effect on the face of brick walls; the dog-
0
ment. toothing is obtained by setting each brick at 45 to
While colour and texture have improved we find the wall face. Dog-tooth courses may be projecting,
that many buildings lack the decorative aesthetic flush or recessed from the wall face. Bricks are used
qualities that are to be seen in older buildings; decora- flat or on end (figure 2.2); they should be set to line
tive face bonds are seldom used, and buildings now and checked for accuracy and position with a triangu-
constructed with drab and plain face areas could be lar templet (figure 2.3).
greatly enhanced by including decorative features in To provide a more decorative effect and increase
the brickwork. the depth of band, continuous courses of dog-toothing
are often used (figures 2.2 and 2.4). It is also common
practice to form dog-tooth courses between the over-
sailing courses. When bricks are laid flat to form dog-
STRING, DENTIL AND DOG-TOOTH COURSES tooth courses in walls one brick thick, half bats are
used to form the dog-toothing, thus allowing for a
String Courses fair face to be obtained on the opposite face of the
wall. When the wall is over one brick in thickness, a
These are sometimes known as band courses and are stretcher course can be used at the back of the dog-
used to provide a distinct horizontal break in the tooth courses.
fas;ade of a building. They form subdivisions and
interrupt the continuity of the facework, usually at
storey height. A string course may be recessed, flush DECORATIVE TREATMENT OF QUOINS
or projecting, and soldiers are often used for this
purpose. Any decorative feature passing right round a The external quoinsofa building are perhaps the most
building around storey height, possibly consisting of obvious position to create a decorative feature, yet in
contrasting bricks or a different bonding arrangement, modern construction this is rarely seen to be done.
is called a string or band course. See figure 2.1a, b. To create a decorative effect with a quoin, irrespective
of the bonding arrangement of the walling, does not
Dentil Courses greatly increase the cost of labour, and the appear-
ance of a simple return quoin can be greatly enhanced
These are header courses, with alternate headers either
by the formation of either:
projecting from the wall face or recessed. The projec-
tion or recess is usually kept to 19 mm, increasing to (a) an indented or recessed quoin
a maximum of 27 mm (figure 2.1c). Soldiers are (b) a rusticated quoin.
occasionally used for this purpose (figure 2.1d).
In order to form a string or band course, dentils (1) Indented or Recessed Quoins
can be used between oversailing courses (figure 2.1f).
When building projecting string courses such as these, These are formed by recessing a number of brick
the bricklayer's line must be fixed on the bottom courses at the quoin over a short length of walling.
6
 Decorative and Functional Features 7

a recessed string course, formed a flush string course, of

from contrasting, bonded brick-on-end contrasting bricks laid in
and seen from below Flemish bond

la) Ib)

projecting headers
forming a dentil course dentil course formed
Ie) within projecting band
courses
Id)

deep dentils brick-on-end dentils

formed with three If)
courses
Ie)
Figure 2.7

The height of the recessed work usually comprises pends in a vertical line. Certain other recessed bricks,
one, two or three courses and the depth of the recess too, will need to be cut.
is rarely in excess of 20 mm since unless the bricks
are very dense and weather-resistant any exposed (2) Rusticated Quoins
arrises will tend to suffer from frost attack.
It will be obvious from figures 2.5 and 2.6 that the These can basically be described as being the opposite
quoin bricks of the recessed work are cut on both to recessed quoins. Here the selected brick courses
header and stretcher faces in order to keep the per- project over a short length and the projection once
8 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

templet
templet used to set
2·course dog-toathing dog-toathing course

Figure 2.3

z again rarely exceeds 20 mm for the reason given

above. Two further important differences are:
~ I
(a) The quoin bricks of the main walling are cut in
both directions by the amount of the projection
(see figure 2.8).
brick-on-end dog-toathing (b) Certain collar joints in the rusticated work are
wider than usual, again by the amount of the
Figure 2.2
projection.

Figure 2.4
 Decorative and Functional Features 9

Figure 2.5 Indented or recessed quoin in English bond Figure 2.6 Indented or recessed quoin in Flemish bond

Figure 2. 7
70 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

Figure 2.70 Rusticated quoin in Flemish bond

Figure 2.8 Rusticated quoin in Flemish Garden Walling

Rustications in stretcher bond

Figure 2. 77 Rusticated quoin in English bond

PATTERN WALLING

On external walls the decorative effect can be en-

hanced by geometrical patterns formed on the face
of the walling with contrasting-coloured bricks and
projecting and recessed courses. When geometrical
patterns formed with bricks projecting from the wall
face are repeated either vertically or horizontally, the
term used to describe the feature is strap work. Reces-
sing fixed repeating patterns is termed coffering and
it very often occurs when both of these decorative
features are formed on the same wall face (figures
2.12 and 2.13).

Pierced Work

Pierced work is walling formed with repeating pat-

Figure 2.9 Rusticated quoin in stretcher bond with terns, obtained by leaving voids or piercings in the
projections of alternating length walling. This type of wall is usually designed to form
 Decorative and Functional Features 11

strapwork

coffering

Figure 2.12 Pattern walling formed with strapwork

and coffering

balustrading or screens. It is extremely effective and Lap Work

normally the wall is built with the same type of brick
throughout (figures 2.14 and 2.15). Lap work is another form of bonding arrangement
used for decorative internal walls. Again the same
type of brick can be used for the entire wall face, or
bricks of similar colour can be used. The designer will
Decorative Internal Walls again obtain the decorative effect with patterns of
light and shade (figure 2.19).
Designers of modern brick buildings are now increas-
ing the amount of exposed brickwork used internally, Concrete Screen Blocks
in both houses and other types of building. A study
of internal decorative work shows that the use of This type of precast concrete block is now becoming
geometrical patterns and light provides more aesthetic very popular as a method of forming screen or balus-
qualities for this type of walling than the use of con- trade walls. The concrete blocks are made with fine
trasting-coloured bricks. aggregate and cement, formed in steel moulds and
Figures 2.16 and 2.17 show the use of two types of compacted by the vibration method. The dimensions
zigzag bonding. The geometry of the design increases of the concrete blocks vary from 300 x 300 mm to
the depth of the decorative effect, while figure 2.18 450 x 450 mm, with a normal thickness of 75 mm.
shows the elevation of an internal wall built in herring- Geometrical patterns are formed within the area of
bone bond which is formed to provide diagonal pro- each block and the blocks can be used effectively for
jections, even when built with the same type of brick wall heights of up to 2.4 m.
throughout, as in figure 2.18. Light and shade provide When the blocks are used for long lengths of waIl-
the walling with a very interesting decorative effect, ing it is advisable to provide end and intermediate
which increases with the dimensions of the walling. supports in the form of attached piers, which are also
12 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

Figure 2.73

constructed of concrete blocks. These blocks are pro- A brick panel can be formed with a brick frame
vided with a recess to accommodate the walling blocks. around the panel, or the panel can be formed within a
Plinths and copings can also be used to obtain in- recess in the walling. When a frame is used the base and
creased stability and increase the decorative effect of sides should always be constructed before the panel is
the walling (figure 2.20). inserted, and should be formed with lines whenever
possible (figure 2.21). If the panel is to project, the
brickwork courses at the back of the recess are built
using the bricks flat, but if a sunken or recessed panel
DECORATIVE BRICK PANELS is required, the courses of brickwork at the back of
the recess should be formed with brick on edge and
The use of the panelled surface has long been a method block indenting into the brick walling on each side.
of increasing the decorative qualities of walling. The
use of the sunken or raised panel is often seen as a
method of forming a feature in plain areas of walling Bond for Panels
and between piers. Placing of panels should be done
with the utmost care. The dimensions and shape of Brick panels can be formed with basket-weave or
the panel should coincide with the area of brickwork herringbone bonds. Although diagonal and other
involved. Heavily sunken or too great projections bonding arrangements can be used, the designer
often dilute the decorative effect intended for the usually favours the former to provide the decorative
feature. effect required (figure 2.22).
 Decorative and Functional Features 13

Figure 2.74 Pattern walling formed with decorative

pierced brickwork

Figure 2.75
14 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

are all the same and occur on both sides of the panel
(figures 2.23-2.26).
Single, double and feather herringbone panels are
set out at 45°. Diagonal lines, vertical and horizontal
centre lines are required before setting out can begin
(figure 2.24). The same procedure is also used for
diagonal basket weave but normal basket weave and
diagonal herringbone require only vertical and hori·
zontal guide lines.

Marking and Cutting

This has always posed problems for the craftsman,

especially when herringbone bonds are used. There
are many methods of marking panels for cutting, the
simplest being to construct a timber frame to the
dimensions of the panel, less the thickness of the
Figure 2.16 Single zigzag bond forming decorative mortar joint on all sides (figure 2.27). Nails are
panel (elevation) positioned in the frame to accommodate the setting-
out lines, that is, the diagonal, vertical and horizontal
centre lines.
Setting Out The brick panel is then laid out to bond on a flat
level surface, with allowances for mortar joints
Panels are usually set out according to between the bricks. The area should be considerably
larger than the dimensions of the panel. The timber
(1) the type of bond required frame with the attached lines is then placed on the
(2) the shape of the panel surface of the bricks, and can be positioned and
(3) the dimensions of the panel. adjusted to suit the geometrical setting out of the
When square panels are used, the setting out is always bond (figures 2.28 and 2.29). The perimeter of the
begun from the centre of the panel, whereas rectan- panel can then be marked. Whenever necessary the
gular panels are always set out from the base line. This frame can be repositioned and the panel checked for
method is used to ensure that cuts, when required, accuracy.

Figure 2.17 Double zigzag bond forming decorative panel (elevation)

 Decorative and Functional Features 75

I I 1 j 1 I
• to.~

I--'--......-<t ,j. .. " , •

,....- .....~
... I-.,-'-'
1-"'" •...
I--- " ',' '.' " ' .. - .,, .'
~

I--'-----r--f ...
~" ~".
f-- .,. " . . '..
~ ~
"
.....
~.
'~'
:"
..~.:. ';.' '.~.:' '.•
I--'-........,
r--'-.......'*f ..•., .- •.: '. I I--'--.........,f ..
".'

:' '"
-~ ;. ',: ...~~ ~ "

f---''---,......-f
.... :.:' :..../.; ,.
1--'-....,.,."",: /' ," .... ,.

--
-',' :.:.. ' '~::.> . ,. ~.'" .~~ /,~ ..
~.}--'--r-t I--'----......."!!.
.•• ' ,
",:. I
I-~-r-.~:""!.~ . ;: :, ~ ..~..[
~-
I--'--T:'-f' :~:' i·
r '. : .. -
r'
1--'--........-1
'.~'.", ':';1 -
I--'----....."..":-,!.:-
....
I 1 1 I I j 1 j J.~l,--,IL-',-----,l• ....,J1---l1---l1---L1--l.--LJ_-,--
1_-1--1....,

Figure 2.78 Internal decorative wall in diagonal herringbone bond using brick on edge
courses and projecting contrasting bricks

Figure 2.19 Lap work

76 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

~ 0 l§] llJ l§] (2) L§J

0 l§J 0 l§1 lZJ l§J lZJ '\,>..
, '.
"-

~ 0 l§J 01l§J 0 l§J BASE

PLINTIl
./
SEC. T101J

Figure 2.20 Screen or balustrade block wall with end supports

temporary line board '-,

~~,J.L--.....\verticaland
horizontal working
lines for building
panel frame
line pins

Figure 2.27 Method of building brick<m-edge frame

around brick recess

Cutting the first three bricks for a single herring- 2 Measure the exact length of one of the bricks,
bone panel (marked 1 , 2 and 3 in figure 2.26) mark the same length from the corner onto the
often causes problems, but these are quite straight- other brick and mark across in pencil.
forward. The complete method is explained in figure 3 Cut the bricks using a lump hammer and bolster.
2.30: If an electric saw is used, the offcut will be too
small.
Stand two bricks on edge, face upwards, perfectly 4 The smallest offcut from the two bricks used will
square to each other and leaving a 10 mm cross fit perfectly in the position shown.
joint between the two.
 Decorative and Functional Features 17

Figure 2.25 Setting out diagonal basket-weave in

square panel

Figure 2.22 Basket-weave panel with brick-on-edge

frame

panel set out from base line

both sides show

equal cuts

Figure 2.26 Setting out single herringbone in square

panel

Figure 2.23 Setting out a single herringbone rectang-

ular panel

,, /
/
/
/

// panel set out from centre

/
/
,/

- -- =-= --=~} working lines

timber frame
made to size of

.?_.... _...,7:_-,.L-;>.,-
y
.= ~~ for checking
opening, less the
thickness of a
mortar joint on
all four sides

Figure 2.24 Setting out a double herringbone square

panel Figure 2.27 Fitting a frame to the panel recess
78 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

timber templet--jl-f>-~~~'~
can be adjusted
and positioned to
suit bonding of
panel

Figure 2.28 Use of timber templet for setting out and marking decorative panels

1.

2.

Figure 2.29 Setting out a diagonal basket-weave

panel with a templet

3.

Building-in

The panel can now be built into the recess formed in

the wall. Vertical and horizontal working lines are
required: the latter are moved up the face of the waIl-
ing as the building-in proceeds. Whatever bond is used
4.
to form the panel, the work of building-in must s.tart
at the base of the panel; with herringbone bonds and
also with diagonal basket weave the work starts at the Figure 2.30 Cutting the first three bricks for a single
centre of the base line, the first series of bricks being
numbered from 1 to 3 or 1 to 4 or 1 to 5 (figures herringbone panel
2.24 and 2.31).
Constant checking is carried out with the use of a
small steel setting-out square and all points are posi- BONDING PLINTH COURSES
tioned by the working lines. Coloured mortar can be
used to point the face of the panelling after comple- Plinth courses are normally used to reduce the thick-
tion. A slight contrast to the colour of the bricks will ness of walls, consequently they are usually seen to
obviously enhance the appearance of the finished occur around the base of walls or possibly at first-floor
work. level. The simplest form of plinth is an offset, where
Two examples of feather herringbone are shown in the bricks are set back from the face of the wall
figure 2.32. (figure 2.330). With this method no special bricks are
 Decorative and Functional Features 19

DIAGONAL &.A.(,l(E"T-WfAVE" SINGLE WERR.\NC3BmlE

Figure 2.31 Method of building-in panels

I
feather herring bone feather herring bone
Figure 2.32

brick·on-end
sotdiers forming
band on plinth course

(b) single plinth course formed on one face

(8) plinth course formed by offset

Ie) I-plinth course on both faces

with external return on quoin ld) 2-plinth courses fo.-med on both faces using
external returns on quoins

Figure 2.33 Plinth courses formed in English bond

20 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

required. If the wall is built in stretcher bond, the only; this brick is really one of two bevelled
width of the cavity is increased below the offset closers.
course and the correct width of cavity is formed at (3) It is acceptable to use header over header or
the level ofthe plinth course. For solid walls the ,;ollar stretcher over stretcher provided that there is a
joint is increased in width to obtain the same effect. lap of 56 mm (figures 2.34b and 2.35).
The above method has its disadvantages because (4) If necessary the plinth courses can consist of
the offset formed provides a ledge that is always vul- courses of stretchers, even if this is different
nerable to weather penetration even when a mortar from the walling bond.
fillet is applied. To provide a better form of weather- (5) The courses of brickwork below the bottom
ing, plinth courses are normally formed with purpose- plinth course must always be considered last and
made splay bricks, which can be obtained in headers, bonded accordingly. This may involve the use of
stretchers and returns. Bonding these special plinth broken bond, but this must be a secondary con-
bricks and plinth courses has always posed consider- sideration, and the inclusion of cut bricks cannot
able problems for the craftsman, but the problems always be avoided (figure 2.33e and 2.34c).
can be greatly reduced by applying the following
Figure 2.38 illustrates a decorative quoin constructed
rules for bonding plinth courses.
with plinth courses and inverted splay bricks.
Rules for Bonding Plinth Courses

(1) Always consider first, and bond in the course of CORBELLING BRICKWORK
brickwork immediately above the top-most
plinth course. It may be necessary during building operations to
(2) It is permissible to use a queen closer on the face increase the thickness of walls, or form, or increase
of the wall, at a return quoin, for one course the dimensions of attached piers. The operation,

(b) 2-plinth courses formed on both faces using external (e) l-plinth course on both faces with
returns on quoin external return on quoin

Figure 2.34 Plinth courses formed in Flemish bond

 Decorative and Functional Features 21

Figure 2.35 Plinth courses used to form an attached pier in Flemish bond

Figure 2.36 Plinth courses used to form an attached

pier in EnglIsh bond courses and inverted plinth bricks

piercings_ _...p...lIM''-

Figure 2.37 Method of forming plinth courses with splay bricks and offets, incorporating
pierced walling and diapers
22 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

called corbelling, involves projecting the courses of

brickwork beyond the wall face, and must be carried
out with great care.
There are two types of corbel
(1) supported corbels
(2) unsupported corbels.
Supported corbels are projecti ng courses of brickwork
that begin from attached piers (figures 2.39 and 2.40).

Figure 2.41 Unsupported corbels: forming an attached

pier with 56 mm corbels

Figure 2.39 Supported corbels: increasing the dimen-

sions ofan attached pier with 28 mm corbels

Figure 2.42 Unsupported corbels: increasing the

thickness of walls with 28 mm corbel courses in

Figure 2.40 Supported corbels: forming an attached

pier from half-brick nibs with corbel courses of
28mm

Unsupported corbels spring from the wall face and

are used to form attached piers or to increase the
thickness or length of walling (figures 2.41-2.43).
Before corbelling is begun the bonding of the
walling above is always considered first and the bond-
ing for the corbelling course is then arranged to Figure 2.43 Unsupported corbels: a brick knee
coincide with the work above. formed with 38 mm corbels
 Decorative and Functional Features 23

Rules for Corbelling used to check the completed projections (figure

2.46).
(1) All corbel courses should be arranged to project
either 28, 38 or56mm. The maximum projection
is 56 mm.
(2) Corbel courses should be formed in headers
whenever possible.
(3) The amount of tie should be 168 mm whenever
possible.
Rigid observance of the above rules is obviously not
always possible, but tying into the existing wall is Figure 2.46 Corbel profile board for checking corbels
necessary to obtain stability. Therefore, backweight
should always be provided on the tie courses before
the next corbel course is begun.
The following recommendations should be observed TUMBLING-IN
for corbelling to be successful.
Attached piers and buttresses are often used to provide
(1) Always use cement mortar for corbelling.
stability for walls that are subject to lateral pressure.
(2) Bricks used for corbels should be only slightly
These can be terminated with a simple concrete slab
damp and should always be laid with frogs upper-
placed on top of the pier, or with courses of plinth
most.
bricks (figure 2.47), but where a brickwork finish is
(3) The eye-line should always be formed along the
required, to provide strength and weathering and to
bottom arrispf the course (figure 2.44); individ-
be a decorative feature, the tumbling-in method
ual corbels are fixed with the aid of a corbel
should be used.
templet (figure 2.45), while the corbel profile is
To construct tumbling-in brickwork correctly it is
necessary to comply with the following rules.
(1) where the number of wall courses is odd, the
number of tumbled courses should also be odd,
but where the number of wall courses is even, the
number of tumbled courses should also be even
(figures 2.48 and 2.49); if one is odd and the
other is even, this will result in broken bond
which must always be placed BELOW the tumbl-
ing courses (see figure 2.50).
(2) the ratio of tumbled courses to horizontal but-
tress courses should always be 4:2 or 3:2 (figure
2.51 )
(3) the tumbled courses should never enter the wall
beyond halfthethicknessofthe wall (figure 2.48)
Figure 2.44 When building corbel courses the line is (4) the bond for the buttress should be continued up
fixed to the bottom arris the tumbled courses (figures 2.48, 2.50 and 2.52)
(5) a drip should be formed at the start of the
tumbled-in work to allow water to fall clear of
the buttress face (figure 2.48)

the corbel templet in use

~
~I\ concrete
<;,cf,~("" slab

-?
corbel templet
Figure 2.45 Figure 2.47 Methods of terminating attached piers
24 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

I I I I I
I I J
where wall courses
II J J. J.
j are an odd number
I the tumbled courses
weathering __ must also be an odd
fJ :::r ~ number; where wall
I J courses are an even
I I number so are the
r 1 )-"'---+-L:>.-+---'-+...---l.-J
tumbled courses
I I II
I I I
elevation side elevation

Figure 2.48

I I I I
I---

plan course one

I
plan course two

Figure 2.49

9 tumbling
I courses

~~
I I f-L- I
I
r--

bond
adjusted
here
front elevation end elevation

plan of course 2

plan of course 1 isometric projection

Figure 2.50
 Decorative and Functional Features 25

\.

~-----f2

"r---------; 2
:h-'.........,........,.~-----__i-
drip

Figure 2.57 Demonstrating the rule that the ratio of

tumbled courses to horizontal courses should always
be 4:2 or 3:2
Figure 2. 52 A tumbled-in cap for an attached pier,
formed with inclined courses only

" 11
'I
I I
steel square I~building line
to check tumbled
courses at right-angles I line of wall face
to inclination

radius of ----t+I:)4--,-Y--+--'--r-l
circle used to
provide projection
for drip.
max. radius 32 mm

Figure 2.53 Building tumbled-in work: method of Figure 2.54 Building tumbled -in work: use ofgun or
setting out the tumbling courses stock to assist in the aligning of tumbled courses,
with the bevel providing the angle of cut for the
tumbled courses

(6) all tumbled courses should be at right-angles to courses are all at right-angles to the inclination (figure
the inclination (figures 2.48 and 2.53). 2.53). The angle formed between the tumbled and
the horizontal courses is obtained with a bevel, which
can then be used to mark the angle of cut (figure 2.54).
To build tumbled-in brickwork it is necessary to erect To ensure that good effective weathering is pro-
building lines to provide the lines for the inclination; vided it is essential that all tumbling-in courses are
a gun or stock should also be formed, which can be completely parallel to the angle of inclination, other-
used to check the surface of the work and also as a wise water may rest on any ledges that are formed.
gauge rod for the tumbled courses (figures 2.53 and Cement mortar should be used and the bricks should
2.54). To comply with rule 1 it may be necessary to be capable of resisting weather penetration. When
adjust the courses of the tumbled-in work, by either tumbling-in work is accurately carried out, the
increasing or reducing the bed joints. buttress will always be a decorative and functional
Checking the tumbled-in courses during erection is feature that demonstrates the skills of the bricklayer
carried out with a steel square to ensure that the craftsman.
 3
REINFORCED BRICKWORK

The designers of modern buildings are constantly TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT

using new techniques, methods and materials to
provide structures with increased strength and reduc- Exmet Expanded Metal Mesh
tions in loading. Because of this trend the use of
reinforcement in walling is becoming a common This is a diamond-shaped mesh, obtainable in rolls of
practice. The reinforcement of brick walls allows for 18 m and in widths of 56, 175 and 300 mm. The gauge
a reduction in wall thickness, and, when walls are is 20,22 or 24. To be effective, the mesh should be
reinforced above openings, the compressive strength completely enveloped within the mortar bed. This
is increased because the brickwork acts as a beam. type of reinforcement is used in walls and partitions
Foundation walling is often reinforced horizontally to resist both horizontal and vertical pressure (figure
to prevent settlement, and vertically to resist lateral 3.2).
pressure (figure 3.1). Walls of concrete and brickwork
in compound form are constantly used to provide B.R.C. Brickforce (figure 3.3)
strength and for their decorative qualities. This type
of work is often carried out with the inclusion of rod This is a welded product consisting of two parallel
and wire reinforcement (figures 3.6, 3.7 and 3.9). wires joined by cross wires every 304 mm, all wires
being approximately 3 mm thick. It is supplied in a
variety of widths from 60 mm for half-brick walls to
160 mm for one brick walls, and in 3 metre lengths
for ease of handling. Brickforce should be bedded and
surrounded in mortar between courses of bricks or
blocks and a wall reinforced with this material will
have greatly increased resistance to horizontal pres-
sures occurring from either side. It is also useful over
G.L openings, adding considerable tensile strength to the
"lH:=::f--- 2O-mm·dia. mild-steel rods brickwork (figures 3.6 and 3.17).
-----cJ..'Jl with wire ties
lateral
p rcssu re - r1 .~
____.cflJ:..;.CJ--wali ties

Figure 3.1 Vertical reinforcement in sub-structure

Figure 3.2 Reinforcing short returns using Exmet Figure 3.3 Horizontal reinforcement using Brickforce
walling 26
 Reinforced Brickwork 27

B.R.C. Wallforce B.R.C. Bricktor (figure 3.7)

This is similar in appearance to Brickforce but used to This is a stainless steel or galvanised wire mesh supplied
strengthen cavity walls. It is supplied in strips 3150 mm in 25 m or 75 m rolls, in widths ranging from 50 to
long, the width of each strip being 222 mm. Four 300 mm. Some typical uses of Bricktor are:
main wires run parallel along the length of the strip,
(1) Carrying brickwork over door openings. By
joined by welded cross wires at 450 mm centres,
incorporating the mesh in the bed joints, conven-
which take the place of conventional wall ties in
tional lintels can be omitted, often to the benefit
cavity walls (figures 3.4 and 3.5).
of the appearance (figure 3.6).
(2) Bonding and strengthening corners and inter-
sections of walls.
(3) Tying of walls to reinforced concrete frames.
(4) Resisting cracking of walls in areas of uneven
settlement.
(5) General control of shrinkage and thermal crack-
ing.

