Hydrologic cycle

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or H2O cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. Water can change states among liquid, vapour, and ice at various places in the water cycle. Although the balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time, individual water molecules can come and go, in and out of the atmosphere. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow. In so doing, the water goes through different phases: liquid, solid, and gas. The hydrologic cycle also involves the exchange of heat energy, which leads to temperature changes. For instance, in the process of evaporation, water takes up energy from the surroundings and cools the environment. Conversely, in the process of condensation, water releases energy to its surroundings, warming the environment. The water cycle figures significantly in the maintenance of life and ecosystems on Earth. Even as water in each reservoir plays an important role, the water cycle brings added significance to the presence of water on our planet. By transferring water from one reservoir to another, the water cycle purifies water, replenishes the land with freshwater, and transports minerals to different parts of the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through such processes as erosion and sedimentation. In addition, as the water cycle involves heat exchange, it exerts an influence on climate as well. The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates as water vapor into the air. Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. Rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move water vapor around the globe; cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Snow packs can thaw and melt, and the melted water flows over land as snowmelt. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with stream flow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and groundwater are stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater

discharge. Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs. Over time, the water returns to the ocean, where our water cycle started. Different Processes Precipitation Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface . Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip Canopy interception The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage and eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than falling to the ground. Snowmelt The runoff produced by melting snow. Runoff The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses. Infiltration The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater. Subsurface Flow The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years. Evaporation The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere.[4] The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are specifically referred to as evapotranspiration. Total annual evapotranspiration amounts to approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water, 434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of which evaporates from the oceans. Sublimation The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor. Advection The movement of water in solid, liquid, or vapor states through the atmosphere. Without advection, water that evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land. Condensation The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog. Transpiration The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air. Water vapor is a gas that cannot be seen. INTRODUCTION water borne desiese People can survive days, weeks or months without food, but only about four days without water. The body uses water for digestion, absorption, circulation, transporting nutrients, building tissues, carrying away waste and maintaining body temperature. The average adult consumes and excretes about 10 cups of water daily. Adults should drink six to eight cups of liquids per day. Although most of this liquid should come from beverages, food supplies some water. Our

bodies make water as a by-product in the breakdown of fats, sugars and proteins to energy. Water is always two parts hydrogen to one part oxygen. Beyond that, its composition depends on where it comes from, how it is processed and handled. Water can be hard or soft, natural or modified, bottled or tap, carbonated or still. About one-half of our water comes from underground water tables (groundwater) and one-half from surface water in rivers, lakes and reservoirs. Water-borne diseases are any illness caused by drinking water contaminated by human or animal faeces, which contain pathogenic microorganisms.The full picture of water-associated diseases is complex for a number of reasons. Over the past decades, the picture of water-related human health issues has become increasingly comprehensive, with the emergence of new water-related infection diseases and the reemergence of ones already known. Spatio-temporal data are available for some water-, sanitation- and hygiene-related diseases The burden of several disease groups can only partly be attributed to water determinants. Even where water plays an essential role in the ecology of diseases, it may be hard to pinpoint the relative importance of aquatic components of the local ecosystems. CONSEQUENCES OF HEALTH Poor sanitation and contaminated drinking water are two of the most common environmental hazards in many countries of the world. Inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene account for a large part of the burden of illness and death in developing countries. Lack of clean water and sanitation is the second most important risk factor in terms of the global burden of disease, after malnutrition. Some 1.1 billion people do not have access to safe water; almost 2.5 billion lack basic sanitation. A large segment of these people live in 49 developing countries. These countries are experiencing increasing cases of water-related diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea and dysentery. Growing water crisis in the countries has adverse effects on their longterm development. A number of research activities and a series of conferences on water and international communities efforts to improve the overall situation of water in these countries are going on, but water scarcity and lack of access to water and sanitation still continue. DIMENSION OF THE PROBLEM In developing countries four-fifths of all the illnesses are caused by water-borne diseases, with diarrhoea being the leading cause of childhood death. Water related diseases account for some 2.2 million deaths annually and an annual loss of 82.2 million Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). WHO estimates indicate that worldwide over 2 billion people are infected with schistosomes and soil transmitted helminthes and 300 million of these suffer serious illness as a result. Diarrhoea occurs worldwide and causes 4% of all deaths and 5% of the health loss to disability. In Bangladesh alone, some 35 million people are exposed, on a daily basis, to elevated levels of arsenic in their drinking water, which will ultimately threaten their health and shorten their life expectancy. After the Tsunami attack in Asia on 26th of December 2004 people faced the threat of water borne diseases, linked to flood waters like Shigellosis, Cholera, Hepatitis A, Leptospirosis, Typhoid Fever, Malaria and Dengue fever. Transmission Water borne diseases spread by contamination of drinking water systems with the urine and faeces of infected animal or people. This is likely to occur where public and private drinking water systems get their water from surface waters (rain, rivers, lakes etc.), which can be contaminated by infected animals or people. Runoff from landfills, septic fields, sewer pipes, residential or industrial developments can also sometimes contaminate surface water. This has been the cause of many dramatic outbreaks of faecal-oral diseases such as cholera and typhoid. However, there are many other ways in which faecal material can reach the mouth, for instance on the hands or on contaminated food. In general, contaminated food is the single most common way in

