CANALS

• It is a artificial channels which carry water to the beneficiary.

• Classification of canals 4. Surface of the canal

1. Based on nature of source of supply a) Alluvial canal
a) Permanent canal b) Non-alluvial canal
b) Inundation canal 5. Discharge and its relative importance in a given
network
2. Based on financial output
a) Main canal
a) Productive canal
b) Branch canal
b) Protective canal
c) Major distributary
3. Function of canal
d) Minor distributary
a) Irrigation canal
e) Water course
b) Carrier canal
6. Canal Alignment
c) Feeder canal
a) Contour canal
d) Navigation canal
b) Watershed or ridge canal
e) Power canal
c) Side slope canal
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 CANALS
• Canal Alignment

a) Contour canal

b) Watershed or ridge canal

c) Side slope canal

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 CANAL DESIGN
• On account of erosion in catchment and drainage basin, rivers

receive huge quantity of sediment having fine silt, coarse sand , a

portion of which enters into a canal also.

• Design of canal mainly depends on quantity of silt in the

water and type of boundary surface of the channel.

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 CANAL DESIGN
1. Rigid boundary channel

• In this the surface of channel is lined.

• Quantity of silt transported by such channels remains more or less same
that has entered at the head of the channel.
• In such channel velocity of flow is high which does not allows deposition

of silt.
• Therefore, these channels do not have problem of silt transport.

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 CANAL
2. Unlined channels
• In this the quantity DESIGN
of silt varies from section to section due to
scouring of bed and sides of the channels as well as due to silting.
• If velocity is too low then silting may take place whereas if
velocity is very high scouring may take place.

NOTE : Both of these phenomenon leads to modification of cross-section of channel.

Scouring lowers full supply level which causes loss of command area. It may also
cause breaching of canal banks and failure of foundation irrigation structure, whereas
silting may cause reduction in discharge capacity of the channel.

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 CANAL DESIGN
3. Unlined Alluvial Channels

• These should be designed for such a velocity such that neither bed and sides are

scoured nor silt is deposited and a stable channel section is obtained such channels are

called as stable channels or regime.

• The velocity of flow which will keep silt in suspension & will not scour the bed and

sides of the channel, it is called as non silting and non- scouring velocity.

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 DESIGN OF REGIME CHANNEL

Basically two methods are used for design of Regime channel

1. Kennedy’s Theory (1595)

2. Lacey's theory

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 KENNEDY’S THEORY
According to Kennedy,
1. Eddies are generated due to friction between water
and channel surface.
2. Silt supporting power of a channel depends on
eddies generated from the bed of the channel. The
vertical component of these eddies tries to more
than sediment upwards, while weight of the
sediment tries to bring it down, Hence sediment
remains in suspension.
Eddies generated from the sides were neglected
3.
because they are horizontal for the greater part and
hence they have very little silt supporting power.
• Kennedy introduced the term critical velocity (Vo)

which will keep channel free from siltingBLDEA's

& scouring.
CET, Vijayapur 8
 KENNEDY’S THEORY
0.64

Vo= 0.55m y
Vo → critical velocity in m/sec
y → depth of flow in ratio, whose
m → critical velocity value will depend on
type of soil

m > 1 → for coarse soil (1-1.2)

m < 1 → for fine soil (0.7-1)
BLDEA's CET, Vijayapur 9
Design of canal using KENNEDY’S
 1. For the given discharge (Q) assume a trail value of the depth of flow (D)

THEORY
2. Calculate Vo from Vo = 0.55 m
3. Determine ‗A‘ from �=� ��
4. Knowing ‗D‘ and ‗A‘ calculate the ‗Bed width‘ ‗B‘
5. Knowing ‗B‘ and ‗D‘ calculate the wetted perimeter ‗P‘
6. Knowing ‗A‘ and ‗P‘ calculate hydraulic mean radius ‗R‘
7.=√
Calculate mean velocity of flow from the equation �=�√� � .
8. If critical velocity ratio is equal to 1 (m=1), then the assumed value of ‗D‘ is correct.
9. If not revise the depth ‘D‘.

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 DRAWBACKS OF KENNEDY’S
1. THEORY
Kutter’s equation is used to determine the mean velocity of flow hence

limitation of Kutter’s equation are also incorporated in Kennedy’s

2. theory.
3. This theory involves trial & error which is time consuming.
4. Silt concentration
This and silt accepted.
theory is not universally grade is not considered.
5. Value of ‘m’ is decided arbitrarily
6. There is no equation for bed slope or b/d ratio without
which it is not possible to obtain a unique section.

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 LACEY’S THEORY
•
Lacey carried out extensive investigation on the design of stable

• channel in alluvium.
• He found many drawbacks in Kennedy’s
He elaborated regime concept and found that even if a channel is
theory.
showing no silting
He therefore and no scouring,
differentiated it may three
between not be regime
in regimeconditions.
actually.
•
True Regime
•
Initial Regime
•
Final Regime

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 LACEY’S THEORY
1. True Regime Condition
• An artificially constructed channel having certain fixed section and a
certain fixed slope can behave in regime only if following conditions
are satisfied.
a) Discharge is constant

b) Flow is uniform

c) Silt charge & silt grade is constant

d)
Canal is flowing through an incoherent alluvium which is of the same grade
e) as that of alluvium transported.
In practice all these conditions can never be satisfied, therefore an artificial
channel can never be in True Regime.