L.-....J
o
o Figure 3.6 Using Bricktor over door openings
o
o

-2Sar7Sm

"'"
222.5
w.llfon:. •
All dlrntnSiOnS In mill

Figure 3.5 Wallforce Figure 3. 7 The use of Bricktor

28 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

Hoop-iron Reinforcement

This is a traditional type of horizontal reinforcement cranked wire

that is now only rarely used. The hoop-iron is 25 mm ties
wide and 2 mm thick. It is possible to obtain it in
galvanised form or with a bituminous coating. When 20 mm-dia.
used in brickwork it should be fixed within the mortar mild-steel rods
bed, with one band of hoop-iron for each half-brick
thickness of walling (figure 3.8). As with other forms concrete r-7"'i~
fill
of horizontal reinforcement, the hoop-iron should be
set at least 25 mm from the face of the walling. Joints
are formed with welts or hooks to ensure continuity.
""","-"'--=-r 25x 2 mm hoop-iron
covered with
bituminous paint
and sand-dusted

Figure 3.10 Thick walling with vertical reinforcement

3 mOl wire 20 mOl dia. rods

ties

Figure 3.8 Horizontal reinforcement with hoop-iron

Rod Reinforcement

This is used vertically to strengthen walls of reduced

thickness and to resist lateral stresses. Rods are used
with diameters of 12-20 mm, depending on the situa-
tion and the requirements of the structural engineer.
It is common practice to use this method of reinforce-
ment within concrete pockets formed in the thickness
of the wall (figures 3.10 and 3.11) or in concrete walls
with brick facings. In these positions wires and
stirrups are often used to increase the longitudinal
stability of the reinforcement.
In modern construction the use of perforated
bricks, with perforations designed to accommodate
the vertical rod reinforcement (figure 3.9), provides a Figure 3.11 Quetta bond with vertical reinforcement
wall that is reduced in both thickness and weight but
with sufficient strength for the situation in which it is 20-mm dia. mild-steel rods
required.
Illustrations of reinforcing with rat-trap bond, wall
ties, diagonal bond and brick lintels are given in figures 3-mm wire ties
3.12-3.15.

Figure 3.12 Rat-trap bond with vertical reinforcement

 Reinforced Brickwork 29

POSITIONING OF REINFORCEMENT

Recommended positions for the reinforcement, when

walls are to be reinforced above openings, are given in
table 3.1. (See also figure 3.17.)

Table 3.1 Recommended Positions for Reinforcement above Openings

Minimum
Clear span of opening Number of courses height of brickwork
(m) reinforced above opening
(mm)

1.2 2 600
1.3 3 (figure 3.17) 750
1.8 3 900
2.0 4 1075

6-mm-dia. stirrups
fixed on 9-mm-dia.
~~'b.L"'~I~"T wall ties rod every alternate
course

9-mm rod
Figure 3.13 Wall ties fixed on 20 mm rod on every
alternate course Figure 3.14 A reinforced brick lintel

Figure 3.15 Reinforcing thick walls

with diagonal bond
30 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

lifting pulleys --1-f--l--IIi1' .......::--_ _ Iifting beam

timber base plate::::,.--::-----=:~:t::.J::~~~

Figure 3.76 jig assembly for building prefabricated brick panels

Figure 3. 77 Horizontal reinforcement in courses above openings

 4
STEP CONSTRUCTION

Steps are formed to provide access from one level to Building Regulations 1985 and the minimum going,
levels above and should be designed to prevent un- pitch, maximum and minimum rise and width are
necessary fatigue or physical discomfort. Steps may now determined by the type and use of the building.
be formed in brickwork, concrete or a combination The dimensions given in figure 4.1 refer to domestic
of both materials. buildings only.
To understand the construction of any type of step Steps can be supported by walls or concrete
work it is necessary to have a knowledge of the (figures 4.2-4.4). They can be built in during con-
following definitions. struction or fixed at a later date.
Riser The vertical face between consecutive treads.
Tread The upper surface of a step. Concrete Steps
Rise The vertical distance between consecutive steps
or between step and landing. When concrete steps are built into the walling, either
Pitch line The notional line that connects the nosings during construction or later, it is necessary to provide
of all treads. a gauge staff, which should be formed to suit the
Pitch The angle formed between pitch line and the brickwork courses and the height of the risers (figure
horizontal. 4.2). When the steps are fixed at a later date, the wall
Nosing The front edge of a step or tread. should contain recesses, formed in the brickwork or
Going The horizontal distance on the plan between sand courses, to accommodate the concrete steps
the nosing of a tread and the nosing on the tread above. (figure 4.2).
Flight Part of a stairway, or ramp, which may consist Concrete steps, when formed as precast units, can
of a step or consecutive steps. have stepped or sloping soffits, the latter having
Parallel Steps of uniform width. squared seatings at each end to rest on the walling
Width The distance between the nosing and the face (figures 4.3, 4.5 and 4.6).
of the riser (figure 4.1).
Brick Steps

REQUIREMENTS FOR BRICK AND CONCRETE Brick steps should be built of durable bricks, which
STEPS should be able to resist abrasion and weather and
should be set in cement mortar suitable for the type
All steps must be built or formed to comply with the of brick used.

max. angle of pitch 42'

total
max.
220 mm rise of
min. _;;,;st::!eP::.--::::========_ _.....L _
75mm
Figure 4.1 Building Regulations requirements for step construction
31
32 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

gauge rod
for steps
and
brickwork

L...o',[/"'~:;oI<l"""''b.L.J:"7''''---
recess for step

....... "- ...

~"
"
' ....

.. ...--sand courses

Figure 4.2 Construction of a wall to allow for step

fixing at a later date
Figure 4.3 Parallel concrete steps supported on brick
walls and fixed during construction

Figure 4.4 Brick steps formed between flank walls

 Step Construction 33

Balustrades

Balustrades are formed as walls or railings with mini-

mum and maximum heights of 840 mm and 1 m
resoectivelv. They are only necessary where the total
rise is greater than 600 mm, the height being measured
vertically above the pitch line.
If metal balusters are used, holes will have to be
prepared for these close to the ends of the treads.
Figure 4.5 Parallel steps with stepped soffit They are usually fastened in position with molten
lead or a rapid-hardening cementitious compound.
Pyramidal brick steps are illustrated in figure 4.8.

...
.....:::::.- soffit line
r---L~/:"",-,_
prevents slip

38-mm min. radius

_tinger
stooling
section of parallel steps
isometric detail from below with sloping soffit

Figure 4.6

~ ....... handrail

~balusters

Figure 4. 7 Steps formed with concrete slabs and brickwork

34 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

Figure 4.8 Pyramidal brick steps

 5
DRAINAGE

The object of a drainage system is to convey foul, through this drain or otherwise to ensure that no sub-
waste or surface water to the sewer or other place of soil water entering such a drain causes dampness of
disposal without danger to health. This means that the site of the building.
the pipework must be airtight and watertight in order Drainage of subsoil water may be necessary for
that both solid matter and liquid matter are removed any of the following reasons
from a building without foul odours escaping, except
where this is part of the design (see figure 5.35). (1) to prevent surface flooding and thus improve
Definitions of water types are as follows (figure 5.1) conditions for building
(2) to lessen the amount of dampness occurring in
Surface water The run-off of natural water from the foundation brickwork
ground surface, including paved areas, roofs and un- (3) to prevent foundation trenches from becoming
paved land. waterlogged
Ground water In permeable ground the surface water (4) to increase the stability of the subsoil and the
will percolate downwards towards the water table, ground surface
being held temporarily in suspension. (5) for agricultural purposes
Subsoil water Water occurring naturally below the (6) to lessen the humidity that can occur when
ground surface, the depth varying with the season. buildings are erected on damp sites.
Waste water The discharge from lavatory basins,
baths, sinks, etc., that is, water not classed as surface Systems
water and not contaminated with soil water.
Soil water The discharge from soil appliances such as The following are the usual methods of carrying out
water closets, urinals, etc. subsoil drainage, depending on the location of the site
and the conditions prevailing.

Natural

ground water Trenches are excavated and pipes laid to follow the
natural contours on the site with branch drains dis-
charging into the main drain as necessary (figure 5.2).
water table -4~>77"77?~~'77.;"77777.77'>".:I
subsoil water ~~~~~~;.u..u..<.~e<...<..,..

Figure 5.1

SUBSOIL DRAINAGE

The Building Regulations 1985 state that wherever

the dampness or position of the site of a building
renders it necessary, the subsoil must be effectively
drained as required to protect the building against
damage from moisture.
Furthermore whenever excavation work causes a
subsoil drain to be severed, adequate steps must be
taken to secure the continued passage of subsoil water Figure 5.2
35
 36 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

Herringbone

On a relatively large site the main can be laid down

the centre, receiving the discharge from branches that
are not longer than 30 m (figure 5.3).

fan

Figure 5.5
1/
V Moat or Cut-off
V
V Subsoil drains are laid around a proposed building,
V thus intercepting the flow of subsoil water (figure 5.6).
V
V
/
hernngbone

Figure 5.3

Parallel

On a smaller site, branches from one side only may be moat or cut-off
sufficient (figure 5.4).

Figure 5.6

Main, with Collectors and Laterals

On a large site the subsoil drainage may consist of a

series of collectors and laterals discharging to a main
subsoil drain, probably of 150 mm diameter, or to a
moat (figure 5.7).

Figure 5.4

Fan main. collectors

and laterals
A series of small branches converges on a larger drain
situated at or near the site boundary (figure 5.5). Figure 5.7
 Drainage 37

Pipes
backfill

C1ayware

Clayware pipes are circular in section, butt-jointed

laver 01
and vary from 64 mm to 300 mm in diameter. Lengths inverted
are from 300 mm to 600 mm (figure 5.80). turf

Of sf tiles over jOb hardcore

or rubble

(a) butt-jointed pipe

subsoil drain

Figure 5.9
~ black bando:g]f- --JI

(b) seconds c1av pipes-open jointed

A : s : : ]-Jlt......t..1-J&t......t..-1--i-...JI
(c) perforated c1av pipes

Figure 5.8

Clay Drainpipes
subsoil drain
Types of clay drainpipe available include butt-jointed,
'seconds' and half and fully perforated pipes (figure Figure 5.10
5.8c). Butt-jointed pipes normally have a tile over the
joint to prevent direct ingress of silt, and seconds
(identifiable by the black band) are laid open-jointed
with level inverts (figure 5.8b). Where the half-perfora-
ted pipes are used the perforations are usually kept in
the underside so that the pipes will not silt up due to
fine particles moving downwards with ground water. hardcore
Other kinds of pipe for subsoil drainage include or rubble
concrete porous, perforated vitrified, pitch-fibre per-
forated and polythene slotted pipes. They are usually
laid to follow the fall of the land where possible and
in trenches to a minimum depth of 600 mm. After
surrounding the pipes with hardcore or rubble the
pipework is then covered with an inverted layer of french drain
turf, which acts as a filter, and the trench is filled
with permeable soil (figure 5.9). Figure 5.11
Alternatively, the trench can be filled to just below
ground level with hardcore (figure 5.10), or a french
drain can be used, which usually consists completely Soakaways
of hardcore (figure 5.11).
The outfall from a subsoil drainage system should $oakaways are pits that are excavated in permeable
be led to a stream if possible, to soakaways where the
soil and suitably prepared to receive ground water.
ground is sufficiently permeable, or to a waste-water
drain via a catchpit (figure 5.12). (1) The pipework is led into the pit, which is filled
38 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

(3) An older method is to line the excavated pit with

,/' .' /
.,' dry brickwork or stone walling, which cuts down
on costs, has an easily calculated capacity but is
not such a permanent job (figure 5.15).

catchpit

Figure 5.12

with large hardcore and covered with a layer of

weak concrete. This method is cheap but pro-
vides only limited storage space (figure 5.13).
Figure 5.15

Whichever method is decided on it is vital to ascertain

that the subsoil is permeable, otherwise the soakaway
will become a well. When the nature of the subsoil is
not known, trial pits should be excavated on site and
the rate of percolation noted. It is often the case that
the nature of the subsoil alters with depth and that
permeable ground exists below clay, etc. In figure
5.16, for example, it would be virtually useless to dig
a soakaway less than 1.5 m deep.

0.2m
/
/
soakaway: hardcore .i ...
topsoil
. v v •

Figure 5.13 0.5 m soft clay

(2) Precast concrete sections are placed where 0.8 m stiff clay
required and excavation is carried out from the
inside, the sections sinking under their own
weight. These have a large, easily calculated stony soil
capacity but costs are incresed (figure 5.14).

section through subsoil

Figure 5.16

Connection to Waste-water Drains

Any silt being carried along the pipework must not be

allowed into a waste-water drain and, therefore, a
catchpit is installed before the connection is made.
This is a brick chamber similar to an inspection cham-
ber but containing neither channel pipes nor benching
/<' (figure 5.12). The outlet is kept about 225 mm above
soakaway:concrete sections
the top of the concrete base and the catch pit must be
Figure 5.14 cleaned out at intervals as required.
 Drainage 39

Rainwater, Waste and Foul Water unless there is an inspection chamber situated
at that junction
All domestic buildings must be provided with efficient (c) at the highest point of a private sewer unless
drainage systems in order to dispose of rain, waste there is a rodding eye at that point
and foul water. The system must discharge into a Note The maximum distance between manholes
main sewer, a septic tank or a cesspool, depending on on a drain or private sewer is 90 m.
the availability of these alternatives. The sewer is laid (11) Pipes must be laid at depths to prevent acciden-
and maintained by the local authority, usually below tal disturbance or be adequately protected by
the road or footpath, and the house system must be haunching or be surrounded in concrete.
connected to this either at an inspection chamber (see (12) Waste pipes to ground floors must discharge
page 64) or between inspection chambers by means below grating level but above the water seal.
of a saddle (see page 56) fitted to the cheek of the (13) Vent pipes are to be of sufficient height and to
sewer. be fitted at the top with a durable cage to
Septic tanks and cesspools are outside the scope prevent ingress of birds, leaves, etc.
of the craft syllabus but will be covered in an advanced (14) Only one connection per dwelling is made to a
volume. main sewer (figures 5.28-5.33).
(15) Drains should not pass under buildings unless
this is unavoidable, for example, where the
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE length of a drain would be substantially increas-
ed or where sufficient fall cannot otherwise be
(1) The drainage layout should be as simple and obtained (figure 5.17).
direct as possible.
(2) Materials used should be hard, smooth, non-
corrosive and true in shape.
(3) Pipes should be laid to falls to give a self-cleans-
ing velocity. This is generally considered to be a
flow of between 0.75 and 3 m/s. While Maguire's
rule is to some extent outdated it gives a flow,
~
depending on the type and condition of the
pipe, of 1.375 mis, that is, where a 100 mm
~
pipe is laid at a fall of 1 in 40, alSO mm pipe is
laid at a fall of 1 in 60, and a 225 mm pipe is
laid at a fall of 1 in 90.
(4) All joints must be airtight, watertight and free
~

-- 0/
,....- ... - -
from internal obstruction.
(5) Lines of pipes between inspection chambers are / t
to be as straight as possible, both horizontally
and longitudinally.
/ I
!

(6) All inlets to drains must have a water seal of at - - - - - - -- - ..... - - - --- I

plan
least 50 mm, except soil and ventilation pipes
alternative routes shown dashed
(see page 63).
(7) Branches should be kept as short as possible. Figure 5.17
(8) The greatest volume in flush should be at or
near the topmost point of the drain where
possible.
(9) All junctions should be made with the flow. Where drains do pass under buildings precautions
(10) Adequate means of access and inspection must must be taken as necessary to prevent damage to, or
be provided. Inspection chambers must be loss of water tightness in, the drain or private sewer
placed by differential movement. The principles to be
(a) at each point where there is such a change followed here are
of direction or gradient as would prevent any
part of the drain being readily cleansed without
such a chamber (1) Surround the pipe in at least 100 mm of granular
(b) on a drain or private sewer within 12.5 m material or other flexible filling.
from a junction between that drain or private (2) An inspection chamber should be placed outside
sewer and another, a private or public sewer, at least one end of the run under the building.
40 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

(3) Where a pipe passes through a wall, either Drainpipes

(a) provide a 50 mm space all round the pipe,
with an arch or lintel over Pipes for drainage systems are manufactured from
(b) bed a short length of pipe in the wall, form- many materials and, while the use of cast iron has
ing the joints within 150 mm of either wallface. been spoken of, the craft certificate syllabus mentions
Adjacent rocker pipes should be a maximum of those of vitrified clay, pitch fibre and uPVc.
600 mm long and with flexible joints (figure 5.18).
Vitrified Clay Pipes
llfCh or lintelted opening

U1j
I·· 'I
10 give !'lOmm space a"
round the pipe British Standards 65 and 540 Part 1 specify the
..."-. ~
11.-'-.-'-.-= J.. mask opening bolh sides requirements for clay pipes and fittings, with or with-
~.- with rigid sheel male".1
out sockets, that are suitable for drains and sewers
under two descriptions
(1) British Standard, for foul sewage and/or surface
water
short length 01 pipe bedded
or in wall. joints Jormed within (2) British Standard Surface Water, for surface water
l50mm 01 either walllace.
Adlacent rocker pipeS 01 only
max. length 60Qmm with
llexible toints and pipes must be clearly marked as such. Pipes and
fittings of either description may be glazed or un-
glazed externally, internally or both.
Part 2 of the Standard specifies the requirements
for flexible joints for pipes complying with Part 1.

Pipes with Sockets These have rigid or flexible joints

and, while the latter cost more to purchase, they have
many advantages over the more traditional rigid-
Figure 5.18 Pipes penetrating walls
jointed pipes
Note Where, for example, an extension to a dwelling (1) Pipelaying is much quicker with the simple push-
is built over an existing drain the local authority fit joints; thus labour costs are reduced.
usually insists on the drain being exposed and sur- (2) The joints, once made, are immediately water-
rounded in concrete that is continued up to the level tight; thus testing is not held up.
of the natural foundation. This may not be necessary (3) Joints can be made in waterlogged trenches or
in the case of a deep drain which is usually left un- freezing conditions.
disturbed. For drains that are laid close to foundations (4) The pipes are self-centring; mis-alignment at the
the regulations are shown in figure 5.19. joints cannot occur.
(5) The fact that the joints are flexible allows for
slight distortions of the pipeline due to ground
where A ts less than 1 metre
concr~te H1llreoch 10 this movement without loss of watertightness.
level
~ ground level
Two types of flexible joint, the a-ring joint and
the polyurethane joint, suitable for socketed pipes,
are shown in figures 5.20b and c, the sleeve joint (d)
being for butt-ended pipes only.
•. 0· A rigid joint is shown in figure 5.200, being made
~
with gaskin/cement mortar. This joint is described in
when A is 1 melfe Of mo.e
concrete fifl (rench to this
more detail later.
level A complete range of fittings is available for both
A
rigid and flexible-jointed pipes, some of which are
shown in figures 5.21 and 5.22.
r When ordering channel pipes with collars, fittings
must be described as left or right-handed. For example,
a left-hand fitting, when viewed against the direction
of flow, branches or bends to the left; and where a
double spaced junction is required, the first branch
from the spigot is stated first, that is, left/right; right/
Figure 5.19 Pipes runs near buildings left (figure 5.21).
 Drainage 41

polyester
mouldings
-=- ~

I'll ,,:- ,7,fl!11

rUbb~ rubber
sealing sealing
ring ring

1/ ., .. ,. / ,,, .. ,. ii I' • ii'

l- .;, !;,;

1// ......... -=
(a)' tarred gaskin and cement mortar joint (b) polyurethane joint (c) O-ring joint (d) sleeve joint

Figure 5.20 Rigid and flexible joints

JL
c: ==~
straight channel
-==~=:J taper channel
~ taper bend

~~~~b
long 90"
bend
medium 600
bend
short 45
bend
22Yo.° bend 11140 bend

dZ1'iA 1~
(all bends shown are right hand)

1~1'~
~ ~ 1L

~~~
300 short oblique
right-hand
junction 21.:
oblique right-
hand junction 5OO<j

~ tl° ~ ~
~oo 70~

eooL!
~ ~
O

right/left-hand left-hand
double junction double
junction

~~15' 1150

0~
~~1~
~ \}.
~ ~ "
breeches
oblique
junction
double curved
oblique junction
140

165
0
0
Q~
(} ~
Yo. section bends
with splayed ends
~ section bends (right hand) (left hand)

Figure 5.21 Channel pipes

42 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

socket

~';,.,
1a.-~ilO
,""'' ' i 1 I \ " rffi
j ,.-n,."\y i n :::a
•
straight pipe taper pipe perforated pipe butt pipe

long bend long bend long bend medium bend short bend rest bend
(11'4° ) (22Y,0) (45°) (60°) (knuckle)

double
socket

dou bl e spaced single oblique

oblique junction junction
interceptor
loose
collar

~ \1
gully top

rainwater shoe

road gully
gully trap

drain chutes
~ square
saddle
~ oblique
saddle

Figure 5.22 Drainpipes and fittings

 Drainage 43

Pipes without Sockets In the Hep-sleeve system, rubber O-ring

butt-ended pipes are jointed with a polypropylene
coupling and rubber sealing ring (figure 5.20£1).
After a check has been made that the pipe end and
the coupling are clean, the pipe is placed vertically on
a clean hard surface and the top end is lubricated. A
little downward pressure on the coupling easily forces
it into place against the central stop. The first pipe in
the trench should be butted up to a stopboard and
the lubricated end of the next pipe is forced into the
collar of the first. Little waste occurs with this system
since cut pipes can be utilised after trimming the cut
end as necessary. As with collared pipes, a wide range Figure 5.23 G-ring joints in uPVC drainpipes
of fittings is available. for continuously running hot water such as the dis-
charge from laundries, or for waste containing pitch
uPVC Pipes (unplasticised polyvinyl chloride) solvents (petrol, oil and fat), they have the following
uPVC drainpipes are suitable for all foul and surface advantages over rigid-jointed clay pipes
water drainage and a complete range of pipes and
(1) their flexibility makes them suitable for ground
fittings is available. Some of the advantages claimed
liable to differential settlement
by uPVC pipe manufacturers include:
(2) concrete bedding, haunching and/or surround is
(1) Lightness and ease of handling. Straight pipes are very rarely required
available in 3 m and 6 m lengths, the latter weigh- (3) there is no waste, cut pipes can be used
ing 10-14 kg (100 mm dia.). (4) pipelaying can continue in freezing weather and
(2) Cheaper laying costs. The material has a high waterlogged trenches
impact resistance, eliminating site breakages. (5) immediate testing on completion is possible
Long lengths mean fewer joints and any off-cuts (6) the pipes can be laid at lower gradients than pipes
are re-usable. of certain other materials, for example, 100 mm
(3) No concrete bedding or haunching necessary. pipe is laid at a gradient of 1 in 85.
Granular bedding such as pea gravel is preferred,
effecting further savings. Bedding
(4) Immediate testing. Rubber O-ring push-fit joints
are used. Where the subsoil is suitable, for example, where it is
(5) Exceptionally smooth bore means an improved free draining coarse sand or loam, the practice is to
flow rate. Lower gradients are possible. replace the soil evenly, consolidate it, and bed the
(6) Flexible. Little risk of failure due to ground pipes down on this, but granular materials are mostly
movement. used for this purpose, for example, pea gravel or
(7) If brickbats or stones fall into trenches they will broken stone of maximum size 19 mm. Clay and
usually bounce off the pipes, rather than cause chalk, which are affected by percolating water, should
breakages. not be used for either bedding or sidefilling, and
The O-ring joints are assembled as follows: bricks, etc. must never be used to pack pipes into line.

(1) Ensure that both spigot and socket are free from Laying the Pipes
grit or mud etc.
(2) Insert a clean rubber ring into the O-ring recess. The pipes are laid directly on the bedding material
(3) Apply the special lubricant to the exposed surface and the joints are made with either a straight (sleeve)
of the rubber ring within the socket and to the coupling or a snap-ring joint (figures 5.24 and 5.25).
chamfered area of the spigot end.
(4) Bring spigot and socket into alignment and push Straight Couplings (figure 5.24)
the spigot home (figure 5.22).
The pipe spigots are wiped clean and a coupling is
Pitch-fibre Pipes fitted hand-tight to one spigot of each. Place the first
pipe in position against a suitable stopboard (figure
This type of pipe is flexible, light in weight and 5.26) and fit the spigot of the second pipe into the
generally available in lengths between 2400 and 3040 coupling of the first. A softwood dolly (figure 5.26)
mm. While pitch-fibre pipes are considered unsuitable is placed against the coupling of the second pipe,
44 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

which is then driven home with a 1-2 kg hammer. The pushing a pipe with a coupling fitted into the coupling
amount of drive should be 6-7 mm and it is important on a previously laid pipe using a spade as a lever.
not to overdrive. It is possible to complete a consider- Pitch fibre pipes are rarely used nowadays; they are
able length of pipe at ground level if required and to no longer produced in the United Kingdom and are
lower it into the trench afterwards. not mentioned in current Building Regulations.
Note When using these couplings it is necessary to
support the back of a bend or a branch junction while
driving (figure 5.27).
Pipe Bedding and Backfilling

Snap-ring Couplings (figure 5.25) Figure 5.28 shows two suitable methods for rigid
pipes and one for flexible pipes. Each of these will
The snap-ring is placed over the end of a plain-ended satisfy Building Regulations requirements.
pipe with the flat of the ring against the pipe, and the Figure 5.280 requires a high standard of workman-
coupling is pushed on to this, forcing the ring to roll ship. This method must not be used unless accurate
along the pipe. The ring is compressed and jumps into hand-trimming by shovel is possible.
the required position. Pipes are jointed in a trench by Figure 5.28b is generally suitable in all soil con-

before aher
driving driving

~i-
initial contact
~I-
amount of drive
usually 7-12 mm 6-7mm

Figure 5.24 Straight coupling for tapered pipes

I
II II
II
II
II
II II
II
II
II
II
II
.
II
II

II
II
II II

Figure 5.25 Polypropylene snap-ring joint for plain-

ended pipes

hammer extra coupling

dolly against stopboard
] A( ~======~stoPboard
UJ=----------'l0- ~I
softwood
dolly
..
~:

Figure 5.26
 Drainage 45

Combined System (figure 5.29)

In the combined system one large system takes the

discharge from top, waste and foul-water fittings. This
system is found mainly in Scotland and some coastal
areas where sea outfalls are used.
Advantages are
(1) the pipe layout on site is usually simple and
straightforward
(2) there is no chance of connecting to the wrong
Figure 5.27 Pipes supported at bends during driving sewer
(3) there is only one set of pipes and sewer to lay
and maintain.
Disadvantages are
(1) the combined sewer and the treatment works
must be large or they will not be adequate in wet
weather
(2) storm overflows may be necessary to divert any
:-:::::"::'t
'.:::.':..:., 300
overload to storage tanks, streams, etc., and
• .... : o'
untreated sewage may cause pollution.
. "," .... 10} (3) both foul and surface water need to be treated at
';: :', :.::'>. the sewage works.
.'

