SAL TECHNICAL CAMPUS

Academic Year 2018-19

English Language
Laboratory Manual

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 UNIT I– VOCABULARY BUILDING

Vocabulary: A person's vocabulary is the set of words within a language that are familiar
to that person. A vocabulary usually develops with time, and serves as a useful and
fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge. Vocabulary is commonly
defined as "all the words known and used by a particular person".

The importance of a vocabulary

• An extensive vocabulary aids expressions and communication.

• Vocabulary size has been directly linked to reading comprehension.

• A person may be judged by others based on his or her vocabulary.

Phrasal verb: It is a combination of a verb and a preposition, a verb and an adverb, or a

verb with both an adverb and a preposition. A phrasal verb often has a meaning which is
different from the original verb.

Idiom: It is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is

comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal
meaning or definition of the words of which it is made.

Acronym: a pronounceable name made up of a series of initial letters or parts of words; for
example, UNESCO for the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
. as Wac from Women's Army Corps, OPEC from Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries, or loran from long-range navigation.

Analogy: The word analogy can refer to the relation between the source and the target
themselves, which is often, a similarity.

Etymology is the study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and
meaning have changed over time.

Synonyms: Synonyms are different words with almost identical or similar meanings. Words
that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called
synonymy. Antonyms: A word that expresses a meaning opposed to the meaning of another
word, in which case the two words are antonyms of each other.

Word Root, Prefix & Suffix: A root, as its name suggests, is a word or word part from which other
words grow, usually through the addition of prefixes and suffixes. The root of the word vocabulary,

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 for example, is voc, a Latin root meaning "word" or "name." This root also appears in the words
advocacy, convocation, evocative, vocal, and vociferous.

The very words prefix and suffix are good examples too. Pre means before and fix means to
fasten or attach, so quite literally, a prefix is something attached to the beginning of
something else. Suf is a variant of sub, below or under, so a suffix is something fastened
underneath something else (in this case, behind the root).

Word Roots

ROOT MEANING EXAMPLES

asteroid, (L)
-ast(er)-(G) Star
astronomy
-luc- (L) Light lucid, translucent
-audi- (L) Hear audible, audience
-man(u)- (L) Hand manual, manure
-auto- (G) Self automatic, autopsy
-mand-, -mend- Order demand,
(L) recommend

-log-, -logue- Thought logic, obloquy

-bene- (L) Good benefit, benign

-bio- (G) Life biography, biology

chronic,
-chrono- (G) Time
synchronize

-dict- (L) Say dictate, diction

-duc- (L) lead, make deduce, produce

-gen- (L) give birth gene, generate

geography,
-geo- (G) Earth
geology

-graph- (G) Write autograph, graph

-jur-, -jus- (L) Law jury, justice

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-sens-, -sent- feel resent, sensitive
(L)

-tele- (G) far off telecast, telephone

-terr- (L) earth terrain, territory

Common Prefixes
Prefix Meaning Example

a-, an- without amoral

ante- before antecedent

anti- against anticlimax

auto- self autopilot

circum- around circumvent

co- with copilot

companion,
com-, con- with
contact

contra- against contradict

de- off, away from devalue

dis- not disappear

en- put into enclose

extract, ex-
ex- out of, former president

extra- beyond, more extracurricular

than
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hetero- different heterosexual
 Adjective Suffixes

edible,
-able, -ible capable of being
Verb Suffixes presentable

-ate become eradicate -al pertaining to regional

-en become enlighten -esque reminiscent of picturesque

-ify, -fy make or become terrify -ful notable for fanciful

-ize, -ise become civilize musical,

-ic, -ical pertaining to
mythic

nutritious,
-ious, -ous characterized by
portentous

-ish having the quality fiendish

of

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 WORD FORMATION EXERCISES
Exercise 1
1. In the future the public will have a wider of television programs. (CHOOSE)

2. Looking after the health of 700 children is heavy . (RESPONSIBLE)

3. The town spent more money on and health than ever before (HOUSE)

4. Do you have any particular where we sit? (PREFER)

5. There’s a contrast between what he does and what he says. (STRIKE)

6. The party turned out to be a huge (DISAPPOINT)

7. He was fined and for reckless driving (QUALIFY).

8. Is it possible to remove the smell from the books that have been in for such a long time?
(STORE)

9. Many people are interested in job more than in earning large amount of money
(SATISFY).

10. I hadn’t made a , so I just got on the first flight available. (RESERVE)

11. The anti-doping association believes that all sports must be free of drug (USE).

12. The country is facing a population . (EXPLODE)

13. It is to fasten your seat-belts before take-off (ADVISE)

14. She claimed benefit for over six months. (EMPLOY)

15. Tax is one of the biggest problems that face the new country. (EVADE)

16. You can basically wear what you want but there is a law that says you must not wear
jeans. (WRITE)
17. The course is being paid for by the company. (MANAGE)

18. It’s a shame that she didn’t have a better chance in life. (CRY)

19. The farm house we stayed in was completely off the track. (BEAT)

20. The police searched the house . (SYSTEM)

21. He is a -paid senior executive. (HIGH)

22. A full-scale of our company is urgently needed (ORGANIZE)

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 23. Are we going to be saved by our oil supplies? (ECONOMY)

24. Experts have tried to find a to the personnel problems. (SOLVE)

25. She’s a specialist in psychology and human . (BEHAVE)

26. The of the most important port of the country eliminated all trade. (BLOCK)

27. The system of some countries used to be based on gold. (MONEY)

28. He recovered from his injuries in the hospital (NAVY)

29. He has loved her ever since they first met. (PASSION)

30. The importance of this has been extremely overrated. (INVENT)

31. He is a convinced of Chinese communism (FOLLOW)

32. Jane’s party was more of an test than anything else. (ENDURE)

33. The government has committed itself to developing sources of energy. (NEW)

34. He took a job as a sales in a big department store. (ASSIST)

35. The potential benefits of this treatment the risks. (WEIGH)

36. Make sure the hairdryer is before you fix the switch. (CONNECT)

37. They say that travel the mind. (BROAD)

38. Without his teacher’s he would have given up long ago. (ENCOURAGE)

39. Dickens’s last novel was The Mystery of Edwin Drood. (TITLE)

40. She has known me for two years now but she still my name. (PRONOUNCE)
Exercise 2
1. Detroit is renowned for the………….. of cars. PRODUCE
2. If you make a good……………… at the interview, you will get the job. IMPRESS
3. Teaching and medicine are more than…………………., they're professions. OCCUPY
4. My history teacher has a vast…………………. of past events. KNOW
5. You are never too old to go to college and gain some……………. QUALIFY
6. My greatest…………….. was graduating from the university. ACHIEVE
7. The weatherman said there is a strong…………… of rain today. POSSIBLE
8. Some old laws are no longer……………….. EFFECT
9. Athens is…………………. for its ancient buildings. FAME
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10. He was caught shoplifting so now he has a……………….. record. CRIME
11. Despite her severe………….., she fulfilled her goals in life. DISABLE
12. Being……………. is the worst thing that can happen to someone. EMPLOY
13. If you buy presents in the summer your…………………… can be very high. SAVE
14. Due to the pilot's…………………, the copilot managed to land safely. GUIDE
15. It's important to also see the less………………… sides of the job. DESIRE
16. I was surprised at his………………… to give up. REFUSE
17. Children are by nature………………….. of danger. AWARE
18. She is always……………. towards her parents. RESPECT
19. The hospital has the best medical……………. and fast ambulances. EQUIP
20. You can relax in the comfortable………………….. of the hotel. SURROUND
21. The…………………….. looked dark and there were hardly any other guests. ENTER
22. Artists must be…………………., otherwise they just repeat what they see or hear. CREATE
23. Why are you so……………… of his work? He's just doing his best. CRITIC
24. Have you made up your mind? We need to know your ……………as soon as possible. DECIDE
25. He's too shy to look people …………………… when he talks to them. DIRECT
26. Have they put the Christmas………………….. yet? DECORATE
27. They put too many unnecesary ……………………… in food. ADD
28. I ……………… think that there's no point in arguing with him. Just ignore him. HONEST
29. Extraterrestrial life has not been…………………. proved yet. SCIENCE
30. Why don't you call the …………………. if the lights don't work? ELECTRIC
31. Music and television are forms of………………… ENTERTAIN
32. The concert didn't live up to our………………… EXPECT
33. The electric company admitted their ………………… for the blackout. RESPOND
34. Did you use to have …………………… as a child? ALLOW
35. I don't like those trousers, no matter how …………………….. they are. FASHION
36. Life ……………….. varies according to country and gender. EXPECT
Exercise 3
1. We need to find a to the problem as soon as possible. (solve)
2. Juan speaks English fluently and makes very few mistakes. (grammar)
3. The teacher keeps a record of every student's . (attend)