which people become infected. The germs in the faeces can cause the diseases by even slight contact and transfer. This contamination may occur due to floodwaters, water runoff from landfills, septic fields, and sewer pipes. The only way to break the continued transmission is to improve the peoples hygienic behaviour and to provide them with certain basic needs: drinking water, washing and bathing facilities and sanitation. Malaria transmission is facilitated when large numbers of people sleep outdoors during hot weather, or sleep in houses that have no protection against invading mosquitoes. Malaria mosquitoes, tropical black flies, and bilharzias snails can all be controlled with efficient drainage because they all depend on water to complete their life cycles. WATER BORNE DISEASES Cholera Cholera is an acute, diarrhoeal illness caused by infection of the intestine with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. A person may get cholera by drinking water or eating food contaminated with the cholera bacterium. The disease can spread rapidly in areas with inadequate treatment of sewage and drinking water. The cholera bacterium may also live in the environment in brackish rivers and coastal waters. Approximately 1 in 20 infected people has severe disease characterized by profuse watery diarrhoea, vomiting and leg cramps. In these people rapid loss of body fluids leads to dehydration and shoal. Without treatment death can occur within hours. Cholera cases and deaths were officially reported by WHO, in the year 2000, from 27 countries in Africa, 9 countries in Latin America, 13 countries in Asia, 2 countries in Europe, and 4 countries in Oceania. In the same year some 140,000 cases resulting in approximately 5000 deaths were officially notified at WHO. Africa accounted for 87% of these cases. Dengue Dengue is an acute infectious disease caused by a virus and transmitted by the bite of the Aedes mosquito, also known as break bone fever and bone-crusher disease. Dengue fever is a severe, flu-like illness that affects infants, young children and adults but rarely causes death. The symptoms, following an incubation period of five to eight days, are fever, chills, and severe headache, pain in the joints, sweating, and prostration. The clinical features vary according to the age of the patient. Infants and young children may have a feverish illness with rash. Older children and adults may have either a mild feverish illness, or the classical incapacitating disease with abrupt onset and high fever, severe headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and joint pains and rash. Dengue hemorrhagic is a potentially lethal complication and is today a leading cause of childhood death in several Asian countries. It is characterized by high fever, haemorrhage, often enlargement of the liver, and in the most severe cases circulatory failure. Today, dengue is found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, predominately in urban and per urban areas, where Aedes mosquitoes are prevalent. Globally there are an estimated 50-100 million cases of dengue fever each year. Diarrhoea Diarrhoea is frequent discharge of watery faeces from the intestines, sometimes containing blood and mucus. Diarrhoea due to infection may last a few days, or several weeks, as in persistent diarrhoea. Persistent diarrhoea may result i n severe dehydration and shock. It is therefore necessary to replace the fluid lost by the body. Severe diarrhoea may be life threatening due to fluid loss in watery diarrhoea, particularly in infants and young children, the malnourished and people with impaired immunity. Diarrhoea is a concomitant of many infectious diseases, especially typhoid fever, bacillary or amoebic dysentery, and cholera. Diarrhoea is a symptom of infection by a host of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms most of which can be spread by contaminated water. It is a rare occurrence for most people who live in developed countries where sanitation is widely available, access to safe water is wide and personal and domestic hygiene is relatively good. Diarrhoea due to infection is widespread throughout the developing world. In Southeast Asia and Africa it is responsible for 8.5% and 7.7% of all deaths respectively. In 1998 it was estimated to have killed 2.2 million people, most of whom where under 5 years old. Fluorosis