(a) (b) (e)

Separate System (figure 5.30)

Key: IZ::::J Selected fill, free from
stones larger than 40 mm, With this system two completely separate sets of
lumps of clay over 100 mm, pipes lead to two different sewers, one conveying foul
frozen material, timber and
vegetable matter and waste water from sinks, baths, w.e.s, bidets, etc.,
II3i!2I Granular material to BS 882 the other taking rainwater from downspouts, paved
c::J Selected fill or granular areas, etc.
fill free from stones It may be possible to. use soakaways where the
larger than 40 mm
subsoil is permeable, as shown in figure 5.30, where
the soakaway at the rear is an alternative to a long
Figure 5.28 run of pipes. Soakaways are placed at least 3 m from
the dwelling, otherwise drain runs are laid out for the
best result possible.

ditions. It is an alternative to a where accurate hand-

trimming is not possible.
Figure 5.28c is suitable for flexible pipes.
Where pipes are laid close to ground level, adequate
protection must be provided. Either surround in
100-150 mm concrete or bridge over the pipes with
concrete slabs on flexible filling.

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

There are three systems of drainage, the combined,

the separate and the part separate system and it is
important to understand at this point that only one
of these systems is used in each town or district.
46 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

RWG Advantages are

\
\ (1) only foul water is treated at sewage works, thus

~
WG
SP____ both the treatment plant and the diameter of the
""l1J
sewer can be relatively small.
(2) storm overflows are not required,
(3) there is no possibility of water pollution from
overflowing sewage during bad weather, since the
RWG , flow is constant.
yGo----------~~ 0 Disadvantages are
(1) there are two sets of pipes to lay and maintain
(2) there is a risk of connecting to the wrong sewer
(3) the pipe layout may be complicated with pipes
boundary crossing
RG1 (4) the foul sewer is not flushed with rainwater,
I
therefore great care must be taken to ascertain
l Sa
that a self-cleaning velocity is kept to throughout.
combined sewer flow __
key Part-separate System (figure 5.31)
RWG rainwater gully
WG waste gully
SP soil pipe This method is a compromise between the combined
scale 1:200
YG yard gully system and the separate system. One sewer deals with
RG road gully street gullies and as much roof water as possible, the
RWS rainwater shoe
S soakaway other takes foul and waste water and a small amount
Sa Saddle of rainwater, preferably, for example, via a gully at
pipes carrying
rainwater only the top of the system, which will flush the drain as it
flows during wet weather.
Figure 5.29 The combined system

/',
<S )
~" RWG
" v

RWS ./ "" ,
I
I
\ !WG
\
\
sP_ _
)\]
WG
SP........... \\ \
1J:
I
,
I
I
RW~
I
I YG .... I
RWS ' I I
"" , I
YGo----------
tt1 I
I
'~
I
r I
I I
I
I
boundary !
I RG' I
boundary I I
RGT
I
,
I

I
cornbined sewer! I
I Sa

soil sewer
I
I Sa I l :Sa flow'-
I ========~~~====~==========
I Sal flow- top water sewer
========~==================
top water sewer
scale 1:200. scale 1:200

Figure 5.30 The separate system (key as for figure Figure 5.31 The part-separate system (key as for
5.29) figure 5.29)
 Drainage 47

Advantages are Channel Fittings

(1) the layout is usually easier and cheaper than for TopiC
the separate system
(2) foul drains are flushed in rainy periods. 1 left-hand double oblique junction
1 left-hand bend
Disadvantages are
Lower IC
(1) there are two drains and two sewers to lay and 1 left-hand double oblique junction
maintain
(2) there are two connections to be made to the 1 left-hand slow bend
sewers
(3) the layout is costlier and more difficult than for
Example 5.2. The Separate System (figure 5.30)
the combined system.
(assuming soakaway impracticable)
Conclusions are that the combined system, despite
its advantages, is considered the worst system, the Straight Pipes
separate system and the part-separate system being
preferred. Soil length
Top IC to main 14.6 m
Note The provISion and connection of the road
gully in all the systems is the responsibility of the WG to IC 2.2
local authority. SP to IC 2.6
19.4 m (British Standard)
Surface water
Measurement of Pipes
Top RWS to main 21.0
The simplest method is to measure the complete RWS to IC 2.0
length of pipeline and specify all fittings.
YG to IC 8.0
31.0 m (British Standard
Surface Water)
Example 5.1. The Combined System (figure 5.29)
Alternatively, 50.4 m of British Standard straight
Straight Pipes pipes could be ordered.

Top inspection chamber (Ie) to sewer 14.6 m FIttings

Rainwater gully (RWG) to top IC 4.0 2 rainwater shoes (gullies not necessary)
Waste gully (WG) to top IC 1.8 1 waste gully
Soil pipe (SP) to top IC 3.2 1 rest bend
RWG to lower IC 2.0 1 yard gully
Yard gully (YG) to lower IC 6.0 2 slow bends (for use in long length)
31.6 m 2 saddles (two connections)
1 slow bend (top RWS to Ie)

Fittings Channel Fittings

2 rainwater gullies (to take fall pipes) TopiC

1 rest bend (foot of soil pipe) 1 single oblique left-hand junction
1 waste gully (sink waste) 1 left-hand bend
1 yard gully (surface water from paved areas) Lower IC
1 saddle (connection to main) 1 double oblique left-hand junction
1 slow bend (into top IC from RWG) 2 left-hand bends
48 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

Example 5.3. The Part-separate System (figure 5.31)

Straight Pipes

Top RWG to main 19.0

WG to top IC 1.2

o~~
SP to top IC 2.6
Lower IC to main 9.0
RWS to lower IC 4.4
" I I RWG
YG to lower IC 2.8 YG<>--_
\

39.0 m

Fittings

1 rainwater gully (connects to soil sewer)

1 rainwater shoe (connects to surface-water sewer)
1 rest bend
,
, RG
I

1 waste gully key combined sewer

1 yard gully RWG rainwater gully
SP soil pipe
2 saddles WG waste gully
YG yard gully
RG road gully
Cheannel Fittings RWS rainwater shoe
S soak away
_ _ __ pipes carrying rainwater
TopiC only
1 double oblique left-hand junction Figure 5.32 The combined system
1 left-hand bend
Lower IC
.... ':-..0:"..---------:::>'1
1 breeches oblique junction RWS,
,
,,
I
Note To give a complete specification for channel
fittings required for the inspection chambers, they I
I
would have to be drawn to a larger scale, as in figure
5.37, for example.
Figures 5.32-5.34 show one further example of
each of the three drainage systems.

Note It may be decided that the lower rainwater

gully in the part-separate system (figure 5.34) should
discharge into the top-water sewer, in which case the
pipes would cross.
Lli
YG·--m
I
II

I
I
I
I
I
I
VENTILATION OF DRAINS ,
I
I soil sewer
A free circulation of air must be provided through the I top water sewer
pipes forming a domestic drainage system. This is =. "= '":."'=.------------""""=--=-"'=.."'=-~-=.~

accomplished in one of two ways, depending on the Figure 5.33 The separate system (key as for figure
requirements of the local authority. 5.32)
 Drainage 49

Ventilating without an Interceptor Trap (figure 5.35)

This is generally considered to be the best method,

every drain ventilating the main sewer and thus pre-
venting the build-up of sewer gases.

D
Ventilating with an Interceptor Trap (figure 5.36)

With this method, sewer gases are prevented from

entering a private sewer by means of the water seal
, RWG in the interceptor trap. Through ventilation of the
domestic system is achieved by the provision of a
fresh-air inlet at the intercepting chamber, which is
installed just inside the site boundary. Fresh air is
drawn into the fresh air inlet via a one-way flap, passes
through the system, and is released from the top of
the vent pipe, which should be provided at or near
the top of the drainage system.
~
\ combined sewer Disadvantages of this system include
(1) the installation of an intercepting chamber in-
== =b====~~~o~~~~~~ creases the cost of the system
(2) the trap itself is liable to become blocked and
Figure 5.34 The part-separate system (key as for
may require regular cleaning
figure 5.32) (3) if the fresh-air inlet suffers damage or becomes
faulty, ventilation ceases to take place
(4) some other means of preventing the build-up of
gases within the sewer must be provided.

arrows show direction of air

movement in drains

rest bend or
'duck-foot' bend
- saddle

main
sewer
Figure 5.35

boundary
wall
air enters
fresh-air inlet ___

rest
bend (some authorities
prefer two + 450 bends)
- - - interceptor sewer gases
trap
Figure 5.36
 50 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

INSPECTION CHAMBERS (3) The internal size varies with the depth and the
number of branch drains entering: 600 x 450 mm
The purpose of an inspection chamber is to provide is the minimum, increasing as the depth in-
access for inspection and cleansing. Inspection cham- creases.
bers are constructed from the following materials (4) Where bricks are used, English bond (figure
5.37b) is preferred to water bond (figure 5.37c).
(1) class B engineering bricks
Note In water bond, the bed joints are stagger-
(2) precast concrete sections surrounded in concrete
ed by either forming a half-course rebate around
100-150 mm thick
the outside of the concrete foundation, or start-
(3) in-situ concrete
ing the outer half-brick walling with either a
(4) for surface-water drains, good quality bricks,
course of snapped headers or a course of split
rendered externally where deemed necessary
bricks.
(5) glass-reinforced plastic.
(5) Brick chambers are normally built half a brick
thick where the depth to invert is less than 900
The following notes are relevant to the construction
of inspection chambers. mm (figure 5.370), after which one brick thick
is the minimum.
(1 ) The concrete base must be at least 100 mm (6) All pipes in inspection chambers are to be in
thick, the thickness increasing with depth. channels discharging in the direction of the
(2) The base can be of the same length and breadth flow.
as the overall plan area of the chamber, that is, (7) A brick-on-edge arch should be formed in the
no spread is required. brickwork over pipes more than 150 mm in

scale 1:20

#'
//
// W
//
: ...
I ·.,·" •....;
'" .
'
4~'
c .
I
:, ..:
1// ~~.1:'I.r-------+r.
. ....-~
I-
Jo6"It---JL.....;r-L-r-I----lH"'"
l- '.;.. H.r-----~; .:
.: . ....
1# W
V ,&
//
I-
f-
........
l-
I- ~~ "
.. r - - - - - - M , •
• }t:'
...
.
W
:?; : . ~

~
V/
//
~l
#
,-
.~. ~
.
:
.. ......
"4~ "1 -1:~:' ~
IT:; ~,.•.:}{ Jl~1?i<f ~ I--- ~~\? ,l{ JI/.o.-!~:~
i/;, .,. ;:;.i e.s: )'& ~. . ~ .,••

sectional elevation sectional eievation sectional elevation sectional elevation

(cross joints too may be
staggered but cost increases)

. .,
I! , I

- -
,,
l- f--

Ip
I ,
I
sectional plan sectional plan sectional plan sectional plan
(s) % brick thick (b) 1 brick thick in (c) 1 brick thick in (d) concrete sections
in stretcher bond English bond water bond surrounded in concrete

Figure 5.37 Shallow inspection chambers

 Drainage 51

diameter where the chamber is deeper than

1800 mm.
(8) Benching should rise vertically on either side of
the channel to the crown of the outgoing pipe,
be quickly rounded off and slope upwards to-
wards the brickwork at a slope of about 1 in 6.
The mix is to be 1 :1 cement and sand, trowelled
smooth.
(9) The top of the chamber must be reduced as Figure 5.38 Galvanised step iron
necessary to support the cover and frame, which
is usually 600 x 450 mm. This is carried out by
corbelling the brickwork from one or more sides from the lower end, where a sump or temporary
(figure 5.37b) or with a precast reinforced con- drain can be provided to prevent trenches
crete slab (figure 5.37c). It is considered good becoming muddy in wet weather.
practice to install the slab below ground level to (3) Timbering should be carried out as necessary
allow for completing with two courses of bricks, (see Volume 1). Two further methods are shown
so that if, at a later date, the ground level is in figures 5.39 and 5.40.
lowered the slab need not be disturbed. (4) Cast concrete bases for the inspection chambers;
(10) Where the chamber is more than 900 mm deep, fix the channels and one pipe pointing from
step irons (figure 5.38) should be built into the each channel in the correct direction.
walls, the vertical spacing not exceeding 300 mm (5) Attach a taut line and lay the pipes; the barrels
and from centre to centre 300 mm. In deep must rest on the ground or in the concrete bed-
manholes a galvanised wrought-iron ladder can dings and not on their collars.
be used in place of step irons. (6) For rigid-jointed clay pipes, a strand of gaskin is
(11) At least one flexible joint on either side of an wrapped round each spigot to centre the pipe in
inspection chamber will help to avoid fracture the collar of the previous pipe and to prevent
in the case of ground movement. any collaring mortar being forced through into
(12) Inspection chambers are to be able to sustain the barrel of the pipe. A badger can be used to
imposed loads, be impervious to water and of check this (figure 5.41). The joints should be
suitable size to provide access for inspection caulked up with cement and sand in the pro-
and rodding. portion 1:2 and flaunched off at 45° (gaskin/
(13) A removable, non-ventilating cover must be cement joint, figure 5.19). The Building Regula-
provided, with the frame normally bedded in tions recommend the use of flexible joints for
mortar and the cover in grease to prevent the rigid pipes.
escape of obnoxious gases. (7) Every fifth pipe should be boned in (figures
(14) Precast concrete sections are bedded on base 5.42 and 5.58), collars should be protected
sections having cut-outs for pipes, or three or against the elements with sacking to prevent
four courses of brickwork are built to surround premature drying out.
the pipework. The sections must be surrounded (8) Notify the local authority before haunching or
in at least 100 mm of concrete (figure 5.37d), covering a drain (24 hours' notice is required).
depending on the depth. (9) Cover the drain as required; no large stones are
be used in the first 300 mm of backfill and
tamping is to be light up to this point.
SETTING OUT AND LAYING DRAINS (10) Send notice to the local authority not more
than 7 days after the completion of backfilling.
(1) Sight rails are set up behind the inspection
chambers. They must be level and their height
must coincide with any datum levels mentioned TESTING DRAINS
on the plan.
(2) Pegs are inserted to show the trench width, and The Building Regulations direct that any drain or
the trenches are excavated by mechanical digger private sewer shall on completion of the works, in-
where the amount of work justifies their use. cluding backfilling, etc., be capable of withstanding
The last 75 mm of spoil should be got out by a test for watertightness. Testing should be carried
hand immediately before the bedding is placed. out from inspection chamber to inspection chamber,
Short, shallow trenches can be excavated by including any short branches; long branches should be
hand and in each case excavating should start tested separately. The length of drain between the
52 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

Figure 5.39 Middling boards

75 x 75 mm ---.f--+I
puncheons

page

..
'-'
" ,I
" I

"
footprop
Figure 5.40 Tucking boards
 Drainage 53

Figure 5.44 Expanding drain plug

Figure 5.41 A badger

(
Figure 5.45 Inflated air-bag stopper

filled, left to stand for 2 hours and then topped up.

The leakage over 30 minutes should be measured and
should not be more than 0.05 litres for each metre
metal run of 100 mm drain - a drop of 6.4 mm/m; and
angle 0.08 litres for a 150 mm drain - a drop of 4.5 mm/m.
to foot of traveller

Figure 5.42 Detail of foot of traveller Note Where this test is being carried out in water-
logged trenches, colouring powder should be placed
in the testing water, and any leaks will then be
last inspection chamber on site and a saddle on the quickly noticed.
main sewer should be tested via a testing junction
installed close to the main sewer, which is sealed off The Air Test (figures 5.46 and 5.47)
before backfilling takes place.
Where water is not available or its disposal is incon-
The Water Test (figure 5.43) venient, this test is considered to be a good alternative.
The test is carried out by firmly plugging each end
This is the most widely used test and is generally of the pipeline and pumping in air until a pressure of
considered to be the most reliable. Where rigid joints 100 mm is indicated on the manometer. The pressure
have been used it is important that at least 24 hours should not fall from 100 mm to below 75 mm during
should elapse before testing, to allow the mortar to a period of 5 minutes. If the pressure does fall below
gain sufficient strength, but flexibly jointed pipes can this a leak is indicated, and if this cannot be located,
be tested immediately. a smoke bomb can be used.
The test is applied by plugging the lower end of
the pipeline with either an expanding rubber ring plug The Smoke Test
or an air bag stopper (figures 5.44 and 5.45), and fill-
ing the pipeline with water to provide a head of 1.5 m A smoke bomb or smoke-generating machine is used
above the higher end. It is important not to subject to supply smoke at the lower end of the system. The
the lower end to more than a 6 m head to avoid over- top of the vent pipe is plugged and the seals in the
stressing the joints. The section of drain should be gullies are removed until smoke is seen emerging. The

drain plug

1/-
L ----'--'

Figure 5.43
54 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

U-gauge
t t )' l'
* *'
drain
plug
plug

Figure 5.46

and should roll freely down the invert of the pipe. If

hand it stops, a blockage is indicated. This is located by
bellows inserting drain rods into the pipeline until they touch
so- the bali; the rods are then removed and laid alongside
60-
40-
manometer 20- the drain to show the position of the blockage, which
0-
or U-gauge 20- should be corrected as necessary.
4G-
60-
80-

The Reflection Test

Figure 5.47
A lamp and a mirror should be placed in the inverts
water seals are replaced and the seal at the top of the of adjacent inspection chambers, as shown in figure
vent pipe is removed until smoke emerges. The seal is 5.49. Light is reflected along the drain and the con-
reinstated and smoke continues to enter the pipeline. dition of the bore can be examined. This test can
This test is considered to be imprecise and is not only be used where the drain is perfectly straight.
recommended.
While the three tests mentioned will show any
leaks that exist, there may be internal obstructions
within the pipeline that will cause a blockage in the REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS TO DRAINS
course of time (figure 5.48). This can be decided in
two ways. Inserting a New Pipe or Junction in a Straight Run

The Ball Test Occasionally a pipe may be damaged, possibly as a

result of excavations, or a new set of pipes has to be
A smooth, solid rubber ball, 13 mm less in diameter connected into an existing run. There are two usual
than the bore of the pipe, is inserted into the top end methods of carrying out this work.