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4. Air-conditioning is a if you live somewhere like the south of Spain. (necessary)
5. Don't be afraid of the dog. He's absolutely . (harm)
6. The company is trying hard to improve customer . (satisfy)
7. Measures were taken around the world to airport security after the 11 September attacks. (tight)
8. We're going to change our suppliers as they have become very in the last year. (rely)
9. Patricia's very . She writes short stories, paints and makes mosaics. (create)
10. We need your at the bottom of the page. (sign)
Exercise 4
1. The index at the back of the book is in order. (alphabet)
2. The fans waved as the film star stepped out of the limousine. (excite)
3. Chickenpox is a highly disease which many people catch as a child. (infect)
4. Matt is very . He wants to be number one at everything. (compete)
5. Harry loves cars and he's so about them. (knowledge)
6. There is little of the president being re-elected. (likely)
7. The prime minister thinks there may be a to overthrow him. (conspire)
8. In with Tokyo, London and Paris are relatively cheap. (compare)
9. The police were unable to that she had committed the crime. (proof)
10. The president's speech went on for so long that I almost died of ! (bore)
Exercise 5
1. It's totally……………..that you stayed home when you were sick. UNDERSTAND
2. Don't laugh at his stupid jokes! You'll only………..him to say them again. COURAGE
3. That sidewalk is (slip), I almost fell!
4. After Monday, I will no longer be a foreigner--I am receiving my (citizen)!
5. Arthur will be very lonely unless you (friend) him.
6. Every afternoon, the cooks (sharp) their knives in preparation for dinner.
7. I hate being around Mary Lou, she is so so (friendly).
8. The stock market crash of 1929 left my great-grandfather (penny).
9. I have a class at 8:00 a.m. but I always (sleep).
10. The groom may (veil) the bride only when their vows have been exchanged
11. I think we should try something else. That strategy seems way too (risk).
12. My father's death left me with a great (empty) in my heart.

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 13. George W. Bush is pretending that he attacked Iraq to (liberty) the Iraqis.
14. Americans fought hard to earn their (free) from Britain.
15. When you work at a nuclear power plant, you have to be extremely (care).
16. Every time I think I've beaten you, you (do) me!
17. I had to take three months off when I was pregnant, but my boss has been very (understand).
18. He will (cork) the wine as soon as we are ready for dinner.
19. You need to work on your orthography so you don't (spell) these words.
20. The weather (cast) looks bad for a picnic--rainy and windy!
Exercise 6
We earn our (LIVE) in America today in peaceful (COMPETE) with people all across the Earth.
Profound and (POWER) forces are shaking and (MAKE) our world, and the urgent question of our
time is whether we can make change our friend and not our enemy. This new world has already
(RICH) the lives of millions of Americans who are able to (COMPETITION) and win in it. But when
most people are working harder for less, when others cannot work at all, when the cost of health care
devastates families and threatens to (BANK) our enterprises, great and small, when the fear of crime
robs law abiding citizens of their (FREE), and when millions of poor children cannot even imagine the
lives we are calling them to lead, we have not made change our friend.
Exercise 7
`It is simply this. That Space, as our (MATH) have it, is spoken of as having three dimensions, which
one may call (LONG), Breadth, and (THICK), and is always definable by (REFER) to three
planes, each at right angles to the others. But some philosophical people have been asking why THREE
dimensions (PARTICULAR) - why not another direction at right angles to the other three?--and
have even tried to construct a Four-Dimension geometry. Professor Simon Newcomb was expounding this
to the New York Mathematical Society only a month or so ago. You know how on a flat surface, which has
only two dimensions, we can represent a figure of a three (DIMENSION) solid, and (SIMILAR) they think
that by models of thee dimensions they could represent one of four--if they could master the (PERCEIVE)
of the thing. See?'
Exercise 8
In the centre of the room, clamped to an upright easel, stood the full-length portrait of a young man of
(ORDINARY) personal beauty, and in front of it, some little (DISTANT) away, was sitting
the artist himself, Basil Hallward, whose sudden (APPEAR) some years ago caused, at the time, such

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 public (EXCITE), and gave rise to so many strange conjectures. As the painter looked at the
(GRACE) and comely form he had so (SKILL) mirrored in his art, a smile of
(PLEASE) passed across his face, and seemed about to linger there. But he (SUDDEN) started up,
and, closing his eyes, placed his fingers upon the lids, as though he sought to (PRISON) within his
brain some curious dream from which he feared he might (WAKE).
Exercise 9
1. The Sultan spent over fifty million dollars making the capital city's main hotel the most……… in the
country. luxury
2. Police working on solving the bank robbery have by chance…………… a plan to murder a leading
politician. cover
3. We should go and eat at "Franco's" which is………….. a great little restaurant. suppose
4. I left the house at 8am and stared at the empty garage in………….. My car was nowhere to be seen.
Someone had stolen it! believe
5. If you have any problems finding things, just ask Roger. He is very…………… and will tell you where to
find what you want. help
6. You paid $25 for a simple breakfast?! They have certainly…………… you! You should go back and
complain. charge
7. The gang robbed three banks in the same city and all at about the same time. Not……….., they were
caught by the police during the fourth attempt. surprise
8. Sarina is only my half sister because we have………… mothers. differ
Exercise 10
1. How long do we have to sit in this police station waiting. It's making me feel very………watching all
these criminals walking past. easy
2. He did a great report on the future of the ship-building industry but I didn't agree with his……….at all.
conclude
3. I'm afraid Mr. Perkins is…………..at the moment. He seems to be in a meeting. Is there any message you
would like me to pass on to him? available
4. People with…………..have been demanding better access to the local government buildings downtown.
They want a wheelchair ramp built and electric sliding doors. able
5. I don't speak Spanish very well but I can read it quite……………. easy
6. I accepted the job without………….when I heard what the wage was! hesitate

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7. Stop sitting there looking so bored and…………... Get up and find something to do! I don't want you
sitting around the house like this all summer. enthusiasm
8. Yesterday, the government announced a $10 million increase in the town's budget to try and tackle the
…………….problem that exists. House.

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 ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISES

Unit 1: Present Tenses

A: Put in the present continuous form of the verb in brackets.

1. Please be quiet. I _______________ (try) to read my book.
2. I _______________ (not/use) the computer at the moment so you can use it.
3. Mary is ill so Sue _______________ (teach) her 1essons today.
4. Excuse me, I _______________ (look) for a hotel. Is there one near here?
5. _______________ (you/wait) for someone?
6. Jack, you are very careless. You _______________ (always/forget) to do your
homework!
7. The cost of living _______________ (rise) very fast. Every year things are more
expensive.
8. What _______________ (you/do)? I _______________ (clean) my shoes.
9. Why _______________ (not/wear) shorts? It's so hot today.
10. The neighbours are so noisy! They _______________ (always/argue) 1oudly.
B: Put the verb into the correct form, present continuous or present simple.
1. I _______________ (not/belong) to this particu1ar government committee.
2. Hurry! The bus _______________ (come). I _______________ (not/want) to miss it.
3. Gregory is a vegetarian. He _______________ (not/eat) meat.
4. I _______________ (1ook) for the manager. I can't find him anywhere.
5. We are successful because we _______________ (take) the time to ta1k to our customers.
6. John _______________ (deal) with all the enquiries about sales.
7. At the moment we _______________ (make) a training video for Siemens.
8. _______________ (you/know) what Mr Briceson _______________ (do)? He is not in
his office.
9. I _______________ (apply) for a job in the sales department, but I don't know if I will be
successful.
It _______________ (depend) on whether or not they have any vacancies.
10. Unemployment _______________ (fa1l) and is now down to 5.6%.
11. Jane is doing some research in the library. She needs it for a book she
_______________ (write).
12. While Anna is away on holidays, Matt _______________ (work) in her office.
13. He _______________ (teach) French and German at University and _______________
(learn) Greek.
14. There _______________ (be)two flights to Honduras this afternoon. The British Airways
flight _______________ (1eave) at 13:00 and _______________ (arrive) at 22:00.
15. Inflation _______________ (rise) at a rate of 2% per annum.
C: Put the verb in brackets into the present simple or the present continuous.
1. She a1ways _______________ (remember) my birthday.
2. Mr Brown _______________ (work) in a supermarket.
3. I _______________ (work) in this factory until I find a better job.
4. Look! It _______________ (snow).
5. Can you hear those girls? What _______________ (they/ta1k) about?