Fluorosis is an abnormal condition caused by excessive intake of fluorine, as from fluoridated drinking water, characterized chiefly by mottling of the teeth. Moderate level chronic exposure (above 1.5 mg/l of water) is quite common. Long-term ingestion of large amounts can lead to potentially severe skeletal problems (skeletal fluorosis). The early symptoms of skeletal fluorosis include stiffness and pain in the joints. In severe case, the bone structure may change and ligaments may calcify, with resulting impairment of muscles and pain. Acute high-level exposure to fluoride causes immediate effects of abdominal pain, excessive saliva, nausea and vomiting. Seizures and muscle spasm may also occur. It is believed that fluorosis affects millions of people around the world, but as regards dental fluorosis the very mild forms are the most frequent. Waters with high levels of fluoride content are mostly found at the foot of high mountains and in areas where the sea has made geological deposits. Known fluoride belt on land include: one that stretches from Syria through Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Sudan and Kenya, and another that stretches from Turkey through Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, India, northern Thailand and China. Hepatitis In medicine hepatitis is any disease featuring inflammation of the liver. Two of the viruses that cause hepatitis (hepatitis A and E) can be transmitted through water, food and from person to person. Hygiene is therefore important in their control. The illness starts with an abrupt ons et of fever, body weakness, loss of appetite, nausea and abdominal discomfort, followed by jaundice within a few days. The disease may range from mild (lasting 1-2 weeks) to severe disabling disease (lasting several months). Both hepatitis A and E are found worldwide. Hepatitis A is particularly frequent in countries with poor sanitary and hygienic conditions (in Africa, Asia, and Central and South America). Countries with economies in transition and some regions of industrialized countries where sanitary conditions are sub-standard are also high affected (southern and eastern Europe and some parts of the Middle East). Leptospirosis Leptospirosis is an infectious disease of domestic animals, especially cattle, swine, and dogs, caused by spirochetes of the genus Leptospira and characterized by jaundice and fever. It is transmissible to humans through direct contact with the urine of infected animals or by contact with a urine-contaminated environment, such as surface water, soil and plants. In humans it causes a wide range of symptoms, and some infected people may have no symptoms at all. Because of the wide range of symptoms the infection is often wrongly diagnosed. This leads to a lower registered number of cases than there really are. Symptoms of leptospirosis include high fever, severe headache, chills, muscle aches, and vomiting, and may include jaundice, red eyes, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, or a rash. Complications include renal failure, meningitis, liver failure, and respiratory distress. In rare cases death occurs. Leptospirosis occurs worldwide, in both rural and urban areas and in temperate and tropical climates. The number of human cases worldwide is not well documented. It probably ranges from 0.1 to 1 per 100,000 per year in temperate climates to 10 or more per 100,000 may be infected. For several reasons leptospirosis is overlooked and consequently underreported in many areas of the world. Malaria Malaria is the worlds most important parasitic disease transmitted from one person to another through the bite of female Anopheles mosquitoes, which breed in fresh or occasionally brackish water. Its symptoms are at the onset of malaria, bouts of chills (ague) and fever lasting several hours and occurring every three or four days. If the disease is not treated, the spleen and the liver become enlarged, anaemia develops, and jaundice appears. General debility, anaemia, or clogging of the vessels of cerebral tissues by affected red blood cells can be followed by death. Today, malaria occurs mostly in tropical and subtropical countries, particularly in Africa south of the Sahara, South-East Asia and the forest fringe zones in South America. Scabies Scabies is a highly contagious parasitic skin disease caused by the itch mite (Sarcoptes scabiei). It is acquired through close contact with an infested individual or contaminated clothing