mortar forced brick or badly aligned

through collar similar pipe

O~-b-/--.L-Z_/~L_/_ _:~6
Figure 5.48

eye

~~~~----------------------~:~.~~ ~ Figure 5.49

 Drainage 55

Method 7

(1) Expose the broken pipe and one more pipe on

t (] CD (] {- (a)

either side of it (figure 5.5(0).

(2) Break out the three pipes, taking great care not
to damage the collar and spigot on either side
(figure 5.50b).
i 0 i (b)

(3) Insert the new pipes as shown in figure 5.5Oc.

They will drop into position and can be lined up

~
and jointed (figure 5.50d). { I~ (e)

Method 2

~
(1) Expose both the pi pe that is to be replaced with [] t (d)

a junction and the pipe above it in the run (figure

5.51a).
(2) Carefully break out the two pipes (figure 5.51b). Figure 5.57
(3) Slide a loose collar on to the spigot remaining (2) Carefully enlarge the hole with the same tools
and place in position the junction and a butt pipe and/or a scutch, cutting at the thickness of the
(figure 5.51e). main rather than on the face.
(4) Slide the loose collar over the joint, line up and (3) When the spigot of the saddle fits snugly, clean
make good all joints (figure 5.51d). any pipe debris out of the main and bed the
saddle in cement mortar.
Connections to Inspection Chambers (4) Putting your hand through the saddle, clear away
any mortar that has squeezed through, connect
(1) Cut away the benching on the appropriate side. the pipework and surround it in concrete.
(2) Cut a suitably sized hole in the side wall.
(3) Bed the required splayed-end channel bend in Note The local authority will normally inspect the
position and connect the new pipe run to this. connection before concreting is carried out and some
(4) Make good to the walls and re·form the benching. authorities require the insertion of a testing junction
close to the sewer connection in order to test the
Connecting to a Main Sewer using a Saddle complete system. After testing, the junction is sealed
off.
(1) Check the depth of flow in the main at a con-
venient inspection chamber and cut a hole in the Cutting Drainpipes
cheek above the flow to avoid surcharging the
branch (figure 5.52). This can be carried out Apart from the use of a special cutting tool, the
with a small hammer and a sharp chisel. following two methods are in common use.

(a)

(b)

Ie)

~r---O~I_[]J---I-O~~(] (d)

Figure 5.50
56 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

hole nection is to be made and to relate this to the ground

level point at which pipelaying is to start. The invert
level is arrived at in one of three ways
(1) the local authority may be able to provide the
information
(2) by calculation
section through
main sewer (3) by excavation vertically downwards to expose
the main
Figure 5.52
If the local authority is unable to provide the informa-
(1) Stand the pipe on end on a reasonably soft tion and excavating is inconvenient, calculation is as
surface and fill with sand up to the required follows.
cutting mark (figure 5.53). Tap round the pipe
on the cutting mark with a small hammer and (1) Remove the inspection chamber covers on either
sharp chisel, or a scutch, until fracture occurs. side of the proposed saddle position and with a
(2) Form a mound of sand and with the barrel of the Cowley or tilting level obtain the difference
pipe resting on it at the cutting mark and with between the invert levels (figure 5.55).
the spigot unsupported, tap as before while (2) Measure the overall distance between these inspec-
rotating the pipe (figure 5.54). tion chambers and the distance from each to the
saddle (figure 5.56).
Note Where channels are required but only straight (3) Calculate the invert level of the drain at the saddle
pipes or bends are available, splitting is possible by as follows. Referring to figures 5.55 and 5.56,
carefully tapping the pipe along each side in turn until since
fracture occurs. total fall = 1 m (2.6 - 1.6)

the main is laid at a fall of 1 in 30 (the distance

between inspection chambers is 30 m). To find
cutting
.." mark
the fall in 18 m
~;~~:.::: _1 = fall
.......
_
. . .,''..
. ~
30 18
. ', . "

·f :.. ..
Cross multiplying
.:.'. r:
<.:: 30 x fall = 1 x 18
dividing both sides by 30
30 x fall = 1 x 18
Figure 5.53 30 30
Cancelling
cutting mark 3
fall = - = 0.6 m
5
Thus the fall from inspection chamber B to the
saddle is 0.6 m.

Note It may be simpler at this stage for the

Figure 5.54 student to remember that

fall = actual
. d
distance = ~ =
0.6m
CALCULATION OF INVERT LEVELS gIven istance 30
Sioce
Before any pipes are laid it is necessary to know the
invert level of the drain or sewer to which the con- staff reading at B = 1.6 m
 Drainage 57

instrument

T:--l~:
staff staff position staff

m ~--~(H[1-.6oo-m-
_J ~
B

A sectional elevation

Figure 5.55

dwelling
I
I
I
I
I
118.000m

I
I
I
12.000m 1B.OOO m
• ~4

--fi- -fi-
I.C.A. I.C.B.
30.000 m
t - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .......I
plan

Figure 5.56

depth of invert at saddle = 1.6 + 0.6 (depth at B Thus the fall is 1 in 36, which is quite satisfactory
+ fall) (0.5 in 18 m equals 1 in 36). Sight rails can now
=2.2 m be set up at each end (figure 5.58), and the ground
is excavated. Boning rods are used to obtain the
And since required slope and the pipes are laid.
ground level staff reading at the saddle= 0.9
depth of invert below ground level = 2.2 - 0.9 Note If, when the depth of the inspection
= 1.3 m chambers is checked in the first place, it is
That is obvious that there will be an adequate fall, the
above procedures may be unnecessary.
x = 1.3 m
Having found this it is necessary to relate it to While the foregoing explanations on invert levels
the invert level at the topmost inspection chamber were necessary, it is probable that all that the craft
of the proposed drain to ascertain that the fall student will be required to do is to calculate the total
will be suitable. Assume that the invert level is fall between inspection chambers, given the overall
0.6 m below ground level (see figure 5.57). An length and required fall.
instrument is set up between these points and
readings are taken of 1.600 and 1.4 as shown.
Since the invert level at X is 0.6 below ground Example 5.4
level
A drain is to be laid a distance of 45 m in level ground
fall from invert level at X to invert Y and the fall is to be at 1 in 60. Calculate the total fall
= 0.5 m (2.7 - 2.2) (figure 5.59).
58 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

-----
dwelling

r.;;= - staff
position

1.600 m

Oj~m_ __ _ _
Lll.:.-
_
instrument
position

main,.
-l-.--
/
1.4oom
staff position

1.3OOm
v _ -C>
... 18.000m ......
r ------+t·1
sectional elevation
Figure 5.57
sight
rail line of traveller
high sight

r-+--
sight boning rod or high
rail

-;--- --f
/ traveller ~
-- -
.
, '\:-::-.. . -~~-,~~-~-::-:~~---.JL_,.._- ..-...-:~~-~-~~_~~L:-:-:-d •
to be excavated correct level to be excavated
1.000m 18.000
'-1 ..
1.000m
section through trench
section at t
Figure 5.58

ground level

. at 1_
in 60 _ - - -

-- ---
line of draIn _ -

45 m
~l
Figure 5.59

actual distance actual distance

Total fall = Total fall =
given distance given distance
45 50
=
60 40
= 0.75 m = 1.25 m

= 750 mm Since
Possibly the invert level may have to be found given invert level at top end = 2.50
the level at one end, the overall distance and the fall. then
invert level at bottom = 2.50 - 1.25
Example 5.5 = 1.25 A.D. (above datum)

The invert level at the top end of a length of drain Use of a Tapered Straightedge
50 m long is 2.50 above datum and the fall has to be
1 in 40. Find the invert level of the bottom inspection Another method of obtaining the correct fall is to use
chamber (figure 5.60). a tapered straightedge in conjunction with a spirit
 Drainage 59

ground level

------li-ne-O-f-d-ra-in-a-t-,-in-4Q---_----J=AoO.

---------- -
I- 50m

Figure 5.60

level. For example, if a fall of 1 in 40 is required, a 4 m 1

=-m
straightedge is ideal. This should be about 150 x 25 in 10
section and it is cut down lengthways as shown in
figure 5.61. That is = 100 m

actual distance
fall = - - - - - Therefore, the straightedge should taper by 100 mm,
given distance
say from 150 to 50 mm, in 4 m, and a spirit level
= ~ (4 m straightedge) should be placed on top centre to check the fall
40 (1 in 40) (figure 5.61).

spirit level
tapered straightedge ( 50 mm
_)+-/ IL...:.'--_=~_= _=;0-1. ----,1
150mmIf
c:::j~.==:0 8===JF-
~--
~== :J==j"?n
all collars touching underside
of straightedge

Figure 5.61
 6
SCAFFOLDING

CONSTRUCTION REGU LATIONS SCHEDULE Regulation 11

FACTORIES ACT 1961

Where men are unable to reach their work from the
CONSTRUCTION (WORKING PLACES) REGULATIONS 1966
ground or part of a building, ladders or a scaffold
SCAFFOLD INSPECTIONS
must be provided. Tubular scaffolding is a temporary
structure, erected to support a platform or number of I'ORM OF RFPORTS OF RESULTS OF INSPECTIONS UNDER REGULATION 22 OF
SCAFFOLDS, INCLUDING BOATSWAIN'S CHAIRS, CAGES, SKIPS AND SIMILAR
platforms, at different heights, and may be of steel or ['LANT OR I':QUIPMENT (AND PlANT OR EQUIPMENT USED FOR THE PURPOSES
THERFOF)
aluminium alloy. Its erection is strictly governed by
the Construction (Working Places) Regulations, which Name or title of Employer or Contractor
came into operation in August 1966 and have not as Address of Site,
yet been metricated; therefore any measurements Work Commenced-Ddle ., .. ,.
given have been converted. Signature (or. in
Location and Result of case where signature
It is the duty of every employer and employee to Description of Inspection. is not leplly required,
Scaffold. etc. and Date of State whether name) of person
comply with the requirements of the Construction other Plant or Inspection in ~ood order who made the
Equipment Inspected inspection
Regulations, which are summarised as follows. (I) (2) (4)

(1) A sufficient quantity of materials is to be pro- Figure 6.7

vided, to be sound and of adequate strength for
its purpose. wall at least 600 mm if work is to be carried out
(2) The erection, alteration and dismantling of a at that point.
scaffold must be carried out under the super-
vision of a competent person.
(3) All materials intended for a scaffold must be TUBES, FITTINGS AND BOARDS
inspected by a competent person, who must also
inspect the completed scaffold at least every 7 Members (Tubes)
days and after exposure to adverse weather con-
ditions. The results of an inspection must be Standards
entered in the prescribed register (figure 6.1).
(4) Any timber to be used must be in good condition, Standards are the upright members of a scaffold and
of suitable quality and not painted in such a way they are usually spaced between 1.8 and 2.5 m apart,
that defects are hidden. depending on the load to be carried and the type of
(5) Scaffolds must not be overloaded and materials work being done. They must be vertical or slightly
are not to be kept on a scaffold unless required inclined towards the building and sufficiently close to
within a reasonable time. ensure stability. A firm base is essential and they can
(6) Partly dismantled scaffolds must comply with be extended where required, using joint pins or sleeve
the Construction Regulations or carry permanent couplers, the height of which should be staggered.
warning notices. The access to incomplete
scaffolds should be effectively blocked as far as Ledgers
possible.
(7) Loose materials such as bricks, drainpipes, chim- Ledgers are long, horizontal members, which are
ney pots, etc. must not be used as supports for fastened to the standards on the inside using load-
platforms, but a firm packing of bricks or blocks bearing couplers. They are normally secured together
may be used if stable up to a height of 600 mm lengthways with sleeve couplers or joint pins, and if
above ground level. the latter are used they must be positioned at one-
(8) A platform must extend beyond the end of a third of the bay owing to their lack of tensile strength.
60
 Scaffolding 61

Putlogs required to carry the boards (figure 6.2). Where a wide

opening occurs the centre transom can be supported
Putlogs are short, flat~nded tubes 1.2 to 1.5 m long, off the window bottom if necessary.
which are inserted into the bed joints of brickwork to
the full extent of the flat supporting surface. They are
usually fastened to the ledgers with putlog couplers
and in each bay one putlog must be within 300 mm
of a standard. The spacing of the putlogs varies
according to the thickness of the planks.
Plank thickness (mm) 32 38 50
Putlog spacing (m) 1 1.5 2.5
transom
Transoms bridle

Transoms are short lengths of tube that take the place

of putlogs in an independent scaffold, both ends being
putlog
ledger
standard--
I
supported by ledgers to which they are secured using
putlog couplers. Figure 6.2 Bridling an opening

Longitudinal Braces Guard Rails (figure 6.3)

Longitudinal braces are lengths of tube fastened at or Guard rails are lengths of tube which must be provided
as near to 45° as possible on the outside of standards where men are liable to fall more than 2 m. They must
to provide stability and eliminate sideways move- be secured on the inside of the standards at a height
ment. They are required every 30 m and must extend of between 0.9 m and 1.125 m and kept permanently
to the full height of the scaffold. It is preferable to in position except for access and loading.
fasten them to putlogs or transoms with double
couplers, or alternatively to standards with swivel
couplers.

Cross Braces

Cross braces are short lengths of tube used to connect

and give added rigidity to alternate pairs of standards
in an independent scaffold. They can be fastened to
ledgers with double couplers or to standards with
swivel couplers.

Puncheon

A puncheon is a vertical, loadbearing member, not

taking its support from the ground. It is used, for
example, where an opening has to be formed through Figure 6.3 Guard rails and toe boards
a scaffold for a lorry entrance/exit. Standards are
placed either side of the opening with puncheons
between. Extra braces, known as spurs, are needed to Raking Tube or Raker
strengthen the structure. Figure 6.4 shows a line
diagram to explain the use of spuncheons/spurs. This is a length of tube which can be used to prop up
a scaffold initially before the insertion of reveal or
Bridle Tube through ties. Where a wall contains no openings for
ties, rakers provide an alternative method of prevent-
A bridle tube is a horizontal tube secured just clear of ing a scaffold from pulling away from the wall. They
the wall face in a putlog scaffold. It is secured across should be fixed at 45° or as near as possible using
openings below the putlogs on either side with double double or swivel couplers and be provided with a
couplers and is used to support extra transoms as sound foot block at the base (figure 6.25).
62 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

spurs
J
X v;:. ~
puncheon
V- standard - -
opening ground level
.-

Figure 6.4

max. 750 mm

double
couplers couplers

gin wheel
Figure 6.6 Drop-forged double coupler
rope
Universal Coupler (figure 6.7)

This is another 90° coupler, which can also be used

for connecting two loadbearing tubes in parallel.

Figure 6.5 Drop-forged double coupler

Butting Pieces

These are very short lengths of tube used, for example,

to reinforce across a joint pin. A butting piece should
be securely fastened on either side with parallel or
universal couplers.

Scaffold Fittings

Many types of fitting are produced by different firms;

those shown in figures 6.6-6.21 are S.G.B. scaffold
fittings.

Double Couplers (figure 6.6)

These are used for fastening ledgers to standards and

in all positions where strength is required, for example,
bridle tubes to putlogs. Figure 6. 7 Universal coupler
 Scaffolding 63

Putlog Couplers (figures 6.8 and 6.9)

Used for connecting putlogs or transoms to ledgers.

Figure 6.8 Drop-forged putlog coupler

Figure 6.10 Swivel coupler

Putlog End (figure 6.11)

This is a simple fitting which will convert a transom

into a putlog. When a putlog scaffold is being erected
against an existing brick building it is easier to cut the

Figure 6.9 Putlog or brace coupler

Swivel Coupler (figure 6.10)

This is a one-piece coupler used for connecting two

scaffold tubes at any angle through 3600 , for example,
longitudinal or cross braces to standards. Figure 6.11 Putlog end
64 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

putlog holes where required, insert the putlog ends Base Plate (figure 6.14)
secured with hardwood wedges and fit transoms to
the putlog ends as the scaffold is erected. This is a 150 x 150 mm steel plate which is used to
provide a flat, bearing surface for load distribution
Sleeve Coupler (figure 6.12) from standards. It has a central spigot 50 mm high,

This is an external fitting used to join standards,

ledgers, longitudinal braces and guard rails end to end.

joint Pin (figure 6.13)

The uses of a joint pin are as for a sleeve coupler, but

it is not used for braces. It fits internally into the end
of a scaffold tube and expands against the wall of the
tube as the bolt is turned. They are not as strong as
sleeves and must be used at one-third the bay width,
never at mid-bay. If a joint pin should occur at mid-
bay it must be reinforced with a butting piece, secured
on either side with a universal coupler.

Figure 6.14 Base plate

Figure 6.12 Sleeve coupler

Figure 6.13 joint pin Figure 6.15 Adjustable base plate

 Scaffolding 65

on which the foot of the standard is located, and two

fixing holes for use with sole plates.

Adjustable Base Plate (figure 6.15)

This is for use in undulating ground, particularly

where settlement may take place. It has 230 mm of
adjustment.

Reveal Pin (figure 6.16)

This fitting is inserted into the end of a short tube and

is expanded as necessary to form a rigid horizontal or
vertical tie in a window opening to which the scaffold-
ing can be secured.

Figure 6.17 Fixed final

Figure 6.16 Reveal pin

Fixed Finial (figure 6.17)

This is used to connect a scaffold tube at right-angles

to the extreme end of another tube without projec-
tion. It is very useful for guard rails, safety barriers,
etc.
Figure 6.18 Toeboard clip
Toeboard Clip (figure 6.18) Castor Wheels (figure 6.20)

This is used to secure a toeboard against a standard. Tiulse are used for mobile scaffold towers and have
foolproof wheel brakes, which cannot be accidentally
released.
Gin Wheel (figure 6.19)
Spanners and Podgers (figure 6.21)
The figure shows a 250 mm steel wheel, with which a
19 mm-diameter rope is used. Its safe working load is These are used for tightening and releasing the nuts
250 kg. on couplers.
66 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

Figure 6.19 Gin wheel

Boards

Sole Plate (figure 6.22) Figure 6.20 Castor wheels

Where the bearing capacity of the ground surface is
suspect sole plates should be placed beneath the base
plates to further spread the load. A sole plate should men, materials, tools, etc. from accidentally falling
support at least two standards. from the scaffold. They are placed directly below the
guard rails, and fixed to the standards with toe-board
Scaffold Boards clips. Their minimum height is 150 mm and the maxi-
mum distance between the top of the toe board and
Scaffold boards must be at least 150 mm wide when the underside of the guard rail is 750 mm. As with
50 mm thick; 32 and 38 mm boards must be at least guard rails they must not be removed except for access
200 mm wide. They must rest evenly and securely on and loading.
their supports and each board should have at least
three supports unless the span and thickness is suf- TYPES OF SCAFFOLD
ficient to prevent sagging and make this requirement
unnecessary. No board must project over its end The two main types of scaffold are putlog and
support more than four times its thickness unless independent scaffolding.
otherwise secured against tipping.
Putlog Scaffold (figures 6.22 and 6.23)
Toe Boards (figure 6.3)
The putlog scaffold is mostly used where brick struc-
Toe boards must be in position where men are liable tures are being erected and is sometimes known as a
to fall more than 2 m. Their purpose is to prevent bricklayer's scaffold. The scaffold depends for its
 Scaffolding 67

Figure 6.21 Scaffold spanners and podgers

Guardrail --';::::::::::::__.1

Toe board

Putlogs

Tube bearings on ----++-1---.....11

inside face of l====~===1II7~~"
wall for

tYingin~~~~~~~~~~~
Horizontal
Ledger

Longitudinal
brace

Base
plates

Figure 6.22 Putlog scaffold

68 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

~
-l:Jr-
th rougt
~ ti e
/'
-
1.5 m;
j -
~

~ I~~.i""~Mi"lb= lo=ng=it=U=di=na=I~ ~=:=/=~==~~::::j

ledger
/ ~

I
V

:J
1.5m
I
~
putlogs brace \ putlog

i "m""(' r,;Y~ ::~~I '00,1"

t-o-- reveal
t ie

double
coupler 1
----,~:i~==~QIl=1 ==!=:::::j ~==::;l~ ~

double
coupler
V
base 2.0m
plate
I
sole
V
plate

c ~ - I~'-
1.8-2.5 m 1.0 m,l
front elevation section

Figure 6.23 Putlog scaffold

support on the wall on the inside and the putlogs rest materials are stacked on the platform as close to the
on ledgers which are supported by a single row of standard as possible the stress in the ledgers will be
standards on the outside. reduced to a minimum.
To erect a putlog scaffold a standard should be set Fix intermediate putlogs as required with due
up at each end or corner first and intermediate ones regard to the thickness of the planks, and plumb and
lined up from these. The space from the wall should level the scaffolding as it is erected, tightening fittings
allow for the required number of boards and a space at as work proceeds. When the length of the standards
the wall face for a plumb level and for mortar drop- exceeds 6.5 m joint pins or sleeve couplers are used to
pings. The ledgers should be fixed to the standards connect the tubes together. As already mentioned, it is
with double couplers at approximately the height of important not to have all the joints occurring at the
the first lift, which is usually 2 m to allow for walking same height, but to stagger them by using tubes of
below. Subsequent lifts should be no more than 1.5 m different lengths. With a putlog scaffold only one lift
in height. It must be remembered that coupling ledgers must be in use at a time.
end to end with joint pins will provide little strength
in tension and that sleeve couplers are, therefore, to Independent Scaffold (figures 6.24 and 6.25)
be preferred for this purpose. As close to the standard
as possible rest the flat end of a putlog on top of the The independent scaffold is normally used on existing
first lift of brickwork, or wedge it into a raked-out buildings or on structures where putlogs would be in-
bed joint, fixing the other end of the putlog to the convenient. It is so called because it is self-supporting
ledger with a putlog coupler. If bricks or other and carries all the superimposed loads without assist-
 Scaffolding 69

toe board joint pin

guard rail----+I-----t+--+I----I~_£:_.....M
l
transoms~~~
tube wedged in
window opening
for tying in
(alternative method -+~r----tl~"I
to that shown in
figure 6.21)

ledgers -,--~-t+-~~~ ..
transverse ~,'
or cross
brace

10ngitudinall----tt-~o:___++__t_-..../
brace

sole
plates--------''''''tI~~~ sleeve
base
plates coupler

Figure 6.24 Independent tied scaffold

ance from the structure. It consists basically of two (5) Longitudinal and cross braces can now be fixed
rows of standards, two rows of ledgers, transoms, and the base frame removed.
longitudinal braces and cross braces.
When erecting this scaffold for bricklayers, set the Note Both types of scaffold must be securely tied to
inner row of standards about 330 mm from the wall the building at least every 4 m vertically and 6 m hori-
so that the inside scaffold board can be placed on the zontally. This is usually carried out in one of two ways
transoms, projecting beyond the inner standards. Lifts
(1) with transoms passing through window or other
are usually approximately 2 m. It is possible for one
openings, connected to tubes fastened with
man to set up a simple independent scaffold using the
double couplers at right-angles to these inside the
'mattress' method of erection as follows.
structure and close up against the wall (figure
6.22); or
(1) Construct a temporary base frame, the length and
(2) with short lengths of tube wedged in window
width of the required scaffold, and pack up level
openings with reveal pins; not more than 50 per
on bricks, blocks, etc. about 600 mm above the
cent of the ties may be of this type (figure 6.24).
ground.
(2) Fix the four end standards to this frame with Where openings are non-existent and the height of the
double couplers. scaffold is limited, the scaffold should be strutted
(3) Fasten ledgers to these standards and transoms from the ground with raking tubes inclined towards
to the ledgers where required, plumbing and level- the building (figure 6.25).
ling as work proceeds. A reliable method of securing a scaffold to a build-
(4) Intermediate standards are now positioned, taking ing where there are no openings for through ties or
any sag out of the ledgers as necessary. reveal ties is to use a ringbolt. The Hilti ringbolt, for
70 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

example, has a shank length of 127 mm, a 16 mm

thread and an internal ring diameter of 54 mm (see
figure 6.26).
These are not suitable for fixing to the outer leaf
of a cavity wall as this would result in the load from
the scaffold being transferred to the wall ties, which Figure 6.26
are incapable of carrying such loads. The ringbolts
should be attached to the structural frame of the
building such as an edge beam or vertical column. A
hole must be bored to the required depth, depending
on the situation, and after cleaning out an anchor is
inserted into which the ringbolt can be screwed hand-
tight only (figure 6.27).
By providing ringbolts at the required spacings
(refer to BS 5973) a length of scaffold tube is passed
through, horizontally or vertically and the scaffolding
can be securely fixed to these (see figure 6.28). When
the scaffolding is taken down on completion of the
works the ringbolts are unscrewed, the anchors left in
place and the holes can be pointed up with matching
mortar or plugged with the filler caps provided.

Figure 6.27
standardS~

[
tranSllerse
or cross
brace

through
tie

longitudinal -
Figure 6.28
brace

Widths of Working Platforms

raking
tube
(alternative to Where an operative is liable to fall more than 2 m, the
through tie if
opening is not Construction (Working Places) Regulations lay down
available) minimum platform widths of not less than

(1) 625 mm (loosely described as three boards wide)

where the platform is used as a footing only, that
is, not for depositing materials
(2) 850 mm (loosely described as four boards wide)
where used for working from, and for depositing
11.1 m 0.33 m
materials
Figure 6.25 End elevation ofindependent scaffold (3) 1 m where used to support a higher platform
 Scaffolding 77

(4) 1.3 m where used for dressing stone

(5) 1.5 m where used to support a higher platform,
and for dressing stone.

Responsibility for Scaffolds

Where a scaffold is erected by one employer and used

by, or on behalf of, another employer, it is the res-
ponsibility of the first mentioned to ascertain that the
scaffold and the materials from which it is construct-
ed are sound and stable and that the Construction
Regulations are kept to throughout.

Treatment and Storage of Equipment

Tubes should be stacked in racks in lengths, clear of

the ground, and protected against the weather. Fit-
tings should be cleaned and lightly oiled and stored in
separate bins. When a scaffold is being dismantled,
tubes should be carefully lowered to the ground since
bent tubes may not be re-used and fittings require at
least as much care to prevent loss or damage.

Trestle Scaffolds

Many types of adjustable steel trestle are available.

Those shown in figure 6.29 are by S.G.B. Ltd and
are designed in three widths to take three, four or tive
boards. The advantages of using trestle scaffolds Figure 6.29 S.G.B. adjustable steel trestles
include the following.

(1) They are light in weight, but strong.

(2) They are easily and quickly set up by one man.
(3) The widely splayed feet give stability, the legs
being immovable when in use because of the
fixed locating lugs.
(4) Adjustment of height is simple and positive and
each of the four sizes available will extend to at
least three-quarters of the initial height.
(5) The rests for the boards are flat and the pins are
securely attached to the frames and cannot be
lost or misplaced.
(6) Storage is facilitated by turning the splayed feet
through 90°.
(7) They are very useful for single internal lifts in
housing.

The Construction Regulations appertaining to trestle Figure 6.30

scaffolds lay down a maximum height of 4.5 m, which
is generally considered to be three lifts; the trestles Tower Scaffolds
should be adequately braced to prevent sideways
movement. Figure 6.30 shows a trestle scaffold with a An independent tower scaffold, apart from the
raised platform for depositing materials, which elimin- necessary ties, stands completely free from buildings
ates a lot of the bending normally associated with and is mostly used for overhead maintenance work
bricklaying. where only a small working area is required.