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6. _______________ (you/know) Helen?
7. We _______________ (never/go) to work by tube. It is too busy.
8. When I'm in Paris I _______________ (usually/stay) in the Hotel du Pont, but this time I
_______________ (stay) in the more expensive Hotel Notre Dame.
9. Ruth _______________ (be) a vegetarian. She _______________ (not/eat) meat or fish.
10. My father _______________ (be) an engineer, but he _______________ (not/work) right
now.
11. _______________ (you/believe) in ghosts?
12. My parents _______________ (live) in Sydney. Where _______________ (your
parents/1ive)?
13. We _______________ (own) two cars, an estate car and a sports car.
14. Can you drive? No, but I _______________ (learn) at the moment.
15. Look! That woman _______________ (try) to steal that man's wallet.
16. The River Nile _______________ (f1ow) into the Mediterranean.
17. _______________ (you/like) Bon Jovi?
18. I _______________ (get) thirsty. Let's get something to drink.
19. Those f1owers _______________ (smell) lovely. What are they?
20. Jane _______________ (repair) her bike. She _______________ (know) exactly what to do.

Unit 2 : Past Simple and Past Continuous

A: Put one of these verbs in each sentence. Use the past simple:
[eat, bring, write, buy see, meet ]

1. The party was fantastic. Every guest _______________ something to eat and a bottle of
wine.
2. I had an extravagant weekend. I _______________ some clothes and a plant.
3. Three weeks ago Tracy _______________ her ex-husband in Mallorca. What a
coincidence!
4. When I lived in Italy, we always _______________ lamb at Easter.
5. Shakespeare _______________ a lot of plays.

B: A friend has just returned from his holiday. Ask him questions about it using the
past simple.

Example: where/go? Where did you go?

sun/shine Did the sun shine?
1. how /get there?
2. who/go with?
3. where/stay?
4. the weather /good?
5. what/you think of the food?
6. what/do during the day?
7. go out in the evenings?
8. buy any souvenirs?
9. make any new friends?
10. how long/the journey home/take?

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C: Put the verb in the past simple.

1. Tom _______________ (not/come) to the office yesterday because he _______________

(be) ill.
2. She _______________ (not/read) the book because she _______________ (not/be)
very interested in that author.
3. The students _______________ (not/finish) their group project because they
_______________ (run out) of time.
4. We _______________ (not/eat) anything for breakfast because we
_______________ (be) in a hurry.
5. Mary _______________ (not/catch) the train to Mexico City because she
_______________ (arrive) at the station too late.
D: Put the verb in the correct form: past simple or past continuous.
1. I _______________ (dream) when the alarm clock _______________ (go off).
2. They _______________ (wait) for me when I _______________ (arrive).
3. The phone _______________ (ring) while I _______________ (have) a shower.
4. We _______________ (not/go out) last Sunday because it _______________ (rain).
5. I _______________ (see) Kim at the party. She _______________ (wear) a new dress.
6. I _______________ (break) a bowl this morning. When I _______________ (wash) the
dishes it just _______________ (slip) out of my hand onto the floor!
7. When he _______________ (carry) the table, he _______________ (feel) a sharp pain in
his back.
8. Sarah _______________ (go) down the stairs when the lights _______________ (go
out).
9. We _______________ (watch) TV when someone _______________ (come) to the door
and _______________ (knock) very loudly.
10. What _______________ (you/do) at this time yesterday? Oh, I _______________
(prepare) the dinner.
11. I _______________ (fall) asleep while I _______________ (watch) television.
12. At 12:45 yesterday, Mr Alright _______________ (see) a client in his office.

Unit 3 : Past Perfect

A: Here is the latest news about your friends and family. Complete the sentences using
the present perfect simple.

Example: I/buy/a new car I have bought a new car

1. Mary/move house
2. Fred and Frank/start/a company
3. My parents/go to Greece
4. Sue/get married
5. Granny/celebrate her 80th birthday

B: Read the situations and write sentences in the present perfect simple. Choose one of
the following:
[learn, buy, find, break clean, grow ]

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1. James can't go to school because his arm is in plaster. He has broken his arm.
2. Fred was nervous about travelling to France. He isn't any more because he knows he can
communicate. He has
……………………………………………………………………..
3. Jane didn't have a dress to wear to the wedding. Now she does ………………………….
4. Our flat was very dusty. It isn't any more. ………………………………………………..
5. Mr Flint was unhappy because he had lost his cat. Now he is happy. ………………….
6. Harry didn't have a beard last month. Now he has a beard.……………………………….

C: You are interviewing a famous person. Ask questions about things he/she has done in
his/her life. Make the questions from the words given.

1. ever/win/an award Have you ever won an award?

2. ever/travel/to Hollywood …………………
3. ever/meet/Bill Clinton …………………
4. ever/write/a novel …………………
5. ever/run/a marathon …………………
6. ever/give/money to charity …………………

D: Complete the sentences using the present perfect simple and today/this week/this
year etc.

1. I watched TV yesterday but I haven 't watched TV today.

2. It rained last week but …………………………………………
3. Last week I spent a lot of money but ………………………….
4. I saw James yesterday but ……………………………………..
5. I received a lot of post last month but …………………………
6. It was warm last spring but ……………………………………
E: Write a sentence using the present perfect continuous. Use the words in brackets.
1. John is sunburnt. He has been sitting in the sun. (sit/in the sun)
2. The ground is wet. (rain)
3. Jack has no money left. (shop)
4. Fred is covered in paint. (paint/the kitchen)
5. Maisy is tired and irritable (drive/for 4 hours)
6. Harry is very hot and dirty (dig/the garden)

F: Complete the sentences using the present perfect continuous and add since or for.

1. Maria _______________ (learn) English __________ two years.

2. I _______________ (write) letters ___________ 8:00.
3. Robert and Jane _______________ (travel) around Europe __________ five weeks.
4. We _______________ (go) to Ireland for our holidays __________ 1968.
5. It _______________ (rain) __________ this morning.
6. Anne _______________ (look) for a new job __________ a long time.
7. Mark _______________ (sell) computers __________ he started his job with Olivetti.
8. We _______________ (wait) for the bus __________ twenty-five minutes.
9. She _______________ (play) piano __________ she was eight.

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10. They _______________ (watch) TV __________ hours.
G: Complete the sentences using present perfect simple or continuous.
1. (build) The Browns _______________ a house for some time.
They _______________ all the main walls now.
2. (write) John _______________ his novel since last year. He _______________ the first three
chapters.
3. (paint) The painters _______________ the town hall since February.
They _______________ nearly half of it now.
4. (save) The Cooks _______________ to go on holiday next summer.
They _______________ € 2000 up to now.
5. (watch) I _______________ cartoons on TV.
I _______________ 4 cartoons already.
H: Put the verb in the most suitable form, present perfect simple or continuous.
1. You look tired. _______________ (you/study) hard?
2. Mr Brown is new here, isn't he? How 1ong _______________ (he/work) for the
company?
3. I _______________ (lose) my wallet. Have you seen it anywhere?
4. I _______________ (read) the magazine you lent me, but I _______________
(not/finish) yet.
5. _______________ (you/hear) the bad news? Simon _______________ (break) his leg!
6. How many articles _______________ (you/write)?
7. What _______________ (you/do)? I _______________ (wait) for you for an hour!
8. Bob and his friends _______________ (play) golf since this morning.
9. I _______________ (know) Louise for ten years.
10. Mr Brown _______________ (mark) the exams all morning, but he _______________
(not/read) them all.

I: Put in the correct verb form: present perfect or past simple.

1. How long _______________ (she/study) German?
2. When _______________ (he/begin) to study Business Administration?
3. Who _______________ ( write ) the play Dancing at Lughnasa.
4. _______________ (you/visit) any museums when you were in Sofia.
5. Henry has a perfect school record. He _______________ (not/be) sick this year.
6. Prices _______________ (go) up. Things are much more expensive this week.
7 . What _______________ (happen) to you. I waited all afternoon for you.
8. Marilyn _______________ (have) an accident. She was running for the bus when she
_______________ (fall) down.
9. Mr Arnold _______________ (win) the Exporter of the Year prize twice. His brother
_______________ (win) it four times already.
10. Alfred Hitchcock _______________ (make) lots of films in his long career.
11. I _______________ (just/remember) something.
12. _______________ (you/reply) to Mr Aston's letter yet?
13. Mr Miller _______________ (work) in a travel agency for years. Then he gave it up.
14. Melanie lives in Bucharest. She _______________ (live) there all her life.
15. My uncle died in 1960. I _______________ (never/have) the opportunity to meet him.

Unit 4: Past Perfect

17
A: Read the situations and write sentences in the past perfect using the words in
brackets.
1. I arrived at the party at 9 p.m. but Jane was already there.
(she / arrive / before / me) She had arrived before me.2. I invited Jeff to come for lunch but he wasn't
hungry.
(he / already / eat / lunch)
3. Jane was late for her exam. All the other students were already there.
(they / start / the exam)
4. Mike got home after midnight. The house was quiet.
(everybody / go / to bed)
5. I rang Fred but he wasn't at home.
(he / already / leave / for work)

B: Complete the sentences using the past simple or the past perfect.