and is most prevalent among those living in crowded and unhygienic conditions. Personal hygiene is an important preventive measure and access to adequate water supply is important in control. The principal sign of the disease is a pimple-like rash that is most commonly found on hands, especially the webbing between the fingers, the skin folds of the wrist, elbow or knee, the penis, the breast or the shoulder. Infestation often causes intense itching all over the body, especially at night. Scabies mites are found worldwide, affecting all socioeconomic classes and in all climates. Epidemics have been linked to poverty, poor water supply, sanitation, and overcrowding. There are about 300 million cases of scabies in the world each year. Typhoid Typhoid and paratyphoid enteric fever are acute, generalized infections caused by Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphoid is respectively. The main sources of infection are contaminated water or milk and, especially in urban communities, food handlers who are carriers. Their germs are passed in the faeces and urine of infected people. People become infected after eating food or drinking beverages that have been handled by a person who is infected or by drinking water that has been contaminated by sewage containing the bacteria. Once the bacteria enter the persons body they multiply and spread from the intestines, into the bloodstream. The symptoms of typhoid appear 10 to 14 days after infection; they can be mild or severe and include high fever, rose-colored spots on the abdomen and chest, diarrhoea or constipation, and enlargement of the spleen and liver. In untreated patients complications may be numerous, affecting practically every body system, and can even include perforation of the intestine with haemorrhage. Complications account for the mortality rate of 7% to 14%. The annual incidence of typhoid is estimated to be about 17 million cases worldwide. Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers are common in less-industrialized countries, principally owing to they problem of unsafe drinking water, inadequate sewage disposal and flooding. HEALTH EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION Water pollution is defined as a change in the chemical, physical and biological health of water due to human activity. Ways that humans have affected the quality of the water over the centuries include sewage disposal, toxic contamination through heavy metals and pesticides, over development of the water's edge, runoff from agriculture and urbanization, and air pollution. Under the belief that water could dilute any substance, industries and individuals often used rivers and lakes as garbage cans. Industrial effluent, raw sewage and animal carcasses would often be dumped into waterways, without much thought of contamination and downstream neighbors. This practice started changing in the recent decades as people became aware of the importance of clean water to health. However, as more industries and people moved into the urban centres, the more the rivers and lakes became polluted. Today, pollutants enter the water bodies in many different ways, but the main three entryways of pollutants are point source, nonpoint source and atmospheric pollution. Point Source Pollution When pollutants enter the river though it is a specific entry point, such as a drainpipe draining directly into a river, it's called point source pollution. Industrial water discharges and sewage treatment plants are the main sources of this type of pollution. Point source pollutants can include many different organic and inorganic substances, including human waste and toxic metals. Point source pollution can be traced to a specific discharge point and owner; therefore, it has been the easiest source of pollution to control and regulate. Now most of the industrial units use control measures to reduce their toxic discharge, and the number of sewage treatment facilities has doubled. Non-Point Source Pollution In contrast to point source pollution, nonpoint source (or NPS) pollution comes from many different diffuse sources and is extremely difficult to regulate and control; therefore, many experts believe that NPS pollution is the top hazard facing the major water bodiestoday.