72 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

It consists basically of standards, ledgers, transoms, necessary for rigidity. Figure 6.31 shows the first
diagonal bracing and plan bracing. Some ofthe require- lift of a tubular tower scaffold.
ments for independent tower scaffolds are as follows. (6) Where the height of the tower is more than three-
and-a-half times the shortest side it must be
(1) Standards should be on base plates with sole adequately tied.
plates where required, and should be no more
than 2.5 m apart. Mobile Towers (figure 6.32)
(2) Ledgers must be fixed to standards with double
couplers, the normal height of each lift being Relevant details are similar to those for independent
2 m, which provides headroom for working on tower scaffolds, except for the base plates, which are
intermediate platforms where required. replaced by lockable castors. Other requirements are
(4) Transoms should be fixed to standards where as follows.
possible with double couplers, intermediate tran-
soms being fixed to ledgers with putlog couplers. (1) The maximum height of internal towers is three-
(5) Diagonal bracing should be fixed on all sides with and-a-half times the shortest base dimension,
plan bracing at the base and other levels where while that for external towers is three times these
dimensions.
(2) When the scaffold has to be moved, force should
Figure 6.37 First lift of an independent tower scaffold
 Scaffolding 73

be applied near the base; do not pull or push it LADDERS

along while standing on a platform.
(3) Use only on ground that is firm and level. Timber pole ladders, and timber or aluminium extend-
(4) Brakes must be locked on when in use and the ing ladders are available for use as access to scaffolds,
tower should be tied to the structure whenever the former because of its strength being more com-
possible. mon on building sites. The following is a brief
(5) Only one working lift should be in use at a time. summary of the Construction (Working Places)
Regulations appertaining to the use of ladders.
(1) Ladders are to be sound, of adequate strength,
properly maintained and to have neither missing
nor defective rungs.
(2) Rungs are to be properly fixed to the stiles and
must not rely on nails.
(3) Where possible ladders must be fixed at their
upper end to the scaffold and must extend at
least 1 m above the platform unless some other
handhold is provided.
(4) where top fixing is impracticable ladders should
be fixed near the bottom and must not be allowed
to sway or sag unduly.
(5) Both stiles must be equally and firmly supported
and must not be stood on loose bricks or other
loose packings.
(6) Landings must be provided every 9 m in height.
(7) Ladders must not be painted to hide defects.
Ladders should be inclined at an angle of or near 75°,
commonly referred to as four up, one out (figure
6.34). While a suitable procedure is to rear the ladder
against the scaffold it is better to prevent the over-
hang at the top from encroaching on the scaffold by
Figure 6.32 Lightweight access tower scaffold rearing the ladder against an extended putlog or tran-
som, which must be secured to the ledger with a
double coupler (figure 6.34b).

Framed or System Scaffolds (figures 6.32 and 6.33)

LIFTING EQUIPMENT
These usually consist of metal H-frames constructed
from patent welded units, which can be quickly inter- The Wedge
linked to form independent or tower scaffolds. Each
frame consists of two vertical members and one or This is a simple inclined plane, usually of timber,
two cross members. They are erected by joining two which is moved forward by a series of hammer blows
frames together with cross braces or ties and the while the body (the object to be raised) remains - as
height is increased by locating the next pair of frames it were - in a fixed position. Figure 6.35 shows the
over the spigots on the lower frames. See figure 6.33, forces involved, and a comparison of figures 6.35 and
which shows S.G.B. Sureframe scaffold, which, al- 6.36 makes it obvious that, although the amount of
though a product of the 1960s, is still very popular, lift is less, the narrower the wedge, the less effort is
especially for support work. More recent develop- required. Wedges are often used in pairs (figure 6.37)
ments in system scaffolding include, for example, and a series of blows to each wedge will raise the
Kwikstage and Cuplock, which are representative of object without tilting occurring.
the late 1970s.
With the Sureframe scaffold (figure 6.33) no The Screw Jack
couplers or fittings are necessary for the ledger and
transom assembly, which carries the ends of abutting This too is an inclined plane in spiral form, in which
boards. The function of the ledgers is to span between the lever is rotated about its vertical axis in order to
frames to receive and support the transom unit. raise the load, which is placed on the swivel head. The
74 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

•
E

'"0 co

,...E
~
I
1.22m
-I
end frame
.
1.22 m
I- ~I
end frame
1.22m
-I
open end frame

base plate basic assembly

ledger

~-----=C)=----~ transom unit

Figure 6.33 S. G. B. Sure frame

distance between the top of one thread and the top has to be rotated through a large distance to raise the
of the adjacent thread is known as the pitch of the load fractionally. For example, if the pitch of the
screw. The length of the lever may be as long as screw is 5 mm and the length of the lever is 900 mm,
900 mm in some cases and it should be clear from the end of the lever moves through a distance of more
figure 6.38 that one complete revolution of the lever than 5Y2 m to raise the load 5 mm; and with an Acrow
will raise the swivel head a distance equal to the pitch. prop, although the lever is only 216 mm long, it turns
With the screw jack little strength is required to through a distance of nearly 1.6 m to raise the load
lift heavy loads. An Acrow prop, for example, works 6 mm (dimensions converted).
on this principle, and although the lever is only about
225 mm long the lifting and supporting capacity is Simple Pulleys
well known in the construction industry.
As is the usual case with lifting equipment, how- With a pulley it is possible for a man to raise an object
ever, we are not getting something for nothing since several times his own mass, on to a scaffold with the
the effort is applied at the end of the lever, and this minimum of effort. The act of bending down and lift-
 Scaffolding 75

alternative
handhold
1 m above
platform

4 units

(a)

Figure 6.34 Isometric drawing of a putlog scaffold showing two methods of using ladders

ing a heavy object is difficult and may be dangerous, least five times round the hook and arranged so that
and it is much better to raise the object by heaving the hook hangs 75 or 100 mm below the tube.
downwards on a rope. The simplest form of pulley is With an independent scaffold the support tube
the gin wheel, which consists of a single wheel over must be connected to both standards (figure 6.5), and
which the rope is passed (figure 6.390). The hook with a putlog scaffold, the support tube should be
must be firmly secured to an extended putlog or connected to a standard and braced back to the level
transom with a figure-of-eight wire lashing turned at of mature brickwork. Support tubes to gin wheels
76 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies
swivel head

~ows

\
reaction

Figure 6.35 Use of narrow wedge

Figure 6.38 The screw

and the rope being used. Assume that 60kg is suf·

ficient (600 N). The mechanical advantage (MA) of
a pulley is found by dividing the mass to be raised by
the effort required to raise it, and calculations should
be carried out in newtons. Since the effort required is
a force this will be given in newtons and if the mass
is given in kilograms this must be multiplied by 10
(9.81 actually) to change it to newtons.
blows
Example 6.1
\reaction If a mass of 50 kg can be raised by an effort of
600 N, what is the mechanical advantage?
Figure 6.36 Use ofsteep wedge
MA = mass x 10 (to change kg to N)
effort (already in N)
50 x 10
600

= 500
600
= 0.833
Figure 6.37 Use of folding wedges On the other hand the mass may be given as a load in
newtons in which case multiplication by lOis un·
should be placed as near to a positive tie as possible. necessary.
This load is then attached to one end of the rope and
the effort is applied at the other. Example 6.2
With a gin wheel a man cannot raise an object as
heavy as himself and therefore the main reason for If a load of 800 N is raised by a force of 900 N,
using this lifting appliance is that it is easier and safer calculate the mechanical advantage
to raise a heavy object by pulling downwards on a
rope than it is to pull or carry it up on to a scaffold, MA = force
provided that there is someone at the top to unload. effort
As already explained, to raise a mass of 50 kg, _ 800
which creates a force of 500 N (50 x 10), the operative
900
must be heavier than this; how much heavier depends
to a large extent on the condition of the gin wheel = 0.88
 Scaffolding 77

effort

load

load load
load load

(al gin wheel (b I use of two wheels (e) 2: 1 pulley (d) 2:2 pulley (el 3:2 pulley

Figure 6.39 Pulleys (the wheels are shown with different diameters so as not to obscure the ropes)

The velocity ratio (V R) of a pulley is defined as the (50 kg x 10) would be required. The VR would be 2
downward distance moved by the rope due to the ef- since pulling 300 mm downwards would only raise
fort, compared with the upward movement of the the load 150 mm (also, two wheels are being used). In
load. It will be obvious that with a gin wheel the figure 6.39c there are three ropes supporting the load
amounts of upward and downward movement are and, therefore, if the load to be raised had a mass of
equal and, therefore, the VR of a gin wheel is unity. 150 kg the force in each rope would be 500 N (50 kg
x 10) and thus an effort of 500 N would balance a
Note The VR of a simple pulley can also be found load of 150 kg, which creates a force of 1500 N
by counting the number of wheels used in the system. (150 kg x 10). To raise the mass a little extra effort
The efficiency of a pulley is calculated by dividing will be required.
the mechanical advantage by the velocity ratio and
multiplying the result by 100. In the case of example
6.1 Example 6.3
efficiency = MA x 100% Assume that the mass to be raised is 180 kg and the
VR
force required to raise this is 800 N (80 kg x 10).
= 0.833 x 100 Calculate MA, VR and efficiency.
1 mass x 10
MA = .:.-:.:...:..::..-:...---
= 83.3% effort
180 xlO
Using More Wheels =
800
When a hanging pulley attached to a load is supported = 1800
by two ropes (figure 6.39b) the force in each rope is
800
equal to half the force exerted by the mass. There-
fore, to balance a mass of 100 kg an effort of 500 N = 2.25
78 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

(This means that a man can raise 21,4 times his own
mass when using this pulley.)
VR = 3 (number of wheels in system)
MA
efficiency = - x 100%
VR

= 2.25 x 100%
3
= 225
3
= 75%
Consider figures 6.39d and e. While these are a little
more complicated, still larger mechanical advantages
can be gained with their use. In figure 6.3ge, for
example, a load having a mass of 250 kg can be
balanced by a force of 500 N (50 kg x 10). This
particular pulley has a velocity ratio of 5 (number of
wheels used in the system).

The Scaffold Crane

This is loosely described as a powered gin wheel and

it will raise a mass of up to 250 kg on to a scaffold
platform. The crane is situated on and operated from
the platform and the fixed slewing jib which is extend- Figure 6.40
ed outwards must be adequately braced back to a
standard before lifting starts. The load can only be
moved laterally in a circle of fixed radius.

Elevators (figure 6.40)

Manual and hydraulic elevators are available that are

either towable as a two-wheel trailer behind a car or
lorry or can be mounted on a lorry chassis. They are
very useful for building contractors, scaffolders,
glaziers, slaters and tilers, etc. since suitably sized
platforms are available for attaching to the elevator
to carry anything from bricks to 6 m scaffold tubes.
Figure 6.41 shows the top of an elevator transporting
bricks.
The heights and angles to which elevators can be
used vary greatly: those produced by Walter Somers,
for example, vary in height from 8 to 30 m and in
certain circumstances extensions to 40 m are possible.
They can be erected by one man, and are ready for
work to start in 10 minutes; with a man to load at the
bottom and another to unload at the top, materials
are very quickly transferred. Where materials are
intended to be tipped at roof or other level this
facility can be incorporated into the elevator (figure
6.42). Figure 6.47
 Scaffolding 79

Mobile Hoists

With this type of hoist the mast can be quickly lower-

ed by two or three men and moved on two pneumatic
tyres. It was developed mainly for housing and models
range from those that can lift 250 kg to a height of
4 m, to the largest, which can raise 1 tonne to a height
of 5 m. The mast is extendable in some cases, but over
6 to 8 m - according to the model - the mast must
be tied to the building, in which case it can no longer
be classified as mobile. Mobile hoists are very useful
for serving two or three houses in close proximity
since in this type of work the rate at which materials
are used is usually relatively slow.

Fixed Hoists

As the name implies, this type of hoist remains in a

Figure 6.42 Combined tipping and rubbish bucket fixed position throughout a contract and sizes vary
for tipping below and above from Y2 to 3 tonnes capacity, which can be raised to
heights of about 150 m. The platforms of these hoists
Hoists can be side-slung as in the previous case, or centre-
slung, in which case a tubular scaffold tower is erected
to enclose it. To stabilise a fixed hoist it must be tied
A hoist consists of a horizontal platform which moves
at regular intervals to the building.
up and down vertical guides by a powered winch.
The guides are normally tied back to the structure or
scaffolding to provide stability.
The Lever
The Construction (Lifting Operations) Regulations
1961, part V cover the requirements for hoists and
While on the subject of lifting appliances, it is perhaps
these are summarised as follows.
appropriate to consider the use of levers at this point.
(1) The hoistway must be protected by a substantial These are extremely useful in certain situations - for
enclosure at all points where access is provided or example, where a heavy object has to be raised from
where persons may be struck by moving parts. the ground to place rollers underneath in order to
(2) Safety gates must be provided at each landing for move it to another place. There are in fact three
loading and unloading. different methods of using a lever, and these are
(3) An automatic brake is to be provided to support known as the three orders of levers.
the platform in the event of failure of ropes or
any other part. The first order of levers Consider figure 6.43. Here
(4) A safety device must be installed to ensure that the fulcrum is placed between the object to be raised
the hoist cannot overrun its highest point. and the downward force required to raise it. This is
(6) The safe working load is to be clearly marked the most common way of using a lever. It will be
and this must not be exceeded except for testing. obvious from figure 6.43 that the closer the object is
A hoist to carry persons is to state the maximum
number to be carried.
(6) A notice is to be placed on the platform stating
that persons are not to be carried unless the hoist force

is so designed (part VI 48).

(7) The hoist is to be operated from one position
(not from within unless part VI 48 is complied
with) and if the operator cannot clearly see the
platform arrangements for suitable operating heavy object
signals must be made.
(8) No person under the age of 18 to operate a hoist, ~71~--timberfulcrum
or give signals to an operator unless under direct
supervision for the purpose of training. Figure 6.43
 80 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

to the fulcrum and the longer the lever, the less effort mined by multiplying the size of the force by its
will be required to raise the object. The object is distance from the point.
raised because the clockwise moment about the ful- Forces are given in newtons (N) or kilo newtons
crum is greater than the anticlockwise moment. (kN) and distances in millimetres or metres.
Figure 6.44 shows the apparatus necessary for a Figures 6.45 and 6.46 show two identical canti-
simple experiment to study the first order of levers. levered timber beams, each supporting identical
forces of 2 kN. It is obvious that if either beam were
to fail under load, it would be the one in figure 6.46,
since the force is acting at a greater distance from the
fulcrum beam support. The moment produced in figure 6.45 is
force x distance = 2 kN x 1 m
weight
=2 kN m
The moment produced in figure 1.42 is
force x distance = 2 kN x 5 m
t:::=::::::J~--stand
= 10 kN m
Figure 6.44 Figure 6.47 shows a heavy plank supported by a
trestle. A bag of cement is placed at the position
shown. Would the plank remain in its position or
Experiment would the force produced by the bag of cement force
the right-hand side down?
Requirements for the experiment are a timber beam, This would be difficult to ascertain from the figure
measuring 38 x 25 mm, 1 m in length, with holes every shown, but if the cement were moved to the extremity
100 mm; one winged nut and bolt, a stand and various of the plank, that is, on the right-hand side, it would
weights. almost cert.ainly over-balance. The weight of the
cement has not changed but a change has occurred in
Method Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 1.40, its distance from the fulcrum. The moments produced
fixing the fulcrum in a hole between positions 3 and by the bag of cement before and after moving are
8 inclusive. Place a small weight on the short length
of the beam to balance the self weight of the beam.
position 1
Start by hanging a 2 kg weight (creating a force of
20 N, assuming gravity is 10 m/s 2 ) at a distance of moment = force x distance
600 mm to the right of the fulcrum, and a 4 kg weight
= 500 N x 1 m
(force 40 N), 300 mm to the left of the fulcrum. The
beam will be seen to balance. This is because the = 500 N m
clockwise moment (CM) is equal to the anticlockwise
moment (ACM). That is position 2
moment = force x distance
20 N x 600 mm = 1200 N mm (CM)
and 40 N x 300 mm = 1200 N mm (ACM) = 500 N x 2 m
= 1000 N m
Now place a 3 kg weight (30 N) at 500 mm from to
the right of the fulcrum. What force is needed at (assumingg = 10 m/s 2 )
300 mm to the left for the beam '0 be in equilibrium?
Figure 6.48 represents a beam resting on a fulcrum
30 N x 500 mm = 1500 N mm (CM)
and carrying different forces at different positions
and x N x 300 mm = 1500 N mm (ACM) from the fulcrum. Ignoring the self weight of the
beam, will this arrangement produce a balance or will
The force required is 50 N (5 kg). one end be lowered to the ground?
A table can now be drawn up as shown in table 6.1 This can be determined by experiment or calcula-
and different forces applied at varying positions on tion. The .;alculation method would require the
the beam. calculation of moments produced on each side of the
Thus it can be stated that a moment is the turning fulcrum. Figures 6.49 and 6.50 show diagrams of the
effect of a force about a point and its value is deter- anti clockwise and clockwise moments respectively
 Scaffolding 81

Table 6.1

Left-hand side, ACM Right-hand side, CM

Mass (kg) Force (N) Distance Moment Mass (kg) Force (N) Distance Moment
(mass xg) from (N/mm) (mass xg) from (N/mm)
fulcrum fulcrum
(mm) (mm)
2 20 600 12000 4 40 300 12000
3 30 500 15000 5 50 300 15000

500N 400N
! !
I :a
..1
o
I 2m 3m
't .:
ACM CM
Figure 6.49 Figure 6.50

Anticlockwise moment = force x distance

Figure 6.45 = 500 x 2
=1000Nm
Clockwise moment = force x distance
2 kN
5m = 400 x 3
= 1200 N m
This result would indicate that the right·hand end of
the beam would be lowered and resting on the ground.

First Order of Levers

Figure 6.46 Example 6.4

bag of cement
Calculate the effort required to raise the load shown
in figure 6.51.
effort

Figure 6.47

500N 400N

J l Figure 6.51
0

,I
A :
I,
2m ,I .. 3m ..
I

Clockwise moments (CM) = anti clockwise moments

Figure 6.48 (ACM)
82 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

Therefore force

l------~~rl~
effort x 4.7 = 4 x 0.3
= 1.2
effort
Therefore
Figure 6.53
& 1.2 (divide both sides by the
ef lort= -
4.7 coefficient of 'effort')
force
= 0.26 kN
Thus an effort of 0.26 kN (260 N) will balance the
load and any addition to this will cause the load to
rise.
f~~~-J~
effort ~fUlcrum
Example 6.5 Figure 6.54

Calculate the effort required to raise the load shown Example 6.6
in figure 6.52
CM = ACM Calculate the effort required to raise the load shown
in figure 6.55.
Therefore
1.5 kN
effort x 1.4= 7 x 0.6
Therefore 1-' _o.800_m_"Q
effort x 1.4 = 4.2
effort
Therefore
Figure 6.55
& 4.2
ef lort = -
1.4 Note Moments are always calculated from the
= 3 kN fulcrum.
Therefore any effort over 3 kN will cause the load to Clockwise moments = anti clockwise moments
rise. Therefore
effort effort x 1.2 = 1.5 x 0.4
load
7 kN -------ri = 0.6

l----~
Therefore
, 1
!
:
0.6
; 0.600
...
m;,'--oIl 1.400 m .: e ffort = -
1.2

Figure 6.52 = 0.5 kN

Any effort greater than 0.5 kN will raise the load.
Second Order of Levers

A method of raising a heavy object that is already

clear of the ground is to place a plank or crowbar Third Order of Levers
under the object with one end resting on a firm surface
and lift it upwards to form contact with the object. Figure 6.56 shows the arrangement for the third
An upward force is then applied at the other end of order of levers. In this example the effort required to
the lever (figure 6.53). raise the load is always greater than the load itself.
The wheelbarrow is an excellent example of the Figure 6.57 shows this to be a very convenient
use of the second order of levers (figure 6.54). arrangement.
 Scaffolding 83

load Clockwise moments = anti clockwise moments

J Therefore 50 x 1000 = effort x 800

L:i
fulcrum f Therefore
effort
50000 = effort x 800
Figure 6.56
Therefore

load effort = 50000

800

~ ~
(
.,;;;'~.~
= 62.5 N
=========:SS --::.c.:-. It will be noted that the effort is in excess of the load.
fulcrum effort 50N

6~--1-+
Figure 6.57

Example 6.7 eff~1 O.800m

1-4-------+·1~
Calculate the effort to balance the load shown in
figure 6.58. Figure 6.58
 7
MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND
FIXING EQUIPMENT

The construction industry provides its craftsmen with resisting movement better than the single unit or one-
a greater variety of work than any other industry. In piece fireback, and obviously the four-section fireback
the construction of new buildings, which is classified is more capable than one comprising two sections.
as new work, employment is provided for approxi- When the craftsman is required to renew an exist-
mately 25-35 per cent of the labour force. In main- ing defective fireback, it is important to inspect and
tenance, repair and alteration, work is constantly determine the area of damage and the cause of the
provided for the majority of building trade workers. trouble.
In the work of maintenance and repair we find that Figure 7.1a shows areas of disintegration in the
situations, buildings and materials are never identical, fireback, with spalling, laminating and sometimes frac-
and techniques that are suitable for a particular tures originating from the worn areas. Where only
situation may not be universally applicable because so slight cracking and a minimum amount of spalling is
many other factors have to be considered. The brick- found, repair can be effected by pointing with patent
layer craftsman should, therefore, be equipped with fire-cement, otherwise complete reinstatement is
the skills that will enable him to cope with the many required.
different problems and varying situations in which he Figure 7.1b shows a very large crack occurring at
may become involved. the centre of the fireback, running from top to bot-
tom. This is caused by lateral pressure on the fireback,
resulting from the absence of a movement joint around
REPLACING DEFECTIVE FIREBACKS the back of the fireback, with consequent pressure
from the infill material.
All types of fireback may become defective because Figure 7.1 c shows a large horizontal crack occurring
of the following causes about half way up the fireback. This is caused by un-
even pressure on the fireback, and is due to movement
(1) abrasion and resistance to heat, which is termed
of the infill material and to the absence of a move-
normal wear and tear
ment joint between the fireback and the tiled surround.
(2) movement of the surrounding infill material, the
Figure 7.1d shows a deep vertical centre fracture
structural hearth, tiled hearth and tiled surround:
and also fractures in the side cheeks. The causes of
if any movement caused is not accommodated it
this defect are the total absence of any movement
will result in damage to the fireback.
joints, badly placed infill material and sometimes the
It is recognised that sectional firebacks are capable of wrong type of infill material.

rr
1\ I /

/ " ,,/
'" (e) (d)

Figure 7. 7 Defective firebacks

84
 Maintenance, Repair and Fixing Equipment 85

Removing the Fireback man to use a lightweight percussion drill with a chisel
end, or the lump hammer and a 25 mm-diameter cold-
Where the fireback consists of a one-piece unit, steel chisel at least 450 mm long.
removal can easily be effected with the lump hammer
and an 18 mm-diameter cold-steel chisel at least Fixing the New Fireback
250-300 mm long. The cutting-out operation should
be started around the central fracture and the side A four- or six-piece fireback is to be preferred in this
cheeks can be taken out after the centre of the back situation. While it may be just possible to use a one·
has been removed. or two-piece, this is difficult, although not impossible,
It should be noted that before any of the above if the fireplace recess has been constructed to the
operations are begun, it is essential to provide com- minimum dimensions (Volume 2, chapter 11, figure
plete protection for the tiled surround and hearth. 11.6).
This can be done with sacking over the hearth and Assuming the four-piece has been selected, before
drapes over the tiled surround, which will prevent any it is placed in position expansion joints must be
chipping or spalling of the tiles should they be struck formed on either side at the back of the new tiled
by particles from the fireback. surround where the new fireback abuts. These joints
consist of lengths of fibre glass rope which have been
Removing the Infill Material cut to the height of the new fireback and soaked in
waterglass.
Removing the infill material may require the crafts- The two firecheeks and base back section (figure
7.2c) are stood in position with fibre glass string
between each joint, and a further expansion joint is
formed by wrapping corrugated cardboard around the
back. This material will later disintegrate with the
heat, leaving an open joint between the infill and the
fireback which will allow movement to take place
without causing stresses to be set up and eventual
cracking to occur.
The infill should consist of broken brick and lime
two piece four piece mortar, or a weak concrete mix such as 1:4:10
(figure 7.3). If bricks and mortar are used, they
should be built up as high as possible all round before
bedding the top back 3ection - again on fibre glass

ffiBm string. It is important that the infill is not tight up

against the fireback. The throat can now be formed,
the chamfered lintel bedded in position and made

~D~
good to the gatherings.
If the fireplace recess is higher than usual, as in
older properties, a hole will need to be knocked
(e) (d) through above the tiled surround to complete the
four piece six piece bricking up. This must be made good later and re-
plastered (figure 7.4).
Figure 7.2 Firebacks complying with BS 1251: Part 1

~g::-.=eb~_fibre glass rope -~i.h~=1 fibre glass rope

_-+- - - tile surround - - L . - ..1 l..._ _- J - - tile surround
sand-fill
joint
(a) (b)

Figure 7.3 Plan offirebacks showing infill and movement joints

86 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

it is advisable to use a pole-sided type, which should

be secured at the required height above the eaves and
at the correct angle (figure 7.5). Crawling boards or
crawling ladders are then placed in position on the
roof to allow inspection of the chimney stack.

--LL
I I

~1 Inspection

This can now start with the chimney capping and

tile surround then the entire brickwork of the stack. The ability to
fireback
recognise and determine the following factors is a pre-
requisite for inspection.
.c:==~~===~~==~3=±--tile hearth
(1 ) the condition of the capping and the capping
Figure 7.4' Method of making good the infill behind material
and above fireback (2) the type and condition of the bricks and mortar
used for the stack
(3) any visible fractures in the brickwork or flaunch-