1. When the teacher came in, everybody ______________ (stand up).

2. I arrived two hours late because my car ______________ (break down).
3. I was really tired last night. I ______________ (have) a hard day.
4. Sam felt ill, so he ______________ (go) to bed.
5. When we ______________ (write) the letter, we went to the post office.
C: Complete the sentences using the past perfect or the past perfect continuous.
1. By the time I got home they ______________ (eat) all the cake.
2. The room was very smoky. I could tell that my brother ______________ (smoke) in
there all afternoon.
3. She retired at fifty-five, but she ______________ (work) hard all her life.
4. James was very irritable. He ______________ (look) for his contact lens for an hour and
he still ______________ (not / find) it!
5. I was furious with Tom when he arrived. I ______________ (wait) for him for hours.
6. Harry was sad to sell his car. He ______________ (have) it for a long time.
7. Mary was covered in white paint. She ______________ (decorate) the kitchen a1l
afternoon.
8. Lucy went into the sitting room. The TV was on. Her brother ______________ (watch) it
and ______________ (forget) to switch it off.
9. Hattie felt terribly sick. She ______________ (eat) too many cream cakes.
10. The journey was incredibly long. We ______________ (travel) for ten hours and we
weren't even half way yet.

D: Complete the sentences using the present perfect or past perfect.

1. The park looked awful after the music festival. People ______________ (leave) litter
everywhere.
2. You ______________ (make) a mistake. I am not the person you are looking for.
3. When we arrived at the cinema, the film ______________ (already/start).
4. It isn't raining now. It ______________ (finally/stop).
5. I am rea1ly not very hungry. I ____________ (just/have) lunch.
6. His apartment was rea1ly dirty. He obviously ______________ (not/clean) it for weeks.
7. At last the Board of Directors were ready to announce their decision. They
______________ (make) up their mind.

18
 8. I am so exhausted. ______________ (really/have) a tough week.
9. The ball hit the back of the net before the goalkeeper ______________ (notice).
10. The CEO didn't speak until he ______________ (hear) a1l the arguments.
Unit 5: Future Tense

A: Put the verb in brackets into the present continuous or the present simple.

1. I ______________ (meet) Jane tonight.

2. The train to London ______________ (leave) at midday.
3. What time ______________ (the film / begin) this evening?
4. What ______________ (you / do) next weekend?
5. We ______________ (have) a party on Saturday. Do you want to come?
6. When ______________ (the concert / start)? It .______________ (start) at 7 p.m..
7. Harry ______________ (come) to stay tomorrow. He ______________ (catch) the last
bus from York, which ______________ (arrive) here at midnight.

B: Write questions using going to.

Your friend is going on holiday to Spain. You ask:

1. (where / stay?) Where are you going to stay?
2. (what / see?) ………………………………..?
3. (who / go with?) ………………………………..?
4. (how / travel?) ………………………………..?
5. (how much luggage / take?) ………………………………..?
6. (what souvenirs / buy?) ………………………………..?

C: Use going to and the words in brackets to say what is going to happen in these
situations.

1. There are a lot of black clouds in the sky. (rain) It's going to rain.
2. The cat has seen a mouse. (chase)
3. There is a large hole in the bottom of the boat. (sink)
4. It is 7:45 and John is asleep. His train leaves at 7:50. (miss)
5. A car thief is looking around a car park. (steal)
6. A bungee jumper is standing on a high bridge. (jump)

D: Choose the correct form of the verb.

1. I'll meet / I'm meeting Jane in town tonight.
2. Louise can't come. She is taking / will take the car to the garage at 5 p.m.
3. What time does your train leave / will your train leave tomorrow?
4. 'I'm very thirsty.' 'I'll get / I get you something to drink. Coke or tea?'
5. This bus is stopping / stops at every village, so it's very slow!
6. 'Did you buy some butter?' 'Oh, I forgot. I'll get / I'm getting some now.'
7. I think it rains / will rain later today.
8. 'Have you chosen a new car yet?' 'Yes, we are going to buy / we will buy a Ford Focus.'
9. 'Why have you put the TV on?' I'm going to watch / I will watch the news.'
10. 'Frank, I can't go out because I haven't got any money.' 'Don't worry. I lend you / I'll
lend you some.'

19
11. Shall / Will I carry that for you?

Prepositions exercise

Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions. Choose your answers from the options given in the
brackets.
1. This material is different …………………… that. (from / to / with)

2. You should explain this …………………… them. (to / at / with)

3. He has been absent ………………… Monday. (since /for / from)

4. I haven’t been to the theatre ………………… a long time. (since / for /from)

5. He goes ……………….. school by car. (to / at / on)

6. This is a comfortable house to live ……………… (on / at / in)

7. They are called …………………. different names. (by / with / for)

8. We should not spend money ………………. luxuries. (for / on / with)

9. I gave him a chair to sit ………………. (on / at / in)

10. The new term begins …………………. June 1st. (on / in / from)

11. He poured the tea ………………….. the mug. (into / on / in)

12. He said that he was very pleased ……………………. my work. (with / on / at)

Choose the correct preposition to complete each of the following sentences:

1. It's ________ time you told him the truth!

on
about
20
 in

2. The soccer player was ejected because he had done something that was ________ the rules.
without
outside
against

3. Another way of saying 'old-fashioned' is '________ the times'.

beside
behind
outside

4. You shouldn't pick ________ him just because he's different.

on
to
with

5. The animal hospital? It's somewhere ________ that big blue building.
around
about
on

6. Being a nurse is hard work, especially if you're ________ call all the time.
in
with
on

7. She's the kind of girl who knows everything ________ everyone.

about
on
in

8. She is, ________ a doubt, the best student in the class.

without
outside
about

21
9. ________ our visit to Japan, we saw a lot of interesting places.
While
During
Through

10. ________ the year, I've spoken to her five times.

In
During
Through
Choose the right artilces a, an or zero article. In the sentences where it is not necessary to use a or an
choose x.
1. My friend is photographer. Let’s ask him for advice.
2. We had fish and chips for lunch.
3. That doesn’t sound very interesting lunch.
4. I had very bad night.
5. I didn’t sleep wink.
6. She is vegetarian. You won’t get meat at his house.
7. I had nut cutlet and I had indigestion.
8. A travel agent gave me information about hotels.
9. We’d better go by taxi – if we can get taxi at such hour.
10. Do you take sugar in coffee?
Choose A, AN or THE for each blank below,

1. A: What's wrong?
B: I have bad headache.

2. A: Why was today's class cancelled?

B: Because teacher is sick.

3. A: What does he do?

B: He's engineer.

4. A: What did Tom buy?

B: He bought new camera.

5. A: How long does it take to get there?

B: It takes about hour.

6. A: I want to change the channel.

B: OK, remote control is over there.

7. A: Why can't Shelly travel?

B: She doesn't have passport.

8. A: Where does Barbara live?

22
B: In apartment on 5th Avenue.

9. A: Oh no, where is it?

B: Don't worry, key is in my pocket.

10. A: I don't understand what this word means.

B: You need to buy dictionary.

Choose the correct (and most natural-sounding) response to complete each sentence:

1. They usually spend their holidays in __________ mountains.

the
no article
a

2. Los Angeles has __________ ideal climate.

no article
an
the

3. This is __________ best Mexican restaurant in the country.

no article
a
the

4. I can't live on __________ 500 dollars a month.

the
no article
a

5. Someone call __________ policeman!

a
the
no article
6. Someone call __________ police!
no article
the
a
7. He is __________ real American hero.
no article
the
a
8. I don't like __________ dogs, but I like my brother's dog.
a
no article
the
9. I haven't seen him in __________ five years.
no article

23
 the
a
10. Kobe Bryant is __________ basketball player.
the
a
no article
Subject-Verb Agreement
Subjects and verbs need to agree!
Subject-verb agreement is one of the first things you learn in English class:
“My friend is Japanese.” (singular)
“My friends are Japanese.” (plural)
In this English lesson, you’re going to learn a few more advanced cases of subject-verb agreement that
confuse many learners.

EVERYBODY / ANYBODY / SOMEBODY / NOBODY

EVERYONE / ANYONE / SOMEONE / NO ONE
These subjects are all singular!
“Everyone have problems.”
“Everyone has problems.”
“I don’t know if anybody is in the office right now.”
“How do you react if someone gives you a compliment?”
“Nobody likes the new English teacher.”