NPS pollution is mainly caused by runoff, when rain water and snow melt move over the land, picking up pollutants along the way and eventually dumping the pollutants into rivers, tanks and lakes. Some common NPS pollutants include fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural lands and homeowners; oil, grease and salt from highways; sediment from construction sites and eroding shorelines; and animal and human waste. EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION Water pollution affects the health of the waterway, the health of the organisms living in and around the water bodies, a nd, eventually, the health of humans. The effects of water pollution can range from aquatic deformities to contaminated fish to dead lakes. Toxic pollutants can also alter the genetic makeup of an organism, resulting in either death or extreme deformities. Studies have found cormorants suffering from cross-billed syndrome at rates 42 percent times the natural occurrence, while terns exhibit birth defects From dioxin, PCBs and furan exposure at 31 times the normal levels. Other examples of Deformities include large fish tumors and three-legged frogs. Persistent Organic Pollutants, or POPs, such as dioxin, PCBs and DDT, are chemical substances that persist in the environment and bioaccumulation through the food web; therefore, POPs can also cause sickness and disease in humans, who are at the end of the food chain. People who regularly consume a lot of fish will have larger levels of toxic chemicals in their bodies than those who only eat fish occasionally. While scientists are s till studying the effects of high chemical levels in humans, studies have suggested that toxic chemicals can lead to reproductive problems, cancer and neurological disorders. People who are most at risk of health problems due to contaminated fish consumption are those with weakened immune systems, including children, pregnant women and the elderly. Water conservation Water conservation refers to reducing the usage of water and recycling of waste water for different purposes such as cleaning, manufacturing, and agricultural irrigation. Water conservation can be defined as: 1. Any beneficial reduction in water loss, use or waste as well as the preservation of water quality. 2. A reduction in water use accomplished by implementation of water conservation or water efficiency measures; or, 3. Improved water management practices that reduce or enhance the beneficial use of water. A water conservation measure is an action, behavioral change, device, technology, or improved design or process implemented to reduce water loss, waste, or use. Water efficiency is a tool of water conservation. That results in more efficient water use and thus reduces water demand. The value and cost-effectiveness of a water efficiency measure must be evaluated in relation to its effects on the use and cost of other natural resources (e.g. energy or chemicals) Goals The goals of water conservation efforts include as follows:

Sustainability. To ensure availability for future generations, the withdrawal of fresh water from an ecosystem should not exceed its natural replacement rate. Energy conservation. Water pumping, delivery, and wastewater treatment facilities consume a significant amount of energy. In some regions of the world (for example, California) over 15% of total electricity consumption is devoted to water management.

Habitat conservation. Minimizing human water use helps to preserve fresh water habitats for local wildlife and migrating waterfowl, as well as reducing the need to build new dams and other water diversion infrastructure.

Social solutions Water conservation programs are typically initiated at the local level, by either municipal water utilities or regional governments. Common strategies include public outreach campaigns, tiered water rates (charging progressively higher prices as water use increases), or restrictions on outdoor water use such as lawn watering and car washing.[5] Cities in dry climates often require or encourage the installation of xeriscaping or natural landscaping in new homes to reduce outdoor water usage. One fundamental conservation goal is universal metering. The prevalence of residential water metering varies significantly worldwide. Recent studies have estimated that water supplies are metered in less than 30% of UK households, and about 61% of urban Canadian homes (as of 2001). Although individual water meters have often been considered impractical in homes with private wells or in multifamily buildings, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that metering alone can reduce consumption by 20 to 40 percent.[9] In addition to raising consumer awareness of their water use, metering is also an important way to identify and localize water leaks. Some researchers have suggested that water conservation efforts should be primarily directed at farmers, in light of the fact that crop irrigation accounts for 70% of the world's fresh water use.[10] The agricultural sector of most countries is important both economically and politically, and water subsidies are common. Conservation advocates have urged removal of all subsidies to force farmers to grow more water-efficient crops and adopt less wasteful irrigation techniques Household applications Water-saving technology for the home includes:

Low-flow shower heads sometimes called energy-efficient shower heads as they also use less energy, Low-flush toilets and composting toilets. These have a dramatic impact in the developed world, as conventional Western toilets use large volumes of water. Dual flush toilets created by Caroma includes two buttons or handles to flush different levels of water. Dual flush toilets use up to 67% less water than conventional toilets. Saline water (sea water) or rain water can be used for flushing toilets. Faucet aerators, which break water flow into fine droplets to maintain "wetting effectiveness" while using less water. An additional benefit is that they reduce splashing while washing hands and dishes. Wastewater reuse or recycling systems, allowing: o Reuse of graywater for flushing toilets or watering gardens o Recycling of wastewater through purification at a water treatment plant. See also Wastewater - Reuse Rainwater harvesting High-efficiency clothes washers Weather-based irrigation controllers Garden hose nozzles that shut off water when it is not being used, instead of letting a hose run. using low flow taps in wash basins

Automatic faucet is a water conservation faucet that eliminates water waste at the faucet. It automates the use of faucets without the use of hands.