The joints between the fireback sections should be
ing
pointed up with fire cement.
(4) whether the damp-proof course is effective,
whether there are flashings and soakers, and in
what condition.
DEFECTIVE CHIMNEY STACKS

Work Before Inspection Faults and Failures

A suitable type of ladder should be erected and The following faults and failures are recognised as
placed in position to provide easy access to the roof. being common and are often found on existing houses
Because materials may be taken on and off the roof, and old buildings

pole-sided
ladder

Figure 7.5 Requirements for inspection of chimney

 Maintenance, Repair and Fixing Equipment 87

(1) leaning chimney pots cautions should also be taken to protect any work, or
(2) loose capping brickwork people below roof level.
(3) cracked and loose flaunching
(4) fractured stacks, showing visible cracks Equipment
(5) spalling and lamination of the stack bricks
(6) deterioration of the mortar joints Where the chimney is of considerable height, scaffold-
(7) leaning chimney stacks ing must be erected around the stack. Timber is
(8) ineffective d.p.c. normally used for roof work, although other methods
The first seven failures are often caused by sulphate can be used to provide the necessary working plat-
attack and may be accelerated by the ineffectiveness form (figures 7.6-7.8).
of the chimney capping where it has insufficient pro-
jection or is badly weathered and formed with weak Taking Down for the Stack
materials. Fault 8 can be considered to be a contribu-
ting factor to some of the other failures. This should be done with considerable care, the dis-
mantling starting with the chimney pot and f1aunch-
Conclusion of the Inspection ing, then the stack itself. All materials should be
removed and taken down to ground level, then placed
Where the condition of the stack is poor, and flue in a position where they will not impede any building
liners are obviously not present, the entire stack operations and also where they can easily be removed
should be taken down to three to four courses below from site.
roof level and rebuilt with suitable new material, with
flue liners inserted during construction. Rebuilding the Stack

Protection Materials

Before any work is carried out on the chimney stack, The type of bricks and mortar should be determined
the fireplaces below should be inspected and sacking with considerable care, taking into account the pre-
should be inserted at the fireplace throat to prevent vious failures, the necessity to combat sulphate attack,
debris entering the room. All roof work should be prevent weather penetration and blend in with the
covered and protected in the area of the stack; pre- appearance of the building. Obviously, flue liners

Figure 7.6 Saddle scaffold supported on roof

88 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

planks forming working

platform around stack ,
~/ "./

-- ---

roof cripples

. pole-sided ladder
secured to wall hook

Figure 7.7 Working platform around stack formed with roof cripples (for inspecting only)

chimney pots and

capping brickwork
removed

brace

Figure 7.8 Working platform around external stacks on gables

 Maintenance, Repair and Fixing Equipment 89

must be inserted at the position where rebuilding is (3) Mortar joints should be correctly filled and
begun. should not exceed 6 mm in thickness.
(4) The amount of fall provided for the top surface
Procedure of the sill should be 6 mm per 100 mm of sill
surface.
At the required position below roof level, rebuilding (5) The projection of the sill beyond the brickwork
is begun. When the work reaches 150 mm above the face should be at least 50 mm.
lowest point of intersection between roof and stack, a
tray d.p.c. should be inserted; the mortar joints
around the base of the stack above roof level should Inspection of Sill
be raked out to accommodate the flashings. Flue liners
must be inserted up to chimney pot level and these The sill should be inspected and examined to deter-
must be bedded and jointed in the same mortar that mine the cause of the deterioration.
is being used for the brickwork of the stack. The
surrounding space within the stack should be filled Removal of Sill
with solid material.
At capping level, adequate protection should be Removing a badly defective sill should not cause any
provided, oversailing courses should be formed or a problems for the craftsman and it can be effected
precast concrete slab used to form the entire capping with the normal bricklayer's tools.
as one unit. The chimney pot can then be inserted Cutting out should start at each end, taking out
and fixed. The terminal should be selected with the the first two bricks from each end; the third brick
following in mind: from the end on each side should be left to support
(1) the pot should match the liners used - that is, the sill, and the bricks between should then be taken
both circular or both square on plan out. Temporary packings are then inserted, and the
(2) it should complement the chimney stack and two supporting bricks are removed (figure 7.9).
building below. After this operation has been completed the area
of brickwork below the sill, termed the apron, should
After rebuilding is completed, the sacking can be then be examined and, where repointing is necessary,
removed and the flue examined for draught by light- raking out and cleaning should be carried out at this
ing a low fire. If the results are good, the scaffolding stage.
above roof level can be taken down, and the roof
completely cleaned off, with all protecting covering
removed, and the building waste taken away. Reinstatement of Sill

The selected bricks should be placed on a flat surface

and checked for alignment, with the correct joint
DEFECTIVE 6RICK.QN-EDGE WINDOW SILL allowance formed between the bricks; the length of
brick can then be marked on the top surface, a gauge
It should be recognised that window sills that are staff can be formed and the brick can then be cut to
constructed with bricks and mortar can become defec- the required length (figure 7.10).
tive as a result of any of the following Having cut the bricks, dampen the bedding surface
(1) poorly selected bricks and where repointing is required dampen the area of
(2) weak or poorly mixed mortar the apron. Bed, joint and fix the first two bricks at
(3) large mortar joints each end, checking for fall, projection and gauge. A
(4) poor construction due to bad workmanship line can then be fixed to top or bottom arris, depend-
(5) water remaining on top of the sill ing whether the sill is above or below eye level. The
(6) insufficient projection. temporary packings should then be removed and the
operation of bedding and fixing the brick on edge
To construct a good weather-resistant brick sill, it continued. This should be carried out by working
is important that the following considerations are from each end to the centre, checking for gauge as
complied with. the work proceeds. The brick sill can be jointed after
(1) The bricks used for the sill should enhance and completion and the pointing of the apron also com-
complement the building, but should be as dense pleted.
and non-absorbent as possible. Where a wooden sub-sill is attached to the window
(2) The mortar used to bed and form the sill should the joint between the wooden sill and the brick sill
be of the same density as the bricks. should be pointed with a mastic compound.
90 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

window frame

new brick sill;

end bricks set to
folding gauge and line
wedges
temporary
support may be
removed

gauge marked
on support to sill

Figure 7.9 Method of renewing a defective brick-on-edge sill

what is the type of staining, and how was the

staining caused?
(2) Can the brickwork face be cleaned and what
method of cleaning would be most effective?
(3) Is protection necessary, and how can it be
ensured?
(4) Where bricks are defective, can they be removed
and similar bricks obtained and then replaced?
note allowance for
an extra joint at It is very important that the above factors should be
each end
considered and a positive conclusion reached in each
case before any form of work is started.
Figure 7.10 Setting out a brick sill ready for cutting

REPOINTING OLD BUILDINGS Scaffolding

Before any operations are carried out on the face of Where scaffolding is required for defective brickwork
the building, it is important that a close inspection to be repointed, cleaned and reinstated, careful con-
of the walling should be carried out. sideration should be given to the type of scaffolding
that will be most effective. It is important that
Inspection of the Building Face scaffolding should be completely safe and should
comply with the Construction Regulations. The main
It is very important to determine the position of the functions of scaffolding are as follows.
walling and to recognise the amount of weathering or
atmospheric pollution that the walling is required to
(1 ) Fatigue for operatives using the scaffolding should
be reduced to a minimum.
withstand; the amount and type of deterioration of
the wall surface, the number of laminated bricks and
(2) It should be possible for all work above ground
level to be carried out in an economical manner.
the condition of the mortar joints should all be care-
fully determined and assessed. Factors that should (3) Cleaning operations should not be impeded and
the scaffolding should provide protection for the
also be considered are as follows.
work, and also for persons who are at ground
(1) Where staining of the brickwork face is evident, level.
 Maintenance, Repair and Fixing Equipment 91

Protection Removing Stains from Cloy Brickwork

Protective measures should be carried out before any Oil Stains Sponge or poultice the area with white
form of work starts on the building face. They may spirit, carbon tetrachloride or trichlorethylene. Where
consist of masking out all existing mastic pointing, staining is severe, use several applications.
glass, paintwork, timber and decorative features.
Masonry and ironwork should also be protected. Efflorescence Allow weather to take its natural
course, but brush off with a fibre brush when the
efflorescence is at its maximum. After a reasonable
period wash down each week for a period of one
Cutting Out and Reinstating Defective Bricks
month and allow the walling to dry out before further
wetting is contemplated.
This operation should be begun at the top of the
building and worked down to ground level. The bricks Point Stains Apply a patent paint remover as instruc-
on each lift should be cut out and replaced before ted, or use a solution of trisodium phosphate, 1 part
work is begun on the lift or platform below. to 5 parts of water (by weight). Allow the paint to
soften and remove with a stiff fibre brush, washing
down afterwards with soapy water.
Repointing Mortar Stains When possible use a softwood scraper
and wash down with a diluted solution of hydrochloric
Before this operation is begun it is often advisable, acid, 1 part to 10 parts of water (by volume).
when large structures are involved, to point panels at
the base of the walling. These are termed sample Lichens and Mosses First brush off with a stiff fibre
panels and they are used by the architect to determine brush, then use a patent moss killer as instructed, or a
the type of mortar that will be the most suitable for solution of zinc or magnesium silicofluoride, 1 part to
the building. Whenever possible sample panels should 40 parts of water (by weight).
be at least 1.0 m 2 and labelled with
(1) the type of sand and cement used Rust or Iron Stains First wash down with a solution
(2) the cement-sand ratio of oxalic acid, 1 part to 10 parts of water (by weight).
(3) the water content If the brown staining does not respond it is probably
(4) the type and amount of colouring used. a manganese stain.

Panels should be pointed and viewed after a minimum Manganese Stains Brush down the staining with a
period of 72 hours, otherwise a complete appreciation solution of 1 part acetic acid, 1 part hydrogen per-
of the panel is not possible. oxide and 6 parts water (by volume). Apply a second
The type of pointing joint is also selected by the application only after a period of 3 days.
architect, and it is determined by
Lime Stains Treat as for mortar stains.
(1) the weather and degree of exposure
(2) the condition of the brickwork face Smoke or Soot Stains Use a fibre brush and brush
(3) the decorative requirements down gently. Apply a wash of household detergent,
(4) the need for economy in the pointing operations. and where staining is heavy use trichlorethylene as a
Obviously the sample panels are formed with the poultice.
pointing joint selected, which then allows its qualities
to be appreciated. Tor or Bitumen Stains Use a stiff fibre brush and
scrub down with an emulsifying detergent. When the
area is dry it may be necessary to apply a paraffin-
soaked sponge.
Cleaning Brickwork before Repointing All brickwork should be completely washed down
whenever any forms of acid have been applied. This
Brickwork staining is often caused by external sources may cause efflorescence but it will only be shortlived.
although it can also be due to salts in the bricks or
mortar. To remove stains on brickwork requires con- Commercial Cleaning
siderable knowledge, skill and care, otherwise the use
of wrong techniques or materials may cause perman- This is only economical where large areas of walling
ent damage to the entire face of the walling. are to be cleaned, otherwise it may be very expensive
92 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

in labour and material costs. Methods used for stone-

work are steam, grit or sand-blasting, although the
latter is only used as a last resort because of its effect
on the surface of the walling material. Before steam,
cutting out
grit or sand-blasting is used, it is advisable to apply should always 2
the methods on a sample panel before selection is start at the
made. toP. keeping the
work below
The above methods should only be considered for solid
brickwork when it is judged impossible to obtain a 3
clean surface with water and chemicals.

ALTERATION TO WALL LENGTHS AND

THICKNESSES Figure 7.77 Preparing for block indents

Existing walls can be increased in length by anyone

of the following methods
(1) cutting out block indents
(2) cutting out toothings
(3) forming a slip or vertical joint.

Choice of Method

The method of extending the length of a wall is deter-

mined by the following factors
two tie-bricks _
(1) the situation of the wall, that is, whether it is each indent
external or internal, and whether the walling is
facework or commons
(2) the requirements of the designer
(3) the materials used for the existing wall
(4) whether differential movement is anticipated.
Figure 7.72 Indents cut out
Methods

Block Indents

These are formed by cutting out indentations in the

end of the existing wall. The indents should be at least
100 mm in depth and in blocks of odd numbers, that
is, of three or five courses. The maximum depth of
any block is five courses; with this method the indent
accommodates an even number of tie bricks, two or
four (figures 7.11-7.13).
When cutting outthe indents, it is advisable to start
at the top and work downwards, thereby preventing
the tails of any bricks above from snapping off (figure
7.11 ). Figure 7.73 Using reinforcement to strengthen the
Block indents are normally used to extend the tie when increasing wall lengths with block indents
length of internal brick walls where accurate and nor-
mal bonding arrangements are of secondary import- forcement (figure 7.13) to provide additional strength.
ance, but where adequate strength from bonding-in The indent is then built up with considerable care
can be obtained. being taken to caulk up the top bed joint in the indent
with semi-stiff mortar. Obviously, if the existing waIl-
Building-in Block Indents At the first course of the ing is dry or dusty it should be brushed down and
indent it is good practice to insert a wall tie or rein- damped before joining up takes place.
 Maintenance, Repair and Fixing Equipment 93

Toothings of bricks continued from this. The tie brick should

never be inserted last, otherwise caulking and pinning
This method consists of cutting out every alternate up cannot be carried out satisfactorily. The caulking
brick at the end of the existing wall. The depth of the up should be completely solid and carried out with a
indent or toothing should be 56 or 110 mm, depend- semi-stiff mortar.
ing on the bonding arrangement of the existing wall
and the new walling to be attached. Again it is essen- Slip joint
tial to start cutting out the indents at the top and to
work downwards, to prevent breaking off the project- This is sometimes referred to as a butt joint. The
ing tails of the existing bricks (figure 7.14). When method consists of simply forming a vertical mortar
joint, minimum 12 mm, at the end of the existing
wall and starting the new work from this position.
Often an open joint can be formed or butyl rubber or
polysulphide compounds can be inserted. Both can
have a mortar joint applied on the face later but the
former method of leaving an open joint requires a
movement joint to be gunned-in when the walls are
completed (figures 7.15 and 7.16).

- work away from toothing

~
I I
I I
I
I I TT
---
Figure 7.14 Increasing wall lengths by the toothing
I
I
I
I I
I
L

I
method I I I I
I I
I I _:l-.L..y-
slip or butt joint

cutting out is completed, the toothings should be

brushed out and if they are dry, damping will be
required to ensure good adhesion between mortar and
bricks.
The toothing method is extensively used on all
external facework or wherever the bonding arrange-
ment must be seen to be continuous throughout the
length of walling (figure 7.14).

Building-in Toothings Before any building work is

started it is essential to ensure that the following
recommendations are carried out. Figure 7.15 The slip or butt joint used in brickwork
(1) The dimensions of the new bricks should be the
same as those used in the existing wall.
(2) The mortar should be the same density, texture
Slip joints are used where there is little knowledge
and colour as the mortar in the existing wall.
of the existing foundation structure, or where unequal
(3) The toothed ends on the existing walls should be
settlement is a possibility and differential movement
checked for vertical alignment, thus avoiding cut-
may be expected.
ting to provide the correct bonding arrangement.
It is important that coursing through from the
When building-in to toothings, line and pins should existing brickwork is carried out. All the new work
always be used to ensure horizontal alignment. Each should again start from the vertical joint position to
tie brick must always be inserted first and the course the opposite end of the new wall.
94 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

The method consists of cutting indents or recesses

into the face of the existing wall; the indents should
not exceed 100 mm in depth, while the length should
be 225 mm and the height of the recess should be
three courses (figures 7.17). The indents should be
placed diagonally at 45° to the horizontal and cover
the entire face of the wall (figure 7.18). Cutting out is
performed with the normal bricklaying tools and also
the portable electric saw with a masonry disc. Before
building operations are begun, all indents should be
slip or butt joint
brushed completely free of dust and damping down
should be carried out when necessary.
slip
plane

.~.:
l "---- joint

Figure 7.16 The slip or butt joint used in blockwork

Treatment for Extending Block Wall in Length

Block walls can be increased in length by any of the

three methods previously mentioned, but where in-
dents are to be cut into the end of the existing block
wall, it may be easier, more accurate and economical
to use a portable electric saw with a masonry blade or
disc. This method does not affect the stability of the Figure 7. 17 Forming block indents for increasing the
existing wall as often happens when heavy percussion thickness of a wall in Flemish bond
tools are used. The procedure for building-in the
blockwork is the same as for brickwork; the mortar
should only be as dense as the walling blocks being Building Up the New Wall
used. The blocks used to form the new walling should
be the same as those used for the existing wall; where Considerable care should be taken in the setting-out
this is not possible, joining up should be carried out operations. The bond for the new facing wall should
with the slip joint. be arranged to ensure that header-tie bricks occur in
each block indent. Whenever English bond is used for
the facing wall there should be four tie headers per
INCREASING THE THICKNESS OF EXISTING indent (figures 7.18 and 7.19). Flemish bond permits
WALLS only two tie headers per indent (figure 7.20).
Caulking up at the top of each indent should take
Existing walls can be increased in thickness by block place to ensure the completion of the tie. It is good
bonding. This is considered the most practical method practice to use horizontal reinforcement in the new
of tying two walls together to increase the thickness facing wall; wall ties should be used in all block
and also obtain the maximum amount of stability. indents.
 Maintenance, Repair and FiXing Equipment 95

The dimensions of the holes should be not more

than 28 mm on either side of the bracket. Whenever
possible the bottom of the bracket should rest on the
brickwork, which will ensure improved stability for
the bracket and make fixing easier.
An assembled timber jig should now be set up,
either by the carpenter and joiner, or the bricklayer
craftsman himself. The jig should be adjustable to
ensure that it is correct and level; the top rail should
also be adjustable to ensure a level line for the brac-
kets, therefore it is necessary to use folding wedges in
Figure 7.18
both positions, as in figure 7.21. The jig should finally
be positioned for alignment of the end of the brackets.
After the timber jig has been set up, the brackets
should be temporarily inserted and checked for height,
level and alignment. When this operation has been
completed the brackets should be removed and the
Figure 7.19 holes for the brackets then damped only sufficiently
to ensure adhesion.
Mortar for making good around the end of the
brackets should be cement and sand, reasonably dense,
with a ratio of 1:3 or 1 :4, although it should not
exceed the density of the walling material. The first
bracket is then fixed into position, with the square
Figure 7.20 shank end inserted into the hole formed in the wall
face, and around the shank the semi-stiff cement
mortar can now be compacted. If the hole is over-
FIXING CANTILEVER BRACKETS large, small particles of bricks can be inserted. Where
the walling material is of hollow blocks, then before
Cantilever brackets can be fixed to solid or cavity fixing is carried out, the hollow portions of the blocks
walls of bricks or blocks. Before any operations are should be made solid; this operation should be perfor-
started it is necessary to inspect the walling because med at least 24 hours before the actual fixing of the
this often determines the types of tool to be used, the brackets.
materials required and the type of temporary fixing After all the brackets have been fixed, a further
equipment necessary. check should be carried out for level and alignment.
It is important to recognise the condition of the The fixing equipment should not be removed until at
walling and to determine whether it is of solid or least 48 hours after fixing. Care should be taken not
cavity construction. to disturb the brackets, therefore the folding wedges
will facilitate the easing operation.
Procedure for Fixing a Line of Four Cantilever The same procedure can be used for fixing a single
Brackets bracket, but only a single prop is required to provide
support (figure 7.22).
First check whether the floor is level because this
may alter the height of the brackets, depending on
the designer's fixing requirements. A line should then FIXING RAG BOLTS
be formed on the face of the wall at the required
height. This is done with a chalk line, level and pos- Rag bolts, often termed holding-down bolts, are nor-
sibly a straightedge. The position of each bracket is mally hand made from wrought iron. They are formed
then marked at centres on the chalk line. with a ragged base and sides to prevent displacement
Cutting-out operations can now be started. The and ensure complete security in the flooring material.
cantilever brackets must be inserted into the wall to a The tops of the bolts are circular, with turned threads
depth of at least 100 mm to become effective, there- to receive washers and a threaded nut (figures 7.23
fore it is essential to obtain a clean cut when cutting and 7.24).
to form the soffit at the top of the bracket because Rag bolts are used extensively when heavy, moving
upward movement cannot be allowed. machinery is to be anchored to concrete floors. The
96 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

wedges--~

100
x
25 mm

Figure 7.27 Method of fixing a line of cantilever brackets

Figure 7.23 Rag bolt with nut and straight base

32mm
100
x
ground level (::__ , t ground level
\-----'-----

25mm
l'X·C··
prop
..
(:.; :

-----\:'
.. . . .
r·::>~- ~'7 -7'~-;-..L.- __

50mm

Figure 7.24 Rag bolt with nut and ragged base fixed
Figure 7.22 Fixing a single cantilever bracket in hole and surrounded by concrete
 Maintenance, Repair and Fixing Equipment 97

I
I
I
check all walls I
for alignment I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I rag I

-~~-----------------=6-
"'~ :0 ;~~~ bolts :

---------------------j
timber templet
-f--
I I
I I
I I
I 900 I
to"~ I-~O"
\ ,

plan

Figure 7.25 Methods of setting out for rag bolts

diameter of the top of the bolt is formed to fit into Kango. The use of the lump hammer and cold-steel
the hole or slot at the base of the machine. chisel, although useful for drilling and cutting a single
hole, would be uneconomical where severaJ holes are
required.
Setting Out After the holes are formed, cleaning out is then
required (figure 7.26) and the sides of the concrete
It is important that considerable care is exercised at should be adequately damped. The timber templet,
the setting-out stage, before the rag bolts are fixed. which positions and supports the bolts, is then placed
Measurements should be checked, levels taken, square- according to the engineer's drawings (figure 7.27).
ness ascertained and, where there is any doubt, checks The bolts are suspended from the templet in the
should be made again. It cannot be overstressed that holes below and a concrete mix of density equal to
accuracy is of the highest importance since any error that of the existing concrete floor is then made. Where
could prevent the efficiency and functioning of the the diameter of the holes is less than 100 mm the
machinery. It is obviously very necessary to construct aggregate size for the concrete should not exceed
a timber templet, which can be used to aid the setting 12 mm but 18 mm aggregate can be used for larger
out and to assist with fixing operations (figure 7.25). holes. The water content of the concrete should be
Hole drilling should be carried out with a light- reduced to produce a minimum of laitance. The con·
weight Kango, but where the concrete is excessively crete is then placed around the bolt and compacted
thick and very dense, it is advisable to use a heavy with a 19 mm-diameter rod and the surface is finished

vacuum cleaner or
suction pump

() ()
ground level ground level

sides of hole
shou Id be cu t
straight

Figure 7.26 Method of cleaning hole after cutting

98 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

timber templet

folding wedges --..e~;;T'

for levelling templet

Figure 7.27 Adjusting and positioning rag bolts

off with the steel float. It is important to cure the removed and the templet gently lifted from the bolts.
concrete around the bolts and a minimum period of Threads should be checked for cleanliness and where
72 hours should be allowed. necessary covered with a suitable grease; before leav-
The removal of the timber templet should be ing, it is again advisable to carry out another check on
undertaken with considerable care. The nuts are all the bolts for level, position and dimensions.
 8
PAVING

Europeans are extremely fortunate in being able to The usual method of cutting unreinforced concrete
enjoy and appreciate areas of paving, which have been slabs is with the hammer and chisel or portable electric
their heritage for many centuries. saw, but the need to cut reinforced slabs should
Paved surfaces allow the pedestrian to move with always be avoided because failure is almost certain
the minimum of fatigue, they complement and en- owing to the reinforcement.
hance buildings and decorative features, and have
stood the test of time when used for roads. It is an Stone Slabs
accepted fact that, in comparison with other forms of
construction, the merits of the paved surface are the These are usually made from sandstone or Yorkstone
least recognised. The skills of the designer and crafts- and they are produced with sawn surfaces. The sizes