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 LACEY’S THEORY
Initial Regime
2.
Condition
•
It is first stage of regime attained by a channel after it is in service.

•
If a channel is excavated with smaller width and flatter bed slope, then
as the flow takes place in the channel, bed slope of the channel is
increased due to deposition of silt on the bed to develop increased flow
velocity, hence the given discharge is allowed to flow through the
channel of smaller width and sides of such channel are subjected to
lateral restrain and could have scoured if the bank soil would have been
in true alluvium.

BLDEA's CET, Vijayapur 14

 LACEY’S THEORY
Initial Regime Condition
2.

•
But in practice they may be grassed or may be of clayey soil, therefore they may

• not get eroded.

Hence such channels will appear to be in Regime. They have
achieved only a working stability due to rigidity of their banks, such
• Lacey’s Theory is not applicable in initial Regime condition
channel are termed as ‘Channels in Initial Regime’.

BLDEA's CET, Vijayapur 15

 LACEY’S THEORY
3. Final Regime Condition

It is the ultimate state of Regime attained by a channel when bed slope, depth of flow & width are

adjusted in order to obtain a stable channel section. This condition is called as ‘Final Regime
•
Condition’.

Such a channel in which all the variables are equally free to vary has the tendency to
•
attain a semi elliptical section.

• When a channel is protected on the bed and sides with some kind of protecting
material, Channel section could not be scoured and there is no possibility of change
in longitudinal slope. These channel sections are said to be in ‘permanent regime’

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 DESIGN STEPS FOR LACEY’S
For a given discharge, Q mean particle size d50 in mm
• THEORY  � =1.76 √ �
Determine silt factor,
1
  2
�� �
•
Determine velocity
�=
140 [ ] 6
…… …
���

•   �   5 �2
•
Determine Area �=
�
 �= BD + K �
2
�= [ ]
2 �
Assuming, side slope
• �=4.75
  √�  �=�+ 2 � √1+ � 2
Determine Perimeter

•  
5

Determine Bed slope; �=

[ �

3340 �
3

1
6 ]
BLDEA's CET, Vijayapur 17
 DRAWBACKS OF LACEY’S

THEORY
1. Lacey said that a Regime channel has a semi elliptical shape but same is

not supported by his equation.

2. Regime relations do not account for amount of sediment transported by

flowing water.

3. Characteristics of Regime channel are not precisely defined.

BLDEA's CET, Vijayapur 18

COMPARSION BETWEEN KENNDY’S THEORY AND LACEY’S THEORY
KENNEDY’S THEORY LACEY’S THEORY
Trapezoidal channel Semi elliptical channel
Silt is kept in suspension due to Silt is kept in suspension, due to
eddies generated from bottom eddies generated both from side

slope & the bottom i.e, throughout

Recommended Kutter’s equation for the perimeter.

Gave his own velocity equation.
finding velocity.
No equation for bed slope. Gave eqn to calculate bed slope
Trial & error procedure Direct procedure
Applicable for alluvial channel Applicable for alluvial channel as
well as for rivers.

BLDEA's CET, Vijayapur 19

◦  Problems
1. Design and sketch an irrigation channel to carry 5 cumec. The channel is to be laid on a slope of 0.2m per
kilometer. Assume N=0.025 and m=1
◦ Solution:
1. Assume a trial depth y equal to 1.0m
2. V= Vo = 0.55 m = 0.55x 1.0x 1.0^0.64 = 0.55
  1 0.0015
23 + +
3. Area = Q = A Vo; A= Q/ V = 5/0.55= 9.09m2 �=
� �
0.0015 �
4. A = B y + K y^2 = 9.09 = Bx1.0 +1.02/2 B= 8.59m (
1+ 23+
� √� )
5. Perimeter = P = 10.83m
R = A/P= 9.09/10.83 = 0.84m
6. Mean velocity flow V = C√R S R= 0.84m , S= 0.2/1000 , N= 0.0225 , C= 42.85
V = C√R S = 42.85 √0.84x0.2 /1000 = 0.555m/s
7. Ratio of velocities found in step 6 and step2 = 0.555/0.55 = 1.009= 1.0
◦ Hence assumed d is satisfactory.

BLDEA's CET, Vijayapur 20

◦  Problems
2. Determine the dimensions of the irrigation canal for the following data B/D ratio = 3.7, N= 0.0225,
m=1.0 and S= 1/ 4000 side slopes of the channel is ½ H : 1V. Also determine the discharge which will be
flowing in the channel.