Water can also be conserved by landscaping with native plants and by changing behavior, such as shortening showers and not running the faucet while brushing teeth. Commercial applications Many water-saving devices (such as low-flush toilets) that are useful in homes can also be useful for business water saving. Other water-saving technology for businesses includes:

Waterless urinals Waterless car washes Infrared or foot-operated faucets, which can save water by using short bursts of water for rinsing in a kitchen or bathroom Pressurized water brooms, which can be used instead of a hose to clean sidewalks X-ray film processor re-circulation systems Cooling tower conductivity controllers Utilization of Lake Water and or Sea Water for Cooling Towers Water-saving steam sterilizers, for use in hospitals and health care facilities.

one of the method of water conservation is rain water harvesting.

However, ultra-low flow sink faucets, particularly those whose flow rate is less than .75 GPM have been shown to have serious undesired consequences, including increased wash time, hands not completely cleaned, and some users choosing to forgo washing altogether to avoid the inconvenience

Agricultural applications For crop irrigation, optimal water efficiency means minimizing losses due to evaporation, runoff or subsurface drainage while maximizing production. An evaporation pan in combination with specific crop correction factors can be used to determine how much water is needed to satisfy plant requirements. Flood irrigation, the oldest and most common type, is often very uneven in distribution, as parts of a field may receive excess water in order to deliver sufficient quantities to other parts. Overhead irrigation, using centerpivot or lateral-moving sprinklers, has the potential for a much more equal and controlled distribution pattern. Drip irrigation is the most expensive and least-used type, but offers the ability to deliver water to plant roots with minimal losses. As changing irrigation systems can be a costly undertaking, conservation efforts often concentrate on maximizing the efficiency of the existing system. This may include chiseling compacted soils, creating furrow dikes to prevent runoff, and using soil moisture and rainfall sensors to optimize irrigation schedules.Usually large gains in efficiency are possible though measurement and more effective management of the existing irrigation system. Infiltration basins, also called recharge pits, capture rainwater and recharge ground water supplies. Use of these management practices reduces soil erosion caused by stormwater runoff and improves water quality in nearby surface waters.

Minimum Water Network Target and Design The Cost effective minimum water network is a holistic framework/guide for water conservation that helps in determining the minimum amount of freshwater and wastewater target for an industrial or urban system based on the water management hierarchy i.e. it considers all conceivable methods to save water. The technique ensures that the designer desired payback period is satisfied using Systematic Hierarchical Approach for Resilient Process Screening (SHARPS) technique. Sources of industrial wastewater Agricultural waste Agricultural wastewater treatment relates to the treatment of wastewaters produced in the course of agricultural activities. Agriculture is a highly intensified industry in many parts of the world, producing a range of wastewaters requiring a variety of treatment technologies and management practices. Sediment runoff Soil washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the United States. Excess sediment causes high levels of turbidity in water bodies, which can inhibit growth of aquatic plants, clog fish gills and smother animal larvae.[1] Nutrient runoff Nitrogen and phosphorus are key pollutants found in runoff, and they are applied to farmland in several ways:

commercial fertilizer animal manure municipal or industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge.

Pesticides Pesticides are widely used by farmers to control plant pests and enhance production, but chemical pesticides can also cause water quality problems. Pesticides may appear in surface water due to:

direct application (e.g. aerial spraying or broadcasting over water bodies) runoff during rain storms aerial drift (from adjacent fields).