man do not receive the appreciation that they deserve. of stone slabs vary, but for normal highway construc-
This is possibly because the pedestrian accepts and is tion 900 x 600 x 75 mm slabs are used. Stone paving
familiar with the paved surface. It is to be hoped that slabs are now considerably more expensive than con-
this trend is now being reversed and that people are crete slabs but they are often more resistant to abra-
becoming more aware of the aesthetic qualities and sion and possess more decorative qualities. A disad-
importance of the paved surface. vantage with stone slabs is that they easily become
Before considering the type of paved surface that stained, and constantly increasing costs tend to
is to be constructed, it is necessary to obtain the preclude their use, especially for public footpaths; as
following information renewal becomes necessary the concrete slab is usually
used as replacement.
(1) the total area of paving required
Stone slabs are usually cut with the hammer and
(2) whether the situation is external or internal
pitching chisels. Before laying and fixing any type of
(3) the type of traffic expected
paving it is necessary to determine the amount of fall
(4) the decorative requirements
or slope required to remove surface water. This is
(5) the amount of abrasive resistance required for
normally between 1 in 40 to 1 in 60, but the amount
the surface
of fall provided should not increase the physical
(6) the requirements for removal of surface water.
effort of walking. The direction of traffic is required
When the requirements have been determined, the to determine the direction of the joints in the paving
types of material can then be selected. Paved areas are (figure 8.1).
normally formed with the following materials: con-
crete slabs, stone slabs and paving bricks. Laying Concrete Slabs

These are usually bedded on a sub-base of sieved

TYPES OF PAVING SLAB clinker ash or sand and placed on mortar dabs under
the corners and centre of the slab. The thickness of
Concrete Paving Slabs the mortar dabs forming the bed should not exceed
32 mm and joints between slabs should not exceed
These are obtainable in two forms, the pressed, vibra- 6 mm. The mortar used for bedding is 1 :6 cement-
ted and reinforced slab and the pressed, unreinforced sand or 1:2:6 cement-lime-sand (figures 8.1 and 8.2).
slab. Concrete slabs can have smooth or non-slip The same bedding treatment and joints are used for
surfaces. They are produced in sizes varying from stone slabs, and the mortar mix is also the same.
600 x 600 x 50 mm to 900 x 600 x 75 mm, although Concrete and stone slabs should be jointed before
it is possible to obtain smaller slabs of 300 x 300 x38 the end of the day's work and with the same ratio of
mm. mix as for bedding.

99
100 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

wall

concrete slabs
900 x 600 mm

fall: 1 in 60

mortar bed 1=*~5;::::=~==========l

sieved clinker ash concrete sub-base

Figure 8.1 Paving slabs on mortar, sieved clinker ash and concrete sub-base

Treatment of Concrete and Stone Slabs Tools and Equipment for laying Paving Slabs

When stacking and storing concrete or stone slabs it is The hardcore base is usually positioned with normal
necessary to stack them on edge to ensure complete excavating tools - shovels, picks and hammer - but
dryness of the slabs, therefore, whenever possible, for consolidation a rammer or punner is necessary.
these paving materials should be covered with light- These are hand or mechanically operated.
weight sheeting. Slabs are usually laid with the beedle or mawl,

wall

sieved clinker ash t-7f~~~=:::;~~~~=~;::=~;:~

Figure 8.2 Method of laying slabs on sieved clinker ash and consolidated hardcore
 Paving 101

~hich is a large rubber-headed hammer. Paved areas the paviors are used to combat abrasive wear and tear,
are normally levelled with the aid of the Cowley level or for domestic use, either external or internal, and
and wooden pegs, although boning rods are often also where a decorative appearance is necessary to
used. Straightedges used for checking the slabs are provide the aesthetic qualities required by the archi-
often tapered to the amount of fall required (figure tect.
8.3). Brick paving is formed with bricks laid on edge or
flat; although the pressed brick is obviously the better
type of pavior, wire-cut bricks are often used laid on
BRICK PAVING edge or flat.
For industrial use engineering bricks or paviors are
This is the most attractive and decorative form of necessary. The surface of special paviors, produced to
paving. Because of the great variety of clays found in withstand very abrasive wear and acids, and also to
European countries, a considerable variation in colour provide a non-slip surface, is often chequered or im-
and texture can be obtained. The flexibility of bond- pregnated to form a dimpled pattern. This type of
ing arrangements allows the geometrical patterns to brick should be produced to meet the requirements
enhance the colours of the paving. Brick paving can of BS 3679. When cutting is required an abrasive
be used for industrial flooring, where the qualities of wheel, that is, a brick saw, should be used.

rubber-headed mawl

hand rammer or punner

electric drill may

have rammer head
adapter for compaction
work

Figure 8.3 Compaction and consolidation equipment used in paving work

102 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

12 -mm bed-t===:d"==~=:d:::.="±'==1

125-mm concrete
Figure 8.4 External brick paving

Brick Slips pacted damp sand or in bituminous compounds. The

types of brick, the situation and the use of the surface
These are often used to provide paved surfaces. The obviously influence the type of base required. For
size of slip varies from 215 x 65 mm, with thicknesses industrial internal paving, the base should be of con-
of 25, 33, 40 or 50 mm. Slips can be used to form crete, with a thickness of between 100 and 150 mm,
industrial or domestic surfaces, but, whatever the with a ratio of 1 :2 :4.
purpose, they should be treated with a different lay- External footpaths require a 100 mm thickness of
ing and bedding technique from that used for normal concrete, while garden paths may have sufficient
brick paving. strength with a concrete base of 75 mm, provided that
a consolidated layer of hardcore is formed below the
Laying and Fixing Brick Paving concrete (figure 8.4).
Internal paving formed on a concrete base requires
Before starting to lay brick paving, it is necessary to protection from rising damp, therefore it is essential
consider the following factors to provide a damp-proof membrane on the surface of
the concrete base. This separating layer can consist of
(1) the paving material
polythene sheeting, building paper or bituminous felt.
(2) the type of base
These should all be provided with lapped joints where
(3) the form of bedding
necessary, and be laid on completely flat surfaces, but
(4) the mortar joints
should not be provided with any form of adhesive
Paving bricks can be laid on a mortar bed, on com- bonding with the concrete (figure 8.5).

timber batten inserted

to form position of
movement joint -
withdrawn later
12-mm
n.ortar bed

d_p_c.
125-mm concrete sub-base
ground level

consol idated hardcore

Figure 8.5 Internal stack bond paving
 Paving 103

The bed should be at least 10 mm and not more

membrane turned up wall face than 20 mm thick. For all types of brick paving the
beds should be constructed with a straightedge by
forming mortar screeds (figure 8.7). The bricks should
brick-on-edge paving not be placed on the bed until all laitance has been
d.p.c. ~~--=--;;;;!;;;--;;;;;;!;---4~ mortar bed
ground level membrane
removed from the mortar surface.
"-
concrete sub-base

Figure 8.6 Membrane formed behind movement joint Laying and Forming Joints

Whenever possible, it is good practice to use working

Wherever the concrete base forms contact with lines when laying brick paving. Where the bonding
external walling, the damp-proof course in the wall arrangements provide courses, the working lines
and the damp-proof membrane should be adequately should be used in the normal way (figure 8.8). Where
lapped to prevent moisture penetration (figures 8.5 sectional bonding is formed it may be possible to use
and 8.6). the lines at the positions of each section of unit. Most
When laying the concrete base it is advisable to bricks have a mortar joint appended before laying,
provide the required amount of fall within the thick- and this should be kept at least 12 mm from the top
ness of the concrete, which, as previously mentioned, surface to allow jointing to take place later.
may be 1 :40, 1 :50 or 1:60, depending on the amount Mortar joints can vary from 6 to 10 mm in thick-
of water expected on the surface of the paving. ness. After the bricks are laid, they should be lightly
The mortar bed for the paving should always con- tamped with a wooden beating block, then checked
tain a minimum amount of water. The mortar mix for alignment with working lines and straightedge
varies according to the types of brick or pavior used, before jointing takes place. To provide the required
and may be 1 part cement to 4-6 parts clean building amount of adhesion, all clay bricks should be lightly
sand, with l4-Y2 part lime where required. Plasticiser damped before using, but engineering paviors and
is not advisable for mortar bedding paviors. brick slips should be perfectly dry for laying.

steel channel sections

~"'----- used to support screed ---------~~
board and contain the
paving

timber screed board

concrete base
12-mm mortar bed

Figure 8.7 Method of forming mortar bed for paving

working Iines-.......

,/
/./ ,/ ./
,/

,/ ,/ ,/
./ ,/ ,/
/' ./
working platform
above paving

U - - - - l U _+-_---'L.....<~=--"-____"-~-"-_..."---"-~:_"'"--"--"'-'''--oU-M:----
U ' J _ _ ground level

not more
than
150mm

Figure 8.8 Method of working for laying paving

104 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

jointing Laying Techniques

This should be carried out after the required area has Paving work should only be performed when other
been paved, but during the same day. The mix ratio craftsmen have completed their operations. It should
for the jointing mortar should be the same as for the be programmed as a finishing operation and only the
bedding mortar, but with a minimum water content, actual decorative finishing should be performed after
and the mortar should be semi-stiff. the paving work. During the entire operation of paving
Another method of jointing used for paved surfaces it is essential for the craftsman to work above the
is to use a semi-dry mix, and gently brush over the level of the paving, that is, while he is laying the bed,
surface of the paving with a fibre brush. The disadvan- placing and fixing the bricks, and also tamping and
tage of this method is that compaction of the joints jointing. With this method the craftsman is never in a
may not be complete, also staining of the surface can position where he may disturb the bedding or cause
occur. any misalignment of the paving (figure 8.8).

Direction of Joints Curing Paved Surfaces

When designing the paving the direction of the joints After the jointing operation has been completed, the
should always be considered. When the paving is finished work should be allowed to mature. This is
required for industrial use and to withstand abrasion assisted by curing. Where it is deemed necessary the
the paving units should always be bonded and longit- floor surface can be protected with light timber bat-
udinal joints should be eliminated. The transverse tens and polythene sheeting. After a period of 24
joints should always be at right-angles to the direction hours, the surface can be damped by applying a fine
of the traffic (figure 8.5). spray of water. This treatment should be continued
for a further 72 hours and, for complete maturity,
Movement joints the surface should be closed to all traffic for another
48 hours.
These should always be inserted where the sub-base
and the paved surface abut any walling, piers, columns Brick Paving Patterns
or machinery, or when the paved area exceeds 6.0 m
in any direction. Obviously, the size of the bay will Patterns for paved areas are usually determined by
determine the amount of movement, which will also the following
be influenced by thermal activity and the movement (1) the area involved
of the paving materials themselves. (2) the surface resistance required
To accommodate movement, a joint should be (3) the decorative requirements.
formed around the perimeter between the paving and
walling by the insertion of timber battens. These are While the same bonding arrangements are obtained
withdrawn before the curing stage and a movement with both bricks on edge and bricks laid flat, the
joint is inserted. The materials used to accommodate decorative appearance in each case may be quite
movement in paving are butyl rubber, polyurethane different. The brick on edge contains more joints and
and silicone rubbers. Where necessary the surface of yet possibly provides a stronger surface area. The
the joint can be protected by forming a sealing joint patterns should always be arranged to enhance the
of polysulphide compound (figure 8.9). area involved. A Flemish or stretcher bond arrange-

cover strip cover strip

i •

f"~Oi li i iT-li1IF:I i iIi~.lI I I IlIi; m;lili _liliIil_I~I+.I~ I_-!I~ I_~ p;. .JliliO iIiIi~ ~f{P
12-mm mortar bed I...
150-mm concrete

- ---+,-----movement joints every 6.0 m - - - -..... I "", movement joint

d.p.c. membrane

Figure 8.9 Position of movement joints

 Paving 105

stretcher bond with diagonal bond with

bricks laid flat bricks laid flat

1-...- 1--'--- , - I-
L_
~
f- 1---,-

I--- I-
- ' - - ...... '-
'----

Til
basket·weave with diagonal basket·weave single herringbone with
bricks laid on edge with bricks laid on edge bricks laid on edge

-- ._- ----

Flemish bond with variation of Flemish bond stack bond with

bricks laid flat using bricks on edge bricks laid on edge

-=-~T _.I - - .
f :::1. _ -

paving in bricks laid bricks laid on edge with

flat; Quetta bond diagonal \ lap
with concrete infill
Figure 8.10 Brick paving patterns
106 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

Figure 8.11 Decorative brick paving with bricks laid flat with brick on end to form edging

Figure 8.12 Compound paving used externally

 Paving 107

------,---------------,.----- - - - - - --_._--
concrete or
stone slabs

Figure 8.13 Circular brick paving used as a decorative feature. The bricks are laid on end with
kidney stones or exposed aggregate as infil/

ment is often suitable for large areas of paving, while often the case that a different type of mortar is
narrow areas are enhanced by a diagonal or herring- required for each material used to form the paving.
bone arrangement. When setting out the bonding The following recommendations should be kept to
pattern it is essential to eliminate the amount of brick when laying compound paved areas.
cutting, therefore rectangular areas should normally
be set out from a base line, and square areas from the (1) Always set out the brick paving first.
centre. Both methods will normally ensure that cut (2) Check that the dimensions for slabs do not in-
bricks, where required, will be the same size and occur volve considerable cutting.
around the perimeter of the area. It may also be (3) The brick paving should always be laid first and
advisable to adjust the thickness of joints because on jointing should be completed before a start is
large areas this can eliminate a considerable amount made on laying the other paving materials.
of cutting (figures 8.10 and 8.11). (4) Where the paving is internal, and longitudinal
joints separate the different paving materials,
movement joints should be inserted between the
different materials.
(5) The completed paved area should be matured
COMPOUND PAVING
before traffic is allowed on the paved surface.
Paved areas formed with more than one material are When there is a requirement for brick paving to con-
termed compound paving. Designers are now using tain pockets of concrete infill, the paving should be
combinations of bricks, concrete slabs and often flints completed and pointed before the in-situ concrete
and kidney stones (figures 8.12 and 8.13). When the infill is placed. During placing of the concrete it is
craftsman is required to lay areas of compound good practice to protect the brick paving around each
paving, it is important that considerable care is exer- pocket with lightweight plastic sheeting to prevent
cised at the setting-out stage and when jointing. It is staining of the brick paving.
 9
QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS

BRICKS AND MORTAR Example 9.7

To calculate the number of bricks and the amount of Calculate the number of bricks and the amount of
mortar required for any project, the procedure is quite mortar required to complete the area of walling
straightforward. shown in figure 9.1.
(1) Calculate the area of brickwork, deducting from
this figure the area of any openings. The area is
found by multiplying the length by the height
and it is important to carry out all calculations in
metres. For example, if a window opening is given
as 600 mm by 600 mm these figures must be
multiplied as 0.6 x 0.6 m.
(2) Multiply the area by the number of bricks per
square metre, where

thickness of walling no. of bricksjm 2

Figure 9. 7
Y2brick 60
1 brick 120

Area of walling = length x height

For example, in 5 m 2 of half-brick-thick walling
=5x2
there are 5 x 60 = 300 bricks.
(3) Add a percentage (usually 5 per cent) to com- = 10 m 2
pensate for any damaged bricks, etc. Perhaps the
simplest way to find 5 per cent of any number is Number of bricks required = area x no./m 2
first to find 10 per cent by moving the point = 10 x 60
backwards one place and dividing the figure
= 600
obtained by 2. For example, if 300 bricks are
required, then 10 per cent ofthis is 30 and 5 per Add 5%
cent is 15. Thus the total number of bricks
required is 300 + 15 = 315. 10% = 60.0 (move the point
(4) While for accuracy mortar should be ordered in back one place)
cubic metres per square metre of brickwork, it is Therefore
sufficiently accurate for the craft student to
understand that 1 tonne of mortar is enough to 5% = 30 (dividing by 2)
lay 1000 bricks, because this very much simplifies Total number of bricks required =600 + 30
the procedure. Since 1 tonne is 1000 kg, it takes
1000 kg to lay 1000 bricks, which is 1 kg per = 630
brick. Therefore it will take 315 kg (0315 tonnes)
and
to lay 315 bricks, and 1315 tonnes for 1315
bricks, etc. amount of mortar = 630 kg (0.63 tonnes)
708
 Quantities of Materials 109

Example 9.2
-- r---
Calculate the number of bricks and the amount of
mortar required to complete the area of walling E
co
shown in figure 9.2. E N
N

I. 2m _I

\. 5.5 m
-I
Figure 9.3
Area of brickwork = total area - area of doors
and window
total area = length x height
5.5
= 5.5 x 2.8 2.8
1100
=15.4m 2 440
1540
Figure 9.2
Area of window = length x height
Area = length x height =2 x 1.5
= 8.6 x 2.5 8.6 = 3 m2
2.5
= 21.5 m 2 1720 Area of door = length x height
430
2150 =lx2

Number of bricks = area x number/m 2 =2 m 2

= 21.5 x 120 21.5 Total area of openings = 3 + 2

120
= 2580 21500 = 5 m2
4300 Therefore
2580.0
Add 5% area of brickwork = 15.4 - 5

10% = 258 = 10.4 m 2

Number of bricks = area x number/m 2
Therefore
5% = 129 = 10.4 x 60
Total number of bricks = 2580 + 129 = 624
Add 5%
= 2709
and 10% = 62.4
Therefore
amount of mortar = 2.709 tonnes (2 tonnes,
709 kg) 5% = 31.2
= 32 (to the number above)
Example 9.3
Therefore
Calculate the number of bricks and the amount of
total number of bricks required = 624 + 32
mortar required to complete the walling shown in
figure 9.3. = 656
110 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

and Therefore
amount of mortar = 656 kg (0.656 tonnes) 5% = 184.7

Example 9.4 = 185 (nearest one above).

Therefore
Calculate the number of bricks and the amount of
mortar required to build the gable shown in figure 9.4. total number of bricks required = 3694 + 185

= 3879
E and
M
N
amount of mortar = 3.879 tonnes
(3 tonnes, 879 kg)

Example 9.5
E
.... Calculate the number of bricks and the amount of
,...;
mortar required to complete the brickwork shown in
figure 9.5.

i
7.2 m
I· -I
Figure 9.4

Area to eaves = length x height elevation

= 7.2 x 7.4 7.2

7.4

{
= 53.28 m2 5040
288
5328 3.8m

Area of cut-up gable = base x height

2
plan
7.2 x 2.3
2 3.6 Figure 9.5
2.3
= 3.6 x 2.3 720
108
= 8.28 m2 828 Area = length x height (one face) +

Total area = 53.28 + 8.28 length x height (other face)

= 61.56 m2 = (3.8 x 2.5) + (2.6 x 2.5)

Number of bricks required = area x number/m 2 = 9.5 + 6.5

= 61.56 x 60 61.56 = 16 m2
60 Number of bricks = area x number/m 2
= 3693.6 369360
= 16 x 120
= 3694 (nearest one
above) = 1920
Add 5% Add 5%
10% = 369.4 10%=192
 Quantities of Materials 777

Therefore Length of centre line = (2 x length) + (2 x breadth)

5%=96 (see volume 1, p. 49) - (4 x wall thickness)
Total number of bricks = 1920 + 96 = (2 x 1.4) + (2 x 1.1)

= 2016 - (4 x 0.225)
and = 2.8 + 2.2 - 0.9
amount of mortar = 2.016 tonnes =5 -0.9
(2 tonnes, 16 kg) = 4.1 m
It should be noted that the area could have been Area = length of centre line x height
found by multiplying the length of the centre line by
the height. =4.1 x 1.1 4.1
1.1
= 4.51 m2 410
Example 9.6
41
451
The inspection chamber shown in figure 9.6 is to be
built in engineering bricks class B and is one brick Number of bricks = area x number/m 2
= 4.51 x 120
= 541.2
= 542 (nearest one above)
E
Add 5%
10% = 54.2
Therefore
5% = 27.1

section = 28 (nearest one above)

Therefore
total number of bricks = 543 + 28
= 571
and
amount of mortar = 571 kg (0.571 tonnes)
E

-
"':

Example 9.7

Figure 9.7 shows an inspection chamber where the

internal dimensions are given. Calculate the quantities
of material as for example 9.6.
Length of centre line = (2 x length) + (2 x breadth)
plan
(see volume 1, p. 41) + (4 x wa II t h·IC kness )

Figure 9.6 = (2 x 0.95) + (2 x 0.65)

+ (4 x 0.225)
thick. Calculate the number of bricks required,
= 1.9 + 1.3 + 0.9
including 5 per cent for wastage, and the amount of
mortar required. =4.1 m
772 Brickwork 3 and AssorJoted Studies

(3) M'lltip!y the area by the number of facings per

m 2,
(4) Deduct the number of facings from the total
number to obtain the number of commons,
E
/\ silTm!p example of e3Gh b0nd is sh0wn b",low.

Exnmrfe 9.S

/.\ wall 6 In long a.nd 1.5 m high is to be built in English

b0nd one brick thick. Calcul<l.te the number of facings
sec1:ion :llld (omm')ns required.
Area :: length x height
=l)x1.5
~9 m2
!')',II'),b('1 of bricks;:: an",a x number/m 2
= 9 )(120
= 1080
Number of f<lcings ;::: 9 x 90
'': 810
t-lumber 0f commons = 1080 -- 810
:: 270

Fiaure 9.7

A wall 5 III long alld 2.5 IT! high jsto be built in Flemish
loon'1 (me brick thick, Calculate the number of facings
It will be notic~d by referring to e\~amplE' 9.6 that .1fVi ~~(.:4nYn~··ln5 I"f':(.luired .
this is the same length of centre line, d.nd a c!09:-r
examinatioll will revp.~1 thilt this is exactly th<;> nm<:-
illsper.tion r.:hamber, only in this case the intern;)1 :: 5 y 2.5
dimensions have been given. Thus calculations fr"1ll
this point are exactlv as shown in example 9.6. =1?.5 m~

ENGLISH AND FLEMISH BONDS.

Where walls are built one briel- thick and over with ;::: 1500
English or Flemish bond, the number of bricks reo
r'j'm,her 0f fadngs ~~ 12.5 x 80
quired per square metre, assuming :j filiI' fa,·.,. is
necessary on onE' side" only is :: 1000
English bond 90 Huml:>er "f C()mmons :: 1500 - 1000
Flemish bond 80 ::: 500
Therefore, to calculate the number of faCings and
commons required for any area of walling, the pi rj
EHOfYS AND MORTAR
cedure is as follows.
(1) C.kul;lJe the area of brickwod:. There are ten 450 )( 100 x 215 mm blocks per square
(2) Calculate the total number of bricks reqlljr·~1 metrf" which is a very convenient number for use in
(ilr'ea', 11IJI11ber IrT' '2) r:~II'Hh,j·"·qs. '\s with brickwork the procedure is: find
 Quantities of Materials 113

the area, multiply this by the number per square Therefore

metre, and add 5 per cent for wastage where an allow- 5% = 2.55 ~ 3
ance is required.
The amount of mortar required for solid block- Therefore
work 100 mm thick is approximately one-third of the
quantity required for brickwork of a similar thickness, total number of blocks = 51 + 3
that is, since one brick takes 1 kg of mortar and a = 54
block is equal in area to six bricks, one block takes 2
kg of mortar and 500 blocks take 1 tonne. and amount of mortar = 108 kg (2 kg per block)

Example 9.10 Example 9.11

Calculate the number of 215 x 100 x 215 mm blocks Calculate the number of 100 mm blocks required to
and the amount of mortar required to build figure 9.8 build the internal leaf of the gable shown in figure 9.9,
including 5 per cent for wastage. including 5 per cent for wastage. Calculate also the
amount of mortar.

------0------
IJT~I
E
co
Iii

Figure 9.8 8.2m

I-
elevation

Area of blockwork = total area - area of opening Figure 9.9

Total area = length x height
= 4.8 x 2
= 9.6 m2 A.rea of blockwork = total area - area of circular
opening
Area of opening = length x height
Total area = rectangu lar area + triangu lar area
= 2.6 x 1.5
= 3.9 m 2
= length x height + ~ase x height
2
Area of blockwork = 9.6 - 3.9
- 8.2-x-1.8
- 8.2x 5.6+ - -
= 5.7 m 2 2
Number of blocks = area x number/m 2 = 45.92 + 7.38
= 5.1 x 10 = 53.3 m 2
= 51 Circular area = rrr 2
Add 5% = 3.142 x 0.6 x 0.6
10% ::: 5.1 = 1.1 m2
774 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

Area of blockwork = total area - circular area Example 9. 73

= 53.3 - 1.1
A concrete path is 6.4 m long, 950 mm wide and
= 52.2 m2 60 mm thick. Calculate the volume.
Number of blocks = area x number/m 2 Volume = length x breadth x depth
= 52.2 x 10 = 6.4 x 0.95 x 0.06
= 522 = 6.08 x 0.05
Add 5% = 0.3648 m3
10% = 52.2 Example 9. 73
Therefore
A concrete lintel is 1.2 m long, 100 mm wide and
5% = 26.1 150 mm deep. Calculate the volume.
= 27 (nearest one above) Volume = length x breadth x depth
Therefore = 1.2 x 0.15 x 0.1
total number of blocks = 522 + 27 = 0.18 x 0.1
= 549 = 0.Q18 m3

and amount of mortar = 1.098 tonnes (1098 kg)

Example 9. 74

A constructional hearth has the measurements shown

in figure 9.10. Calculate the volume of concrete
required.
VOLUMES OF CONCRETE

The amount of concrete required for any project such

as foundations, lintels, paths, slabs, etc. can normally
be calculated from the formula
volume = length x breadth x depth
Only for somewhat unusual shapes, for example,
circular columns, triangular sections, is a different
formula required. It is important to carry out all
calculations, except for very small quantities, in cubic
metres (m 3 ) and therefore where the length, breadth
or depth is given in millimetres it must be converted
to metres before commencement. For example, to
multiply 5 m by 100 mm by 50 mm the figures
Figure 9.70
would be 5 x 0.1 x 0.05 m3 .

Example 9. 72
Note This must be divided into two parts, as shown
A strip foundation for a boundary wall is 12.5 m by the dotted line. The volume of each part is then
long, 600 mm wide and 150 mm thick. Calculate the calculated separately and the parts are added together
volume. to obtain the total volume.
Volume = length x breadth x depth Volume A = length x breadth x depth
= 12.5 x 0.6 x 0.15 = 0.9 x 0.35 x 0.125
=7.5xO.15 = 0.315 x 0.125
=1.125m 3 = 0.039375 m 3
 Quantities of Materials 115

Volume B = length x breadth x depth wrong to simply add 50 per cent, because this too
will suffer from mixing shrinkage. For example
= 0.6 x 0.5 x 0.125
1 m 3 + 50 per cent = 1 .5 m 3
= 0.3 x 0.125
BUT shrinkage is 50 per cent= 0.75 m 3
= 0.0375 m 3
which produces only 0.75 m3
Total volume =A +B
WRONG! (we needed 1 m 3 )
= 0.039375 + 0.0375
The correct method is to multiply by 1~0 as follows:
= 0.076875 m 3
1 m3 x 100 = 2 m3
50
DRY MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS Shrinkage is 50 per cent = 1 m 3
this produces 1 m3
Concrete (which is what was required)
When concrete is to be mixed on site it is sometimes Example 2
necessary to determine the amounts of cement, fine
and coarse aggregate for ordering purposes. While the How many cubic metres of dry materials are required
absolute volume method is the most accurate, because to make 6 m 3 of concrete if the mixing shrinkage is
it involves the use of specific gravities it is dealt with 25 per cent.
in the advanced volume. The following method gives Here again if we simply add 25 per cent to 6 m 3
figures slightly in excess of those required.
The density (mass per cubic metre) of well-com- this gives us 7.5 m 3
pacted concrete is approximately 2400 kg/m 3 , and but shrinkage is 25 per cent = 1.875 m 3
therefore if the mix is to be 1 :2:4 the density should
which produces = 5.625 m 3
be divided by 7 since there are seven parts (1 + 2 + 4)
to give the amount of cement required. This is doubl- WRONG! (we needed 6 m 3 )
ed for the amount of sand and multiplied by 4 for the
coarse aggregate. For example Again the correct method is to multiply by 1~~ as follows:
6m 3 x 100 =8m 3
cement = 2400 '7 7 = 342 kg (just under 7 bags) 75
and shrinkage is 25 per cent = 2 m 3
sand = 342 x 2 = 684 kg
giving 6 m3
stone = 342 x 4 = 1368 kg
(which is what was required)