CLUB / TEAM / FAMILY / ARMY

These subjects are also singular, even though they are talking about a group of people.
“My family is visiting me for the holidays.”
“The basketball team has a new coach.”
Note: In British English “family” and “team” are often plural.

POLICE
Usually, “police” is plural:
“The police are investigating the murder.”
“Police have arrested three suspects.”
To talk about an individual member of the police, we can say policeman or policewoman – or the gender-
neutral term police officer.

PEOPLE / CHILDREN / MEN / WOMEN / MICE / FEET

These words are irregular plural nouns (nouns that are not formed by adding -s) and they take the plural
form of the verb:
“Our children are very well-behaved.”
“The people like the new president.”
“Men don’t usually enjoy shopping for clothes.”
“My feet are cold.”

BOTH OF / A FEW OF / MANY / SEVERAL

These words always take the plural form of the verb:
“Both of my brothers are older than me.”
“A few of these products have defects.”

24
“Many of the houses in this neighborhood don’t have garages.”
“Several of the students aren’t going to pass.”

HALF OF / A THIRD OF / 40% OF / SOME / MOST

These words can be singular OR plural depending on what follows them!
“Half of the students are from another country.”
“Half of the class is from another country.”
“Some of these facts are incorrect.”
“Some of this information is incorrect.”
“40% of the people don’t support the new law.”
“40% of the country doesn’t support the new law.”

Quiz: Advanced Subject-Verb Agreement

Question 1
_______ anyone ________ a pencil I could borrow?
A Do / have
B Does / have

Question 2
No one _____ finished reading the book yet.
A has
B have

Question 3
Hurry up! Everyone ____ waiting for you to get here.
A are
B is

Question 4
No, my family ________ live nearby.
A doesn't
B don't

Question 5
Our swimming club ______ going to compete on Saturday.
A are
B is

Question 6
The police officer _____ talking to the parents of the missing child.
A is
B are

Question 7
The police _______ released any information about the case.
A hasn't

25
B haven't
Question 8
Most women _______ getting flowers.
A love
B loves
Question 9
Some of the people waiting in line ______ getting impatient.
A are
B is
Question 10
Both of you _______ the rules.
A know
B knows
Question 11
Several of my teeth ______ cavities.
A has
B have
Question 12
Most of this software _____ outdated.
A are
B is
Question 13
Some of the children _______ have cell phones.
A don't
B doesn't
Question 14
Almost all of the water _____ contaminated.
A is
B are

COMMON ERRORS IN GRAMMAR

One of these parts contains an error.

1.He was quite amusing when he heard what had happened.

2.Turn left by the crossroads when you reach it.

3.He has been working here for sometimes.

4.He stopped to see if he could picked up the trail.

5.Although he jumped aside, but the stone hit him.

26
6.I decided to climbed to the top of the hill to get a better view.

7.He jumped down after shouted a warning to those standing below.

8.After a few minutes, I look up and saw that it was getting dark.

9.I saw the blind man crossed the busy road without any help.

10.The robber gave the victim with a hard blow.

11.There were marks on the snow but it were unrecognizable.

12.He lead me to the rear of the shop where more goods were stacked.

13.The branch struck him hard and lay him unconscious.

14.The sudden noise frightened the baby and made it to cry.

15.The dog wagged it's tail when it saw me approaching.

16.There was signs of neglect showing that no one was living there.

17.After a few moment, the woman opened the window and looked out curiously.

18.Can you write an article to be include in the next issue of the magazine ?

19.Decided to leave, I packed my clothes and left a note to say I had gone.

20.one of the former student donated a large sum of money to the school.

21.To who did you pass the message I gave you ?

22.The firemen put off the fire quickly but the house was burnt down.

23.The villagers carried out a through search for the missing child.

24.Please convey my best wish to your mother when you seeher.

25.Unless you finish all your homework, you can watch television.

26.The contestant hitted the target with great accuracy.

27.I am sorry to say that your son has been absence from school for a week.

28.Successful applicants will be paid attracting salary, bonus and fringe benefits.

29.Can you borrow me your book for a few days ?

30.My friend asked me to go for shopping with her but I refused.

31.The fire spread quickly, destroy three houses within minute.

27
32.She crossed the road without looking and was knock down by a car.

33.He got out of the car, than he locked it and walked to the office.

34.I hope you will kind consider my application for a job in your company.

35.I know it was going to rain like this, I would have stayed at home.

36.To my opinion advertisements are more harmful than beneficial.

37. The crowd was little and I had no difficulty in getting a good seat.

38. Mrs Salmah bought a lot of furnitures at the sale for her new house.

39. If you go I'm sure you will find it enjoy.

40. Would you mind go with me to the hospital?

41. The shop assistance was very helpful and I was able to buy what I wanted.

42 Have you wrote a reply to your grandmother to thank her for the present?

43. My fathers told me don’t stay out late at night with my friends.

44. We have to do it ourself as there are not enough workers to finish it on time.

45. Amy sits besides me in class while Sita is behind me.

46. We are grateful for Mrs Halimah for helping us to win the inter-school debate.

47. When Rahman reached to home, he realized that no one was there.

Each of the following sentences contains an error which has been underlined. Write out the correct answer.

48. When you send the forms, you should included a photograph.

49. If you have a car, you can traveled around Singapore.

50. The thieves must had stolen the handphone.

51. Our group must climbed the hill.

52. When she is free, she will helps us.

53. Even when he is sad, he will jokes.

54. We must prayed to God for help.

55. Do I must go?

28
56. You can leaving soon.

57.He can easily recognizes his old friends.

Each of the following sentences contains an error (Countable/Uncountable Nouns) which has been
underlined. Write out the correct answer.

58. The teacher gave each of the student a test paper.

59. It’s important for every students to have a dictionary.

60. Every furniture in that room is made of wood.

61. People’s idea about values change.

62. We have a lot of works to do.

63. One of my mother's ring was also stolen.

64. She has a lot of jewelleries.

65. The businessman has bought a lot of properties.

66 It is wise to have a smaller amount of children.

67. They usually have three or less children.

Each of the following sentences contains an error (Prepositions) which has been underlined. Write out the
correct answer.

68. I reached at Semantan Street.

69. About half past nine we arrived the destination.

70. We heard a lot of noise among the jungles.

71. We came out from the tree when it was safe.

72. They thanked to the family for helping them.

73. I screamed loudly to him.

74. She wants the best of us.

75. Parents need to spend more time on their children.

76. They are able to concentrate of their work.

77. They spend more time to caring for others.

29
 Each of the following sentences contains an error (Subject-verb Agreement) which has been underlined.
Write out the correct answer.

78. The sizes of houses varies according to the location.

79. He also have a pair of brown eyes.

80. He look very young although he is over 40 years.

81. There are no sharing of space.

82. A small family have a lot of advantages.

83. Her reason for leaving home were not clear.

84. There is a lot of differences between them.

85. People in the West doesn't know much about us.

86. My father don't like people who lie.

87. Who want to read the book first.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that clarifies or describes another word, phrase, or clause.
Sometimes writers use modifiers incorrectly, leading to strange and unintentionally humorous sentences.
The two common types of modifier errors are called misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers. If either
of these errors occurs, readers can no longer read smoothly. Instead, they become stumped trying to figure
out what the writer meant to say. A writer’s goal must always be to communicate clearly and to avoid
distracting the reader with strange sentences or awkward sentence constructions. The good news is that
these errors can be easily overcome.

Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is a modifier that is placed too far from the word or words it modifies. Misplaced
modifiers make the sentence awkward and sometimes unintentionally humorous.
Incorrect: She wore a bicycle helmet on her head that was too large.

Correct: She wore a bicycle helmet that was too large on her head.

• Notice in the incorrect sentence it sounds as if her head was too large! Of course, the writer is referring to
the helmet, not to the person’s head. The corrected version of the sentence clarifies the writer’s meaning.

Look at the following two examples:

30
 Incorrect: They bought a kitten for my brother they call Shadow.

Correct: They bought a kitten they call Shadow for my brother.

• In the incorrect sentence, it seems that the brother’s name is Shadow. That’s because the modifier is too far
from the word it modifies, which is kitten.

Incorrect: The patient was referred to the physician with stomach pains.

Correct: The patient with stomach pains was referred to the physician.

• The incorrect sentence reads as if it is the physician who has stomach pains! What the writer means is that
the patient has stomach pains.

Tip

Simple modifiers like only, almost, just, nearly, and barely often get used incorrectly because writers often
stick them in the wrong place.

Confusing: Tyler almost found fifty cents under the sofa cushions.

Repaired: Tyler found almost fifty cents under the sofa cushions.

• How do you almost find something? Either you find it or you do not. The repaired sentence is much
clearer.

Exercise 1

On a separate sheet of paper, rewrite the following sentences to correct the misplaced modifiers.