Some pesticides have also been detected in groundwater. Iron and steel industry The production of iron from its ores involves powerful reduction reactions in blast furnaces. Cooling waters are inevitably contaminated with products especially ammonia and cyanide. Production of coke from coal in coking plants also requires water cooling and the use of water in by-products separation. Contamination of waste streams includes gasification products such as benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, cyanide, ammonia, phenols, cresols together with a range of more complex organic compounds known collectively as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).

The conversion of iron or steel into sheet, wire or rods requires hot and cold mechanical transformation stages frequently employing water as a lubricant and coolant. Contaminants include hydraulic oils, tallow and particulate solids. Final treatment of iron and steel products before onward sale into manufacturing includes pickling in strong mineral acid to remove rust and prepare the surface for tin or chromium plating or for other surface treatments such as galvanisation or painting. The two acids commonly used are hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid. Wastewaters include acidic rinse waters together with waste acid. Although many plants operate acid recovery plants, (particularly those using Hydrochloric acid), where the mineral acid is boiled away from the iron salts, there remains a large volume of highly acid ferrous sulfate or ferrous chloride to be disposed of. Many steel industry wastewaters are contaminated by hydraulic oil also known as soluble oil. Mines and quarries The principal waste-waters associated with mines and quarries are slurries of rock particles in water. These arise from rainfall washing exposed surfaces and haul roads and also from rock washing and grading processes. Volumes of water can be very high, especially rainfall related arisings on large sites. Some specialized separation operations, such as coal washing to separate coal from native rock using density gradients, can produce wastewater contaminated by fine particulate haematite and surfactants. Oils and hydraulic oils are also common contaminants. Wastewater from metal mines and ore recovery plants are inevitably contaminated by the minerals present in the native rock formations. Following crushing and extraction of the desirable materials, undesirable materials may become contaminated in the wastewater. For metal mines, this can include unwanted metals such as zinc and other materials such as arsenic. Extraction of high value metals such as gold and silver may generate slimes containing very fine particles in where physical removal of contaminants becomes particularly difficult. Food industry Wastewater generated from agricultural and food operations has distinctive characteristics that set it apart from common municipal wastewater managed by public or private wastewater treatment plants throughout the world: it is biodegradable and nontoxic, but that has high concentrations of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended solids (SS). The constituents of food and agriculture wastewater are often complex to predict due to the differences in BOD and pH in effluents from vegetable, fruit, and meat products and due to the seasonal nature of food processing and postharvesting. Processing of food from raw materials requires large volumes of high grade water. Vegetable washing generates waters with high loads of particulate matter and some dissolved organics. It may also contain surfactants. Animal slaughter and processing produces very strong organic waste from body fluids, such as blood, and gut contents. This wastewater is frequently contaminated by significant levels of antibiotics and growth hormones from the animals and by a variety of pesticides used to control external parasites. Insecticide residues in fleeces is a particular problem in treating waters generated in wool processing. Processing food for sale produces wastes generated from cooking which are often rich in plant organic material and may also contain salt, flavourings, colouring material and acids or alkali. Very significant quantities of oil or fats may also be present.

Complex organic chemicals industry A range of industries manufacture or use complex organic chemicals. These include pesticides, pharmaceuticals, paints and dyes, petro-chemicals, detergents, plastics, paper pollution, etc. Waste waters can be contaminated by feed-stock materials, by-products, product material in soluble or particulate form, washing and cleaning agents, solvents and added value products such as plasticisers. Treatment facilities that do not need pH control of their effluent typically opt for a type of aerobic treatment, ie. Aerated Lagoons. Nuclear industry The waste production from the nuclear and radio-chemicals industry is dealt with as Radioactive waste. Water treatment Water treatment for the production of drinking water is dealt with elsewhere.Many industries have a need to treat water to obtain very high quality water for demanding purposes. Water treatment produces organic and mineral sludges from filtration and sedimentation. Ion exchange using natural or synthetic resins removes calcium, magnesium and carbonate ions from water, replacing them with hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. Regeneration of ion exchange columns with strong acids and alkalis produces a wastewater rich in hardness ions which are readily precipitated out, especially when in admixture with other wastewaters. (Rest form book)