Similarly, if the mix is to be 1 :3:6 and the density is
2400 kg/m 3 , the density is divided by 10 since there Therefore, given a shrinkage rate of:
are 10 parts (1 + 3 + 6) to give the amount of cement.
This is multiplied by 3 to obtain the amount of sand
and by 6 to obtain the stone. For example
(a) 10 per cent, multiply the required volume by 1:
(b) 20 per cent, multiply the required volume by l~g
cement = 2400 -;- 10 = 240 kg (just under 5 bags)
sand = 240 x 3 = 720 kg (c) 30 per cent, multiply the required volume by l~g
stone = 240 x 6 = 1440 kg (d) 35 per cent, multiply the required volume by 1~
Mixing Shrinkage etc.

Many mistakes are made in examination questions by Mortar

students using the wrong method to arrive at the
answer. Put as simply as possible: The density of mortar is approximately 2300 kg/m 3
and different mixes are used for different situations.
Example 1 For example, a 1:3 cement/sand is normally used for
engineering bricks, whereas 1:6 cement/sand plus
If dry materials to make 1 m 3 of concrete are needed plasticiser may be specified for facing brickwork. For
for a job and the mixing shrinkage is 50 per cent, it is aerated concrete blocks used for the inner leaf of
116 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

external cavity walls 1 :2:8 is quite strong enough. To

calculate the requirements for any mix the density
should be divided by the number of parts to obtain
the cement content and this figure is then multiplied
E
by the number of parts of sand to obtain the sand Ol

content.

Example 9.15

Requirements for a 1 :3 mix are

2300
I·
8m
-I
cement:: - - :: 575 kg (11Y2 bags) Figure 9.11
4
sand:: 575 x 3 :: 1725 kg (1.725 tonnes)
Area :: length x breadth
Example 9.16
::9x6
For a 1:6 mix :: 54 m 2
2300 Area of each tile:: length x breadth
cement:: - - :: 328Y2 kg (about 6Y2 bags)
7
:: 0.3 x 0.3
sand=' 328Y2 x 6:: 1971 kg (1.971 tonnes)
:: 0.09 m 2
Example 9. 17 . . total area
Number of tiles required ::
area of each tile
For a 1 :1 :8 mix
2300 . ::~ 600
cem",nt ""--- :': 230 kg (Just over 4Y2 bags) 0.09 9)5400
10 54
:: 600 00
.
lime:: 2300
- - :: 2 30 kg (just over 9 bags because
l O a bag of lime contains Example 9.19
25 kg)
Ignoring wastage, find the number of 500 x 500 mm
sand:: 230 x 8 :: 1840 kg (1.84 tonnes) paving slabs required to pave the circular area shown
in figure 9.12.

NUMBER OF FLOOR TILES OR PAVING SLABS

To calculate the number of floor tiles or paving slabs

required to cover any given area, the procedure is as
follows
(1) find the total area to be tiled in square metres
o
I_ 10m _I

(2) find the area of each tile in square metres Figure 9.12
(3) divide the total area to be tiled by the area of
each tile Area:: rrr 2
(4) add a percentage for wastage where an allowance
::3.142x5x5
is required.
:: 78.55 m 2
Example 9.18
Area of each slab:: length x breadth
A room measures as shown in figure 9.11. Calculate :: 0.5 x 0.5
the number of 300 x 300 mm tiles required to cover
this area. :: 0.25 m 2
 Quantities of Materials 117

total area Example 9.21

Total number of slabs = - - - - - -
area of each slab
Ignoring wastage, calculate the number of tiles
78.55 314.2 200 mm square required to complete the floor area
=
0.25 25)7855.0 shown in figure 9.14.
75
=314.2 35
25
= 315 105
100
50 E
50 III

Example 9.20

Adding 5 per cent for wastage, calculate the number

of 900 x 600 mm paving slabs required to pave the
area shown in figure 9.13.
E
III

E
a>

I- 8m
-I
Figure 9.14

Area of rectangle = length x breadth

Figure 9.13 = 15 x 8
= 120 m 2
Area = length x breadth = base x height
Area of triangle
=9x3 2
=27 m2 = 8x5
Area of each slab = length x breadth 2

= 0.9 x 0.6 = 20 m2

= 0.54 m 2 Total area = 120 + 20

total area = 140 m 2

Number of slabs required= - - - - - -
area of each slab Area of each tile = length x breadth
27 = 0.2 x 0.2
=
0.54 = 0.04 m 2
= 50 . . total area
Number of tiles required = - - - - - -
Add 5% area of each tile
10%= 5 = 140 35
4)14000
0.04
5% =2Y2 12
20
Total number required = 53 = 3500 20
118 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

Example 9.22 Areas of Irregular Figures

Figure 9.15 shows the plan of a large kitchen floor The approximate area of an irregular figure may be
which is to be tiled with 150 x 150 mm tiles. The determined by a number of methods, including the
area shown shaded is not to be tiled. Calculate the mid-ordinate rule, the squared paper method, the use
total number of tiles required, making no allowance of measuring instruments, and Simpson's rule. It is
for wastage. usually considered sufficient for craft students to
have an understanding of the mid-ordinate rule which
is explained as follows.

"
f--~_m_......-J I
E
I M
I
1

CD
E
E
.....
[ I
I
I
3m
1_
·1
Figure 9.16

Consider figure 9.16. The approximate area of

this figure may be calculated by multiplying the width
7m
I- ·1 by the average height or length, shown by the broken
line, which is known as the mid-ordinate. That is
Figure 9.15
area = width x mid-ordinate
=3x2
Overall area = length x breadth =6 m2
= 16 x 7 Figure 9.17 shows a larger, more complicated area,
and for accuracy this has been divided into a con-
= 112 m2
venient number of strips of equal width. The mid-
Shaded area = length x breadth ordinates are again shown by broken lines.
=7x6 Area of first strip = width x mid-ordinate
= 42 m 2
= 3 x 2.5 = 7.5 m2
Area of secnd strip = width x mid-ordinate
Total area to be tiled = overall area - shaded area
= 3 x 3.5 = 10.5 m2
= 112 -42
= 70 m2
Area of each tile = length x breadth ~/
/' I
=0.15xO.15 I
I
I
= 0.0225 m 2 I
I EI
I
E1
CDI
tiled area
Numberoftiles required = - - - - - - M 1
E' ..,.1 I
I
area of each tile I I
I I

- -70
No. Log
--l
--
0.0225 70
0.0225
1.8451
2.3522
c..,.-_3_m_ _....;9:...;m....;3_m
\-
3m
-,
= 3111 3111 3.4929 Figure 9.17
 Quantities of Materials 119

Area of third strip = width x mid-ordinate

=3x5=15m 2 I
1 I
Total area = 7.5 + 10.5 + 15 = 33 m2 I I
I
I I
A simpler way is to say EI EI
Area = width of strip x sum of the mid-ordinates ~I ~I
-I :!I
I I
= 3 x (2.5 + 3.5 + 5) I
I
I
= 3 x 11 I
I
= 33 m2
Figure 9.18 represents an area of land 12 m wide. To
find the approximate area this must be divided into a
I· 16m

Figure 9.19
number of strips of equal width and the mid-ordinate
of each strip drawn and scaled off as shown. The
length could have been divided into three 4 m wide Note Figure 9.20 shows why the mid-ordinate rule
strips, four 3 m wide strips, twelve 1 m wide strips or, is fairly accurate; the formula directs that the strips
as shown, six 2 m strips; it should be obvious that the are placed end to end and their overall length is then
greater the number of strips, the more accurate will multiplied by the width of the strip.
be the result. One final example is as follows. The irregular
figure shown in figure 9.21 is to be covered with a
layer of concrete 150 mm in depth. Calculate the
volume of concrete required.
Area = width of strip x sum of the mid-ordinates
=4x(5+6+8+10+12+11 +8)
(mid-ordinates averaged)
I
I Area = 4 x 60
I I
I CD I
co = 240 m 2
M: ~ I
I
I Volume = area x thickness
I: m
2m 2~2~m 2m 2:1 = 240 x 0.15

Figure 9.18
=36 m3
Note If the ordinates are all given, the mid-ordinates
may be averaged (figure 9.21). If not they must be
To calculate the area using the formula given scaled off (figure 9.19).
Area = width of strip x sum of the mid-ordinates
= 2 x (2.2 + 2.4 + 2.8 + 3.6 + 4.8 + 10.6)
= 2 x 26.4
BRICKS FOR PAVING
= 52.8 m 2
Figure 9.19 shows an area of land 16 m wide which When brick-on-edge work is being carried out the
has been divided into four strips, each 4 m in width. number of bricks per square metre is as for face brick-
The mid-ordinates are drawn and accurately scaled work, that is, 60; but for brick flat paving there are
off as before. 45 per square metre.
Area = width of strip x sum of the mid-ordinates
= 4 x (6.4 + 10.4 + 12.8 + 14.2) Example 9.23
= 4 x 43.8
Calculate the number of paviors required to pave a
= 175.2 m 2 8.6 m x 7.5 m courtyard with brick flat paving.
120 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

Figure 9.20 F~qUfe 9, 19 drawn by formula

__'-'r----..
I'
I
i
I
I
I E
o
~

------_._~
Figure 9.21

Area :: length x breadth Numb~r of bricks:: area x number/rn 2

= 64.5 x 45
=8.6x7.5
:: 2902.5
= 64.5 m 2 = 2903
 SOME USEFUL CONVERSION
FACTORS

To convert to metric, multiply by the factor given. factor

To convert from metric, divide by the same factor. 3. Volume
cubic inches to cubic millimetres 1639.0
factor cubic feet to cubic metres 0.0283
1. Length cubic yards to cubic metres 0.7646
inches to millimetres 25.4
4. Mass
feet to metres 0.3048
ounces to grams 28.349
yards to metres 0.9144
pounds to grams 453.6
miles to kilometres 1.6093
pounds to kilograms 0.4536
hundredweights to kilograms 50.8023
2. Area tons to tonnes 1.016
square feet to square metres 0.0929 tons to kilograms 1016.05
square yards to square metres 0.8361
acres to square metres 4046.86 5. Capacity
acres to hectares 0.4047 pints to litres 0.568
square miltes to square kilometres 2.59 quarts to litres 1.137
square miles to hectares 258.999 gallons to litres 4.546

121
 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Select your options from the questions below, under- (c) sand limes
line your selection, for example (b), and check your (d) engineerings
answers with those on page 130. -
7. A Y2 brick thick wall is 7.000 x 2.00 m. The
1. The number of site operatives who have lost their number of bricks required will be:
lives during the last eight years because of (a) 960
accidents is just over: (b) 840
(a) 100 (c) 920
(b) 500 (d) 880
(c) 1000 8. The recess in an indented quoin is usually kept to
(d) 2000 a maximum of:
2. When using the third order of levers, the effort is (a) 28 mm
applied: (b) 32 mm
(a) upwards at one end (c) 38 mm
(b) upwards between load and fulcrum
(d) 56 mm
(c) downwards at one end 9. When single herringbone bond is used for rectan-
(d) downwards between load and fulcrum gular panels, the cut bricks on each side will be:
(a) similar
3. Using a pulley, an effort of 400 N will raise a
(b) differing lengths
load creating a force of 700 N. The mechanical
(c) opposite
advantage of the pulley is:
(d) alternate lengths
(a) 0.571
(b) 2.8 10. Clay drains which pass under buildings should be
(c) 28 surrounded with:
(d) 1.75 (a) 200 mm of broken bricks
(b) 100 mm of pea gravel
4. Employees must take reasonable care of the
(c) 150 mm of concrete
health and safety both of themselves and all
other persons who may be affected by their acts (d) 125 mm of sand
or omissions. This is stated in the: 11. The number of facing bricks needed per square
(a) Construction Regulations metre in English, stretcher and Flemish bonds,
(b) Health and Safety at Work Act respectively, are
(c) Building Regulations (a) 120,80,90
(d) Building Safety Manual (b) 80,60,90
(c) 80,90,60
5. A fanguard on a scaffold should have a minimum (d) 90, 60, 80
slope of:
(a) 1 in 6 12. The typical sectional size of a poling board used
(b) 1 in 9 for timbering to trenches is:
(c) 1 in 12 (a) 50 x 25 mm
(d) 1 in 18 (b) 150x100mm
(c) 220 x 37 mm
6. When industrial premises require brick paved (d) 220 x 100 mm
areas, the type of brick most suitable would be:
(a) commons 13. According to the Construction Regulations, the
(b) pressed facings minimum width of a scaffold for men and
122
 Multiple Choice Questions 123

materials is: (b) sterile eye pads, safety pins, triangular

(a) 2 planks wide bandage, adhesive dressings
(b) 3 planks wide (c) triangular bandage, guidance leaflet, aspirins,
(c) 4 planks wide sterile eye pads
(d) 5 planks wide (d) safety pins, sterile eye bath, triangular
bandage, adhesive dresssings
14. A bag of lime has a mass of 25 kg. Because of the
force of gravity this creates a force of approxi- 22. Inlets to drains should have a minimum water
mately: seal of:
(a) 2.5 N (a) 32 mm
(b) 25 N (b) 100 mm
(c) 250 N (c) 75 mm
(d) 250 kN (d) 50 mm
15. The property of a material to allow water to pass 23. The ball test on drain pipes is used as a check for:
through it is called: (a) well worn pipes
(a) capillarity (b) lipping of joints
(b) permeability (c) any leakage in pipes
(c) porosity (d) correct amount of fall
(d) absorption
24. The scaffold fitting used to connect a cross brace
16. If 150 kg of cement is used in a concrete mix and
to a standard is a:
the water/cement ratio is 0.6, the number of
(a) double coupler
Iitres of water needed is: (b) universal coupler
(a) 60 (c) swivel coupler
(b) 90 (d) sleeve coupler
(c) 100
(d) 150 25. Sole plates are used in scaffolding:
17. A well-graded aggregate may be described as: (a) when ground bearing strength is suspect
(a) limestone chippings (b) if there are no window openings
(b) particles of a similar size (c) to accommodate varying standard lengths
(c) 1:3:6 cement, sand and stone (d) where independent scaffolds are required
(d) from the coarsest specified down to dust
26. Before a hoarding can be erected in a public
18. When constructing tumbling-in, the ratio of thoroughfare, the contractor must obtain a
tumbled courses to horizontal courses should be: licence from the:
(a) 3:20r3:4 (a) The Health and Safety inspector
(b) 4:20r3:2 (b) local authority
(c) 6:4 or 4:2 (c) building control office
(d) 3:4 or 6:4 (d) licensing authority
19. Bricks used for corbelling should be: 27. The simplest herringbone panel to set out and
(a) soaked before use build is:
(b) sprayed and damped (a) single
(c) dry and clean (b) double
(d) only slightly damp (c) feather
20. Quetta bond contains internal pockets within the (d) diagonal
wall thickness which measure:
28. When terminating an attached pier by tumbling-
(a) 56 x 102 mm
in, if the number of horizontal courses and the
(b) 102 x 102 mm
number of inclined courses are both even, the
(c) 168 x 102 mm
result will be:
(d) 56 x 56 mm
(a) broken bond below the tumbling courses
21. The following items can be found in a first aid (c) no problems with the bonding
box: (c) straight joints occurring above the tumbling
(a) triangular bandage, scissors, sterile dressings, courses
safety pins (d) broken bond above the tumbling courses
124 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

29. How many cubic metres of dry materials are (c) 1.750 m
needed to make 4 m 3 of concrete if mixing (d) 1.150 m
shrinkage is 20 per cent?
38. A tapered straightedge is used in conjunction
(a) 4.4
with:
(b) 4.8
(a) sight rails
(c) 5.0
(b) foundation brickwork
(d) 6.0
(c) drain pipes
30. To provide intermediate support for ground floor (d) stepped foundations
joists, the following should be provided:
39. The water-test requires a head of water at the
(a) fender walls
highest point not exceeding:
(b) purlin walls
(a) 1.000 m
(c) loadbearing walls
(b) 1.500 m
(d) sleeper walls
(c) 1.400 m
31. A chimney stack measures 900 x 450 on plan. Its (d) 1.200 m
maximum height including the terminal would be:
40. In drainage systems rigid joints are formed by
(a) 900 mm using:
(b) 1.8 m (a) plastic cement and fibre glass rope
(c) 2.0 m (b) fibre glass rope and cement mortar
(d) 2.025 m (c) tarred gaskin and plastic cement
32. The test on fine aggregate which involves the use (d) cement mortar and tarred gaskin
of a salt solution is the test for:
(a) organic impurities
(b) efflorescence
(c) silt content
(d) mixing shrinkage
33. The minimum projection for a ladder above the
top of a working platform is:
(a) 1.2 m
(b) 1.0 m
(c) 900 mm
(d) 600 mm
34. Leaning chimney stacks often indicate:
(a) sulphate attack
41. The figure illustrates a relieving arch over a lintel.
(b) poor workmanship
(c) defective pointing
The part marked x is the:
(d) roof subsidence
(a) turning piece
35. Cat or crawling ladders are used: (b) core
(a) within buildings (c) centre
(b) in trench excavation (d) intrados
(c) between scaffolds
42. A double coupler is used on a scaffold:
(d) for roof work
(a) to fasten transoms to ledgers
36. A rubber-headed mawl is used to: (b) in all positions where strength is required
(a) compact hardcore fill (c) for all longitudinal bracing
(b) fix paving slabs (d) for all transverse bracing
(c) lay drain pipes
43. If a working drawing is made to a scale of 1 :50, a
(d) level brick paving
length of 7.5 m would be shown on the drawing
37. The vertical height of a ladder is 5.0 m, so the by a length of:
amount of horizontal distance to the foot of the (a) 150 mm
ladder will be: (b) 250 mm
(a) 1.250 m (c) 75 mm
(b) 1.500 m (d) 15 mm
 Multiple Choice Questions 125

4 kN 51. The horizontal distance between standards is

termed:

1 (a) span
(b) spacing
(c) lift
RJ tRR (d) bay

1-
2m
·1·
6m
.I 52. The maximum projection of a scaffold board over
its end support is equal to its thickness multipied
by:
44. What will the reactions be at RL and RR in the
problem shown in the figure?
(a) 2
(b) 3
(a) 3 kN and 1 kN
(c) 4
(b) 4 kN and 2 kN (d) 6
(c) 2 kN and 4 kN 53. Sand-lime bricks are subjected to steam-curing in
(d) 3 kN and 1 kN order to:
(a) harden them
45. Densities of building materials are usually stated (b) dry them before firing
in: (c) lower the moisture content
(a) N/mm 3 (d) ensure an even colour
(b) kg/m 3
(c) kN/m 2 54. The slump test is commonly used to test concrete
(d) kgfm 2 for:
(a) final strength
46. Step irons used in manholes should be spaced at (b) workability
a maximum vertical distance of: (c) water content
(a) 225 mm (d) setting and hardening
(b) 350 mm
(c) 300 mm
55. The elevation shown in the figure is an example
(d) 200 mm
of:
47. The internal surfaces of formwork to concrete
lintels should be coated with mould oil in order
to:
(a) apply a particular finish
(b) prev.ent leakage of cement grout
(c) assist the striking process
(d) produce a waterproof surface (a) English bond
(b) reverse bond
48. The drainage fitting which is used at the bottom (c) English cross bond
of a soil pipe is a: (d) Dutch bond
(a) rest bend
(b) gulley trap
56. The underside of a segmental arch is called the:
(c) rain-water shoe
(a) skewback
(d) back-inlet gulley
(b) intrados
49. A saddle fitting is used to: (c) haunch
(a) reduce the rate of flow (d) soffit
(b) connect drains to sewers
57. The best way to reduce heat losses through the
(c) form outlets from manholes
external walls of a domestic building is to:
(d) inspect long lengths of pipes
(a) build the inner leaf 1 brick thick in engineer-
50. Guard rails are provided when operatives are ings
liable to fall more than: (b) have an unventilated cavity between the two
(a) 1.5 m leaves
(b) 2.0 m (c) use 100 mm aerated concrete blocks for the
(c) 1.8 m inner leaf
(d) 2.0 m (d) fill the cavity with fibre glass
126 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

58. Drainpipes are no longer made or used in the UK 63. The figure shows a sectional elevation through a
in the following material: concrete strip foundation. In order to comply
(a) uPVC with Building Regulations, the dimension marked
(b) concrete x should be:
(c) clay
(d) pitch fibre
59. Flue liners for solid fuel appliances should be
bedded in:
(a) the same mortar used for the brickwork of
the stack
(b) high alumina cement mortar
(c) sulphate resisting cement mortar
(d) lime sand mortar
(not to scale)
60. Flexible jointed pipes should be bedded on:
(a) pea gravel (a) 100mm
(b) clinker ash (b) 150 mm
(c) river sand (c) 200 mm
(d) crushed bricks (d) 300 mm
61. The figure shows a: 64. The figure shows the first three bricks needed for
the commencement of a decorative panel in:

(a) diagonal basket-weave

(b) single herringbone
(c) diagonal herringbone
(d) basket-weave
65. Vertical reinforcement within brick walls is used
(a) king closer to:
(a) combat compressive loading
(b) bevelled closer
(b) resist lateral pressure
(c) mitred bat
(c) prevent moisture penetration
(d) cant brick
(d) strengthen weak mortar
62. The figure shows a plan course of a 1Y2 brick 66. When walls one brick in thickness have to be
square detached pier in: vertically reinforced, the bond most suitable
would be:
(a) header bond
(b) English bond
(c) modern face bond
(d) rat trap bond
67. The minimum going for a concrete tread to
domestic stairs is:
(a) 200 mm
(b) 300 mm
(c) 350 mm
(a) English bond
(d) 220 mm
(b) stretcher bond 68. Brick steps should have a rise not exceeding:
(c) Flemish bond (a) 200 mm
(d) Flemish garden wall bond (b) 350 mm
 Multiple Choice Questions 127

(c) 300 mm 74. A dentil course should not project more than:
(d) 220 mm (a) 75 mm
(b) 28 mm
69. The minimum height for a handrail to a stair-
(c) 56 mm
case, above the pitch line, is:
(d) 12 mm
(a) 780 mm
(b) 840 mm 75. A string course is built:
(c) 740 mm (a) around the face of a building
(d) 880 mm (b) over window openings
(c) under certain types of arches
70. Drawings (0) and (b) in the figure show the foot
(d) below window sills
of a raking strut, resting on a concrete base. The
strut is being tightened up by means of a lever. 76. Square diagonal basketweave panels are set out:
The order of levers shown in (0) and (b) respec- (a) below the centre line
tively is the: (b) from the sides of the panel
(c) at the base of the panel
(d) from the centre
77. Plinth courses are normally used to:
(a) form a decorative effect
(b) increase the wall thickness
(c) provide an alternative bond
(d) reduce the wall thickness
78. The equipment required to carry out tumbling-in
work is:
(a) bevel, square, lines, templet
(a) (b)
(b) square, templet, gun, bevel
(a) first and second (c) lines, square, templet, gun
(b) second and third (d) gun, lines, bevel, square
(c) first and third 79. Corbel courses are used to:
(d) second and first (a) form string courses
71. One reason why diagonal herringbone is the (b) increase wall thickness
easiest herringbone panel to set out and build is (c) increase stability
because: (d) terminate piers
(a) all the work is at 45° 80. The height, base diameter and top diameter of
(b) no diagonal cutting is necessary the slump cone are respectively:
(c) all the cut bricks are the same size (a) 300, 200, 100 mm
(d) all bricks to be cut can be marked from the (b) 300,150,100 mm
same bevel (c) 200, 150, 100 mm
72. Given that the mechanical advantage of a certain (d) 300, 200, 150 mm
pulley is 3, an effort of 150 N will raise a load 81. The Factory Inspector must be notified:
creating a force of: (a) if materials delivered to site do not comply
(a) 50 N with a BS
(b) 150 N (b) if a hoarding is to be erected in a public
(c) 300 N thoroughfare
(d) 450 N (c) where an injury involves absence from work
for 3 days or more
73. When carrying out the slump test on a sample of
concrete, the number of layers in which the cone (d) before pouring concrete in an excavation for
a foundation
is filled and the number of times each layer is
rodded is: 82. A header is placed adjacent to the quoin three-
(a) 3 and 25 quarter on every other course of stretchers. This
(b) 4 and 25 bond is:
(c) 3 and 35 (a) English garden wall
(d) 4 and 35 (b) English cross
728 Brickwork 3 and Associated Studies

(c) Dutch (b) ram

(d) monk chevron (c) tamp
83. A label course is used: (d) vibrator
(a) over the top of an arch
89. When clay subsoil becomes wet and freezes,
(b) to tie separate rings of an arch together
foundations may be disrupted. This is known as:
(c) as a decorative feature at storey height
(a) frost heave
(d) below a relieving arch on a concrete lintel
(b) settlement
84. Which order of levers is shown in the figure? (c) subsidence
(d) foundation failure
90. The setsquare used for isometric drawing contains
three different angles. These are:
(a) 45°,45°,90°
(b) 30°,30°,90°
(c) 30°,60°,90°
effort
(d) 30°,45°,90°
91. Corner profiles for setting out a building may be
(a) first constructed from:
(b) second (a) three pegs and two boards
(c) third (b) two pegs and two boards
(d) fourth (c) three pegs and three boards
85. Ignoring the self-weight of the simple lever (d) two pegs and one board
shown in the figure, what force is needed at x 92. The type of foundation normally used on a
for equilibrium? sloping site is a:
(a) stepped foundation
(b) deep strip foundation
x 6 kN
(c) short bored pile foundation

j LS
L (d) continuous foundation
93. When a trench is excavated the spoil increases in
volume. This is known as:
(a) expansion
4m 2m
1- -I· (b) bulking
(c) swelling
(d) surplus spoil
(a) 2 kN
94. Wire cut bricks may be recognised because they
(b) 3 kN
have:
(c) 4 kN
(a) scratches on the face
(d) 6 kN
(b) shiny surfaces
86. The use of a boat level is desirable when: (c) no frogs
(a) using a long straightedge (d) deep frogs
(b) levelling individual bricks
95. A suitable foundation for domestic buildings built
(c) tamping oversite concrete
on shrinkable clay subsoils is a:
(d) checking small quoins for plumb
(a) raft
87. To remove a brick from an existing wall, it is (b) wide strip
necessary to use a lump hammer and a: (c) stepped
(a) plugging chisel (d) short bored piled
(b) raking out pick
96. Extra wall ties are necessary in cavity walls of
(c) brick bolster
domestic buildings when the:
(d) tiling chisel
(a) house is to be built on reclaimed land
88. A long, timber straightedge used to compact (b) building is to be over three storeys in height
concrete is called a: (c) cavity is in excess of 75 mm wide
(a) punner (d) building is to be heavily loaded
 Multiple Choice Questions 129

97. To prevent displacement of struts in trench 99. The number of bricks required to carry out the
timbering, the following are used: efflorescence test according to BS 3921 is:
(a) lipping pieces (a) 10
(b) waling boards (b) 20
(c) puncheons (c) 24
(d) page wedges (d) 36
100. The term 'batching' of concrete materials refers
98. Curing concrete refers to: to:
(a) Correcting faults on the surface (a) mixing
(b) adding extra water to the mixer (b) measuring
(c) keeping it damp while hardening (c) pouring
(d) regularly checking the water content (d) transporting
 ANSWERS TO
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. (e) 35. (d) 68. (d)

2. (b) 36. (b) 69. (b)
3. (d) 37. (a) 70. (d)
4. (b) 38. (e) 71. (b)
5. (e) 39. (b) 72. (d)
6. (d) 40. (d) 73. (a)
7. (b) 41. (b) 74. (b)
8. (a) 42. (b) 75. (a)
9. (a) 43. (a) 76. (d)
10. (b) 44. (a) 77. (d)
11. (d) 45. (b) 78. (d)
12. (e) 46. (e) 79. (b)
13. (e) 47. (e) 80. (a)
14. (e) 48. (a) 81. (e)
15. (b) 49. (b) 82. (e)
16. (b) 50. (b) 83. (a)
17. (d) 51. (d) 84. (b)
18. (b) 52. (e) 85. (b)
19. (d) 53. (a) 86. (b)
20. (a) 54. (b) 87. (a)
21. (b) 55. (e) 88. (e)
22. (d) 56. (d) 89. (a)
23. (b) 57. (d) 90. (e)
24. (e) 58. (d) 91. (a)
25. (a) 59. (a) 92. (a)
26. (b) 60. (a) 93. (b)
27. (d) 61. (b) 94. (e)
28. (b) 62. (a) 95. (d)
29. (e) 63. (e) 96. (e)
30. (d) 64. (b) 97. (a)
31. (d) 65. (b) 98. (e)
32. (e) 66. (d) 99. (a)
33. (b) 67. (d) 100. (b)
34. (a)

730
 INDEX

abrasive wheels 2 ear defenders 2 pattern walling 10, 11, 13

accidents 1 Exmet 26 paving patterns 105
air test 53 eye protectors 23 paving slabs 99, 100
air-bag stopper 53 pierced walling 10
face mask 2 pitch fibre pipes 43
fan guard 4, 5 pitch line 31
backfilling 44 plinth courses 18-21
fibre glass rope 85
badger 53 firebacks 84, 85 protection of eyes 2, 3
ball test 54 first aid 3 protective footwear 2
balustrade 33 flight (stairs) 31 pulleys 75-7
band course 6, 7 puncheon 61
basket weave 17 punner 101
benching 51 gaskin 40,41
putlog 61
block indent 92, 94 gin wheel 62, 76
putlog scaffold 67,68
block requirements 112, 114 going (stairs) 31
bracing scaffolds 61 ground water 35
brick elevator 78 guard rail 61 rag bolts 95-8
brick paving 101 gun 25 rakers 61, 69
brick requirements 108-14 recessed quoin 6, 8
brick slips 102 Health and Safety Executive 1, 2 repointing 91
brick steps 31-3 helmets 3 reveal pin 69
Brickforce 26,27,30 herringbone panels RIDDOR 1
Bricktor 27 diagonal 15 ringbolt 69, 70
bridle tube 61 double 19 rise (stairs) 31
feather 19 riser 31
single 17,18 rocker pipe 40
cantilever bracket 95,96 rod reinforcement 28
Highways Act 4
cat ladder 88 rusticated quoin 6, 7, 10
Hilti ringbolts 69,70
catchpit 38
hoarding 4
channel pipes 43
hoist 79 saddle 42,45
chimney scaffold 86-9
hoop-iron 27 sample panels 91
chimney stacks 86-8
clay drainpipes 38,40 scaffold fittings 62-6
cleaning brickwork 91 indented quoins 6, 8 screed board 103
compound paving 107 independent scaffold 68-70 screen blocks 11, 16
concrete steps 31-3 inspection chambers 50,51 screw jack 73,74,76
Construction Regulations 3,60 interceptor trap 49 Site Safety Year 1
conversion tables 101 invert levels 56-8 slip joint 93
corbelling 20-2 irregular figures 118-20 soakaway 38
corrugated cardboard 85 soil water 35
cutting drainpipes 55,56 lap work 11, 15 spandrel step 33
ledger 60 stairs - definitions 31
lever 79-83 standard 60
decorative panels 13, 14
step iron 51
dentil course 6, 7 strap work 12
dermatitis 2 Maguire's rule 39
manometer 54 subsoil drainage 35-8
diagonal basket-weave 17, 18
mawl 101 surface water 35
dog-tooth course 6, 8
dolly 45 middling boards 52
drain plug 53 moment 81 testi ng d rai ns
multi-choice 122-30
drainage fittings 41, 42 air test 53
drainage systems ball test 54
combined 45,47 nosing 31 reflection 54
part separate 46,48 number of bricks/m 2 108-12 smoke test 53
separate 45,47 water test 53
drainpipes 37 O-ring 41,43 through tie 69
131
732 Index

toe board 61, 66 trestle scaffold 71 Wallforce 27

toothing 93 tucking board 52 waste water 35
tower scaffold 71, 73 wedge 73,76
traveller 53,58 uPVC pipes 43 window sills 89,90
tread (stair) 31 working platform 70,71
trench timbering 52 volumes of concrete 114-16