1. The young lady was walking the dog on the telephone.

2. I heard that there was a robbery on the evening news.
3. Uncle Louie bought a running stroller for the baby that he called “Speed Racer.”
4. Rolling down the mountain, the explorer stopped the boulder with his powerful foot.
5. We are looking for a babysitter for our precious six-year-old who doesn’t drink or smoke and owns a car.
6. The teacher served cookies to the children wrapped in aluminum foil.
7. The mysterious woman walked toward the car holding an umbrella.
8. We returned the wine to the waiter that was sour.
9. Charlie spotted a stray puppy driving home from work.
10. I ate nothing but a cold bowl of noodles for dinner.

31
 Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes something that has been left out of the
sentence. When there is nothing that the word, phrase, or clause can modify, the modifier is said to dangle.
Incorrect: Riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly.

Correct: As Jane was riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly.

• In the incorrect sentence, riding in the sports car is dangling. The reader is left wondering who is riding in
the sports car. The writer must tell the reader!

Incorrect: Walking home at night, the trees looked like spooky aliens.

Correct: As Jonas was walking home at night, the trees looked like spooky aliens.

Correct: The trees looked like spooky aliens as Jonas was walking home at night.

• In the incorrect sentence walking home at night is dangling. Who is walking home at night? Jonas. Note
that there are two different ways the dangling modifier can be corrected.

Incorrect: To win the spelling bee, Luis and Gerard should join our team.

Correct: If we want to win the spelling bee this year, Luis and Gerard should join our team.

• In the incorrect sentence, to win the spelling bee is dangling. Who wants to win the spelling bee? We do!

Tip

The following three steps will help you quickly spot a dangling modifier:
1. Look for an -ing modifier at the beginning of your sentence or another modifying phrase:

Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie. (Painting is the -
ing modifier.)
2. Underline the first noun that follows it:

Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie.
3. Make sure the modifier and noun go together logically. If they do not, it is very likely you have a
dangling modifier.

After identifying the dangling modifier, rewrite the sentence.

Painting for three hours at night, Maggie finally finished the kitchen.
Exercise 2

Rewrite the following the sentences onto your own sheet of paper to correct the dangling modifiers.

32
 1. Bent over backward, the posture was very challenging.
2. Making discoveries about new creatures, this is an interesting time to be a biologist.
3. Walking in the dark, the picture fell off the wall.
4. Playing a guitar in the bedroom, the cat was seen under the bed.
5. Packing for a trip, a cockroach scurried down the hallway.
6. While looking in the mirror, the towel swayed in the breeze.
7. While driving to the veterinarian’s office, the dog nervously whined.
8. The priceless painting drew large crowds when walking into the museum.
9. Piled up next to the bookshelf, I chose a romance novel.
10. Chewing furiously, the gum fell out of my mouth.

Exercise 3

Rewrite the following paragraph correcting all the misplaced and dangling modifiers.
I bought a fresh loaf of bread for my sandwich shopping in the grocery store. Wanting to make a delicious
sandwich, the mayonnaise was thickly spread. Placing the cold cuts on the bread, the lettuce was placed on
top. I cut the sandwich in half with a knife turning on the radio. Biting into the sandwich, my favorite song
blared loudly in my ears. Humming and chewing, my sandwich went down smoothly. Smiling, my
sandwich will be made again, but next time I will add cheese.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

EXERCISES

Correct any misplaced modifiers in the following sentences.

1. The vehicle was parked on the front lawn of the Starr residence with a “slightly flat tire.”

2. Two police officers arrested Mr. James outside Three Rivers Stadium on the night of the raid on charges of
marijuana possession.

3. The court upheld summary judgment in favor of the employer which found that there was not enough
evidence for a claim of false light invasion of privacy.

4. The no-duty rule should not apply to a patron struck by a ball batted by a player during the seventh inning
stretch while seated in an open concourse.

5. Knowing that Jones feared snakes, the television show script contained a scene that would force Jones to
interact with serpents.

33
6. Flying over the barrier and into the stands, the fan could not escape the foul ball.

7. Subjected to humiliation, the producers of the reality television show should have anticipated the contestant
might break the contract.

8. Enticed by the horses, the fence provided an inadequate barrier to prevent the child from reaching the
pasture.

9. The incident deeply upset Barnett, and he has been seeing a psychologist with severe emotional distress.

10. Tom barely skidded 6 inches in the milk spill.

11. Anna suggested often that the children should play outside.

12. A friend Barnett had lunch with occasionally suggested that Barnett compete on a reality show.

13. Without knowing about the content planned for the television show segments, it was impossible to give full
consent to participate.

14. Bill fell asleep under a tree, tired from the long hike up the mountain.

15. The pedestrian was hit by a car, sitting on the curb.

16. Mary stormed out of the office, frustrated by the argument with her employer.

17. With leaking pipes and a broken air conditioner, the tenants rightfully withheld the month’s rent on the
property.

18. Contaminated with oil from the spill, Jeff refused to purchase the property.

19. Surrounded by allegations of mismanagement, shareholders demanded the resignation of the company’s
president.

20. The Hatfields’ claimed ownership of the land, having built and lived in a house on the property for over 20
years.

21. Injured by a foul ball, the baseball team was sued by a spectator.

22. Failing to pay a royalty for the performance of a song, fair use was claimed by the singer.

23. Claiming a neck injury, the bungee cord company was sued by a jumper.

34
24. Adventure Outings breached its duty to the deceased, supplying a faulty shark cage for the “Great White
Shark” dive.

REDUNDUNCIES

Redundancies are unnecessary, repetitious words. They may appear before and after the main word.
They make your communication longer, but not better. To improve your English, read through the list of
common redundancies below and mark the ones you are familiar with. You may be surprised at how many
you have been using! Omit (leave out) the repetitive word and start speaking and writing more clearly,
accurately, and professionally. Some redundancies are completely wrong. Some are not wrong, but should
only be used if you know why you are using them — for emphasis or differentiation.

Example of redundancy before the main word:

Wrong The final conclusion was to close the bakery.

Right The conclusion was to close the bakery.

Example of redundancy after the main word:

Wrong The companies merged together last year.

Right The companies merged last year.

5 MOST COMMON REDUNDANCIES:

Wrong reply back: They replied back yesterday.

Right reply: They replied yesterday.

Wrong repeat again: Could you repeat that again, please?

Right repeat: Could you repeat that, please?

Wrong return back: Raj returned back yesterday.

Right return: Raj returned yesterday.

Wrong cash money: Do you have any cash money?

35
Right cash: Do you have any cash?

Wrong very unique: Your dress is very unique!

Right unique: Your dress is unique!

COMMON REDUNDANCIES: Before the word

absolutely

• absolutely certain

• absolutely essential

• absolutely guaranteed

• absolutely necessary

• absolutely sure

advance

• advance planning

• advance preview

• advance reservation

• advance warning

completely

• completely annihilated

• completely destroyed

• completely eliminated

• completely filled

• completely finished

• completely surrounded

final

• final conclusion

• final decision

36
 • final outcome

• final verdict

new

• new beginning

• new innovation

• new invention

past

• past experience

• past history

• past memories

• past records

still

• still continues

• still persists

• still remains

COMMON REDUNDANCIES: After the word

around

• circle around

• circulate around

back

• answer back

• repeat back

• reply back

• return back

• retreat back

• revert back

37
forward

• advance forward

• proceed forward

• progress forward

situation

• crisis situation

• emergency situation

together

• assemble together

• attach together

• cooperate together

• collaborate together

• connect together

• gather together

• integrate together

• join together

• meet together

• merge together

possibly

• could possibly

• may possibly

• might possibly

MORE COMMON REDUNDANCIES

38
Wrong Right

actual facts facts

added bonus bonus

all-time record record

alternative choice alternative

armed gunman gunman

ask a question ask

assemble together assemble

at the present time at present

bald-headed bald

basic essentials essentials

basic fundamentals fundamentals

best ever best

biography of his/ her life biography

bouquet of flowers bouquet

brief moment moment

classify into groups classify

compete with each other compete

39
current trend trend

depreciate in value depreciate

desirable benefits benefits

disappear from sight disappear

end result result

estimated at about estmated at

exact same same

face mask mask

fall down fall

fellow classmates classmates

fellow colleagues colleagues

first began began

foreign imports imports

free gift gift

frozen ice ice

future plans plans

general public public

grow in size grow

40
hurry up hurry

invited guests guests

irregardless regardless

joint collaboration collaboration

kneel down kneel

lag behind lag

lift up lift

natural instinct instinct

never before never

old proverb proverb

pair of twins twins

period of time time

personal friend friend

plan ahead plan

plan in advance plan

postpone till later postpone

reason is because reason is

reason is why reason is

41
rise up rise

round in shape round

same identical same or identical

serious danger danger

small size small

soft in texture soft

sudden impulse impulse

suddenly exploded exploded

surrounded on all sides surrounded

tall in height tall

tiny bit bit

true facts facts

undergraduate student undergraduate

unexpected surprise surprise

usual custom custom

warn in advance warn

42
 EXERCISE

Try to eliminate redundant statements and useless phrases from the sentences:

1. He found his neighbor who lived next door to be attractive in appearance.

2. He was really late to his English class due to the fact that he had to finish his math test.

3. Although they were several in number, the street gang feared the police.

4. During the time when I lived in South Carolina, it was my intention to go to college in Florida.

5. Bob provided an explanation of the computer to his grandmother.

6. In order to prove that he could hold his own on the track team, Gordo had to train hard like the old runners.

7. If you go to the store, you will see that the store is closed on Sundays because the storeowner likes to go to
church.