Solution: B/y = 3.7 B= 3.7y

For the channel with side slopes of 1/2H : 1V 1 0.0015
  23 +
+
R= 0.665y � �
�=
0.0015 �
From Kennedy's equation , Vo = 0.55 m ; Vo = 0.55 1+ 23+( � √� )
Equating the two values of V, we get
0.55 =
 
Solving the above equation by trial and error , we get
y= 1.9m; B= 7.03m; V= 0.83m/s; A=14.25
Q= A x V= 11.835 cumecs

BLDEA's CET, Vijayapur 21

◦ Problems
1. Design a irrigation channel in alluvial soil according to Lace‘s silt theory for the following data. Full supply
discharge= 10cumecs Lacey‘s silt factor= 0.9 Side slopes of channel= 1/2H: 1V
◦ Solution:
 � =1.76 √�
1. Velocity =V= (10x 0.92/140)^1/6 = 0.62m/s
1
  2
� � �
 
�=
�
�
�=
[ 140 ] 6
…… …
���
2. Area= 10 / 0.62= 16.13m2
  5 �2
3. Hydraulic mean radius = 5/2(0.622^2/0.9) = 1.07m
4. Perimeter= P = 15.07m
�= [ ]
2 �
 �= BD + K �
2

5. Bed slope= S= 1/ 5844 �=4.75

  √�  �=�+ 2 � √1+ � 2
5
 
�=
[ �

3340 �
3

1
6 ]
BLDEA's CET, Vijayapur 22
 Reservoirs
◦ Dams are constructed across the rivers and streams to create an artificial lake or reservoir.

◦ Investigations of reservoir planning

 Engineering surveys

 Area – Elevation curve

 Storage – elevation curve

 Map of the area to indicate the land property to be surveyed

 Geological Investigations

 Water tightness of reservoir basin

 Suitability of foundations for the dam

 Structural features such as folds, faults, fissures, etc., of the rock basins

 Type and depth of over burden (superficial deposits)

BLDEA's CET, Vijayapur 23
 Reservoirs
◦ Continued

 Location of permeable and soluble rocks.

 Ground water conditions in the region

 Location of quarry sites for materials required for the dam construction and quantities available from them.

 Hydrological investigations
 Study of runoff pattern at the proposed dam site, to determine the storage capacity corresponding to a given
demand, and
 Determination of the hydrographs of the worst flood to determine the spillway capacity.

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 Zones of storage in a
Reservoirs
◦ Normal pool level NPL

◦ Full reservoir level FRL or

◦ Full tank level FTL

◦ Minimum pool level MPL or

◦ Dead storage level DSL

◦ Maximum pool or water level MWL

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 Determination of storage capacity in
Reservoir
◦ Reservoir yield is the amount of water which can be
supplied from the reservoir in a specified interval of
time.

◦ Safe or Firm yield is the maximum quantity of water

which can be supplied during a critical or worst dry
period.

◦ Secondary yield is the quantity of water available in

excess of safe yield during periods of high flows.

◦ Average yield it is the arithmetic average of yield

(safe and secondary) over a long period of time.

◦ Mass curve is a plot of accumulated flow in a stream

against time.

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 Determination of storage capacity in
Reservoir
◦ A mass curve continuously rises as it shows
accumulated flows the slope of the curve at any point
indicates the rate of flow at the particular time. if there
is no flow during certain period the curve will be
horizontal during that period if there is a high rate of
low the rises steeply.
◦ Demand curve is a plot between accumulated demand
and time.
◦ Determination of reservoir capacity required for a
specific yield or demand using mass curve.
1. A mass curve is prepared from the flow hydrograph for
a number of consecutive years selected from the
available stream flow record such that it indicates the
most critical are the driest period.
2. Corresponding to the given rate of demand a demand
curve is prepared for constant rate of demand the
corresponding air is a straight line.

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 Determination of storage capacity in
Reservoir
Continued..
◦ Determination of reservoir capacity required for a
specific yield or demand using mass curve.
3. The lines such as AB, FG etc are drawn parallel to the
demand curve and tangential to the high points A, F etc
of the mass curve (or the points of the beginning of the
dry periods).
4. The maximum vertical intercepts CD, HJ etc between
the tangential lines drawn in the step 3 and the mass
curve are measured. the vertical intercepts indicate the
volume by which the total flow in stream falls short of
the demand and hence required to be provided from the
reservoir storage. For example, Assuming the reserve to
be full at A for a period corresponding to the points A
and E there is a total flow in the stream represented by
DE and there is a total demand representing by CE,
leaving a gap of volume represented by CD which must
be met from the reservoir storage.
5. The largest of the maximum vertical intercepts
determined in step 4 represents the reservoir capacity
required to satisfy the given demand.
BLDEA's CET, Vijayapur 28
 Economical height of dam
• It is that height of the dam, corresponding to which the cost of
the dam per unit of storage is minimum.
• This requires estimates of construction cost for several heights
of dam and also the corresponding storages in the reservoir.
• For each dam height, the reservoir storage is know.
• Draw the curve between dam heights and their corresponding
costs of construction
• Now work out the construction cost per unit storage for all the
dam heights and plot a curve
• The lowest point on this curve gives the height of dam for
which the cost per unit of storage is minimum and hence adopt
the most economical.

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