8. Due to the fact that Jim liked chocolate, he was very upset when the candy company canceled production of his
favorite chocolate bar.

9. One time when I went to the park, my friend, whose name is Jake, went with me and we had fun due to the fact
that it was a nice day out.
43
10. In this report I will conduct a study of ants and the setup of their colonies.

ARTICLES
Choose the right artilces a, an or zero article. In the sentences where it is not necessary to

use a or an choose x.

1. My friend is photographer. Let’s ask him for advice.

2. We had fish and chips for lunch.
3. That doesn’t sound very interesting lunch.
4. I had very bad night.
5. I didn’t sleep wink.
6. She is vegetarian. You won’t get meat at his house.
7. I had nut cutlet and I had indigestion.
8. A travel agent gave me information about hotels.
9. We’d better go by taxi – if we can get taxi at such hour.
10. Do you take sugar in coffee?

Choose A, AN or THE for each blank below,

1. A: What's wrong?
B: I have bad headache.

2. A: Why was today's class cancelled?

B: Because teacher is sick.

3. A: What does he do?

B: He's engineer.

4. A: What did Tom buy?

B: He bought new camera.

5. A: How long does it take to get there?

B: It takes about hour.

6. A: I want to change the channel.

B: OK, remote control is over there.

44
 7. A: Why can't Shelly travel?
B: She doesn't have passport.

8. A: Where does Barbara live?

B: In apartment on 5th Avenue.

9. A: Oh no, where is it?

B: Don't worry, key is in my pocket.

10. A: I don't understand what this word means.

B: You need to buy dictionary.

Choose the correct (and most natural-sounding) response to complete each sentence:

1. They usually spend their holidays in __________ mountains.

the
no article
a

2. Los Angeles has __________ ideal climate.

no article
an
the

3. This is __________ best Mexican restaurant in the country.

no article
a
the

4. I can't live on __________ 500 dollars a month.

the
no article
a

5. Someone call __________ policeman!

a
the
no article

6. Someone call __________ police!

no article
the
45
 a

7. He is __________ real American hero.

no article
the
a

8. I don't like __________ dogs, but I like my brother's dog.

a
no article
the

9. I haven't seen him in __________ five years.

no article
the
a

10. Kobe Bryant is __________ basketball player.

the
a
no article

Subject-Verb Agreement

Subjects and verbs need to agree!

Subject-verb agreement is one of the first things you learn in English class:

“My friend is Japanese.” (singular)

“My friends are Japanese.” (plural)

In this English lesson, you’re going to learn a few more advanced cases of subject-verb agreement that confuse
many learners.
Everybody / Anybody / Somebody / Nobody

Everyone / Anyone / Someone / No One

These subjects are all singular!

“Everyone have problems.”

“Everyone has problems.”

“I don’t know if anybody is in the office right now.”

“How do you react if someone gives you a compliment?”

“Nobody likes the new English teacher.”

46
Club / Team / Family / Army

These subjects are also singular, even though they are talking about a group of people.

“My family is visiting me for the holidays.”

“The basketball team has a new coach.”

Note: In British English “family” and “team” are often plural.

Police

Usually, “police” is plural:

“The police are investigating the murder.”

“Police have arrested three suspects.”

To talk about an individual member of the police, we can say policeman or policewoman – or the gender-neutral
term police officer.

People / Children / Men / Women / Mice / Feet

These words are irregular plural nouns (nouns that are not formed by adding -s) and they take the plural form of
the verb:

“Our children are very well-behaved.”

“The people like the new president.”

“Men don’t usually enjoy shopping for clothes.”

“My feet are cold.”

Both Of / A Few Of / Many / Several

These words always take the plural form of the verb:

“Both of my brothers are older than me.”

“A few of these products have defects.”

“Many of the houses in this neighborhood don’t have garages.”

“Several of the students aren’t going to pass.”

Half Of / A Third Of / 40% Of / Some / Most

These words can be singular OR plural depending on what follows them!

“Half of the students are from another country.”

“Half of the class is from another country.”

“Some of these facts are incorrect.”

“Some of this information is incorrect.”

“40% of the people don’t support the new law.”

47
 “40% of the country doesn’t support the new law.”

Read the sentences to decide whether the verbs should be singular or plural
1. The price of these jeans reasonable.(IS/ARE)

2. The books borrowed from the library on my desk. .(IS/ARE)

3. The boy who won the two medals a friend of mine. .(IS/ARE)

4. Bread and butter our daily food. .(IS/ARE)

5. The famous singer and composer arrived.(HAS/HAVE)

6. Collecting match-boxes one of his favourite pastimes. .(IS/ARE)

7. The quality of the candies poor. .(IS/ARE)

8. Neither his father nor his mother mahjong.(PLAYS/PLAY)

9. Neither parent fond of playing mahjong. .(IS/ARE)

10. None of my friends there.(WAS/WERE)

11. Many a student made the same mistake.(HAS/HAVE)

12. Gold, as well as platinum, recently risen in price..(HAS/HAVE)

13. The boss, as well as his colleagues, been robbed by the robber .(HAS/HAVE)

14. Ten tons a heavy load. (IS/ARE)

15. Fifty miles a long distance. (IS/ARE)

16. Thirty years a long time. (IS/ARE)

17. One of the books been missing.( HAS/HAVE)

18. The poor suffering. (IS/ARE)

19. You should decide which one of the three choices A, B, or C best the
question.(ANSWERS/ANSWER)

20. One of the most intelligent students who (SCORES/SCORE)full

marks (IS/ARE)John.

21. The only one of these most intelligent students who (IS/ARE)under 18
Peter. (IS/ARE)

22. One of these most intelligent students whose example (IS/ARE)being

followed John. (IS/ARE)

48
Precis Writing
49
You will see that for every document in technical writing summarizing is very important .Precise writing
therefore is important because it helps in summarizing documents. On many occasions in business we have to
condense or abridge facts and information into quick summaries. Many people are often at a loss to know
where to begin when confronted with a lengthy report or sheaves of correspondence, but once a few simple
rules of making a summary are mastered, it can be quite a speedy and effective exercise. Also it is a compulsory
question in may examination papers as it is the most accurate test whether a student has really understood what
he has read. The object of the summary (or precis, as it is sometimes called) is to give a short but accurate
account of what the original writer has said without changing or adding to it in any way. The writer or the
passage in any way. It is permissible, and often desirable, to clarify the original where necessary and to make
plain anything that may be obscure but must be summarized exactly. Illustrations and subsidiary arguments may
be omitted as not really essential, but everything vital to the understanding of his main theme and arguments
must be included. The original sense of the passage must not be distorted by additions or omissions or by
leaving out any essential information.

EXERCISE FOR PRECIS WRITING

Read the following passage and write its summary and also give a suitable title.

(A) According to J. Krishna Murti, there is no Joy without discipline. Good manners are the root
from where discipline springs up. We can say discipline demands good manners in a person "A
man without discipline is just like an Animal" only a person who knows how to obey can learn
how to command all the great men have imposed discipline on them before trying to command
others. Discipline helps to direct us to constructive work. The function of education is to bring
about a release of that energy in search of reality. We should remember that free discipline is the
best type of discipline because it is not imposed but born out understanding. Lets us hope the
younger generation will understand this in the real sense of the word "Discipline is the life of a
nation".

- Jawaharlal Nehru

(1) Write the summary of the above passage.

(2) Give a suitable title to the passage.

(B) Read the following passage carefully and write its summary:

However, some microbes are not friendly to us. They have learned to live upon animals and men.
These are the parasites which cause diseases. A Parasite cannot live without its host. So there is
50
regular struggle for existence between these microbes and the man they inhabit microbes are
very powerful, yet the living body has its own defenses to fight against them. The skin is our first
line of defense. The microbes have to get through the skin both into the flesh and blood before it
can do any mischief. Again the body has its warning signals special cells in the blood called
leucocytes are the home guards of the body, when the body is attacked by diseases bacteria,
these home guards get ready to attack them.

(1) Write the summary of the above passage.

(2) Give a suitable title to the passage.

(C) Read the following passage, write its summary and also give a suitable title

Water is the basis of all life. Every animal and every plant contains a large amount of free or
combined water in its body, and no kind of physiological activity is possible in which the fluid does
not play an essential part. Water is, of course, necessary for animal life, while moisture in the soil
is equally necessary for the life and growth of plants and trees. The conservation and utilization of
water is thus fundamental for human welfare. A part from well water, the ultimate source is all
cases is rain or snowfall. Much of Indian agriculture defends on seasonal rainfall and is, therefore,
very sensitive to any failure or irregularity of the same. The problems of soil erosion and of in
adequate or irregular rainfall are closely connected with each other.

(1) Write a summary of the above passage.

(2) Give a suitable title to the passage.

(D) Read the following passage carefully and write its summary:

The great advantage of early rising is the good start it gives us in our day's work. The early riser
does a good deal of work before other people get out of bed. The mind is fresh in the morning, so
he can do his work well. The early riser finds time to take exercise in the fresh morning air. He
gets plenty of time to do his work without hurrying. He has time enough to take rest in the
evening. He goes to bed early and gets sleep for several hours. He gets sound, spirits for the
labors of a new day. Anyone who dies in bed late, has to work till late hour to complete his daily
51
work. He find no time to take exercise or to take rest. He has to burn midnight oil and this tells
upon his health.

(1) Write a summary of the above passage.

(2) Give it a suitable title.

(E) Read the following passage and write its summary and also give a suitable title.

Dr. Homi Bhabha realised that atomic power could be used for peaceful purposes. He felt the
need of settling up an institute in India to do research on the subject. He noticed that there were
many promising young scientists in India whose talents were wasted. They were scattered all over
the country and unless they were brought together in one group, they would not be able to work
us well as the scientists in the western countries did. That was why the Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research was set up. He looked for talented young scientists and soon he had such
a group of scientists working under him when the first reactor Apsua was ready, add the scientists
and engineers who designed it and built it were suitably rewarded because it was an entirely
Indian Project.

(1) Write a summary of the above passage.

(2) Give a suitable title to the passag

**************************

COMPREHENSION

• Read the following passage and answer the questions given below it :

(A) Teaching may be considered to be a way of helping people acquire knowledge of different
things and there are innumerable subjects that are to be known. But the fundamental teaching
that Swami Vivekananda believed in was that every soul is potentially perfect. Swamiji defined
Education as the manifestation of perfection already in man. Every man is perfect but he is not
aware of the perfection. What the teacher has to do is to make his pupil become aware of his
inherent perfection. An ordinary teacher thinks of his pupils as boys whose minds are tabula rasa
(blank slate) on which he has to write what he deems fit. He feels that his pupils are lumps of clay
for him to model farms according to his liking. Swamiji says that every child has got innate

52
perfection and it is for the teacher to pave the way for the child to manifest the innate perfection
in him.

(1) How does Swamiji define Education?

(2) What does an ordinary teacher think to his pupils?

(3) What is the common notion of the teacher regarding his pupils?

(4) What, according to Swamiji, should teacher do for the child?

(5) Find out the similar words for the following words (1) countless (2) basic

(B) In what way does a man differ from beasts? How he is superior to them? In swiftness or
ferocity the deer and the lion leave man behind. Sheep are more gentle, nightingales more
melodious, tortoise longer-lived, bees more co-operative. The ants ran a state in a more
organized way than the most organized state does.

Man's distinction and his superiority lies in three things. The first of these things is reason
Aristotle is primarily a reasoning animal. He has a mind which can reflect, discover causes, find
reasons, probe the secrets of nature, plan the future and meditate upon the purpose of life.
Secondly man has a sense of right and wrong and therefore he can be judged morally. The sense
of beauty is man's third distinctive quality.

(1) Name the three things in which man is superior to animals.

(2) Why do we not judge other animals morally?

(3) Name the animals which are superior to man in some ways.

(4) How, according to Aristotle, is a man reasoning animal?

(5) Find out the synonyms for: (1) quickness (2) animal.

53
(C) From the time, he was a little boy; Lincoln had to help his father in the fields. Many a times,he
was unable to go to school, yet he practiced reading. Although he went to School for less than a
year in all. He taught himself a great many things by reading all the books he could get hold of.
There are some moving stories of the trouble he used to take to get books. Once he walked 20
miles just to borrow a book he wanted to read. Another time, he borrowed from a neighbour a
biography of George Washington, but two nights later, the rain coming through the roof of his
poor hut completely spoilt the book "Well, you can have the book for yourself if you make good
its cost by working on my farm". The neighbour said. Although Lincoln had to do some hard jobs
at the farm for a few days, he had the joy of having the book for himself.

Questions:

(1) Why was Lincoln unable to go to school?

(2) How did Lincoln teach himself?

(3) How many miles did Lincoln walk to borrow a book?

(4) Which book did Lincoln borrow from his neighbour?

(5) Could Lincoln return the book to his neighbour ? Why ?

(D) When one is afraid, there is always a tendency to imitate. People, who are afraid, imitate
others.They cling to tradition, to their parents, to their wives, to their relatives. Imitation destroys
initiative. When you draw or paint a tree, you don't initiate the tree and you don't copy it exactly
as it is, which would be mere photography to be free to paint a tree or a flower or a sunset. You
have to feel what it conveys to you. For creative process, there must be a free mind, a mind that
is not burdened with tradition, with imitation.

Questions :

(1) What do people do when they are afraid ?

(2) What is important for us ?

(3) How can we awaken the creative process?

(4) What does imitation destroy?

54
(5) Find out synonym words for (1) copy (2) stick.

(E) And so Ashoka and his mighty victorious army returned home again. When Ashoka was back in
his palace, he sent for his chiefs and his war-lords, for his counsellors and his men of state.
Standing up before them he said, "I have seen the horrors of victory, I shall not draw the sword
again, except to defend my country against invasion. My dreams are broken and dead but today I
begin a new dream. Instead of battle. "I will give my people safety, for swords and spears. I shall
give them ploughs, all implements of the field, for hunger and destruction and pain I will give
plenty and ease and happiness. Instead of shouts and songs of the victory, I will give them the
laughter of little children and the singing of happy mothers".

Question :

(1) Name three horrors of victory from the passage.

(2) Name the officers whom Ashoka called to his palace.

(3) What was Ashoka's new dream ?

(4) What happened to Ashoka's dream ?

(5) Give the synonym words for (1) protect (2) triumphant.

(F) From the moment, we are born we can't live alone, we stand in continued need of the
assistance of all around us for body and soul and spirit. We need clothes, which other men make,
houses which other men must build, food which other men must produce we have to get our
livelihood by working for others. While others get their livelihood in return by working for us. As
children, we need our parents to be our comforters, to take care of us in body and mind. As we
grow up, we need the care of others, we can't exist even for a day without our fellowman, we
require teachers to educate us, books and masters to teach us trade when we have learnt it and
settled ourselves in life, we require laws made by other men to secure for us our rights and
property.

Questions :

(1) What fact about our dependence on others is revealed in the passage ?

(2) How do we get our livelihood ?

55
 (3) What assistance do we seek as children and as grown ups ?

(4) Why do we require help from teachers and masters ?

(5) Who make laws ? Why ?

****************************

What is E-mail ?
Email Writing: An email is the method of composing, sending, storing and receiving messages over
electronic communication system. Here we have discussed, what is formal and informal email. The
method for formal email has been discussed in detail here (step–wise). The students can see how to
compose a formal email and practice to write following the method and format given below.

E mail stands for electronic mail.It is the most preferred means of communication because it is cheaper
and faster.

Email can be categorised into two types –

i. Formal e-mail
ii. Informal e-mail

A Formal email can be written to -

▪ companies

▪ Government departments

▪ Offices

56
▪ School Principal or teacher

An Informal email can be written to -

▪ family

▪ relatives

▪ friends

Let us discuss the Format of a formal e – mail

i. email address of the recipient of the mail.

ii. main subject / reason of writing the email.
iii. Salutation

4. Body of the email:

a) Introduction
b) Matter in detail
c) conclude
5. Courteous leave taking and closing
6. Name, designation and contact details of sender.
The format of an e-mail must be strictly followed in a formal e-mail. Just like a formal letter, we use formal
language in a formal e-mail also. Use of abbreviations, short forms, slang language should be avoided in a
formal e-mail. On the other hand, in an informal e-mail, we can miss out on salutation, leave taking and
designation and contact details of the sender because we are writing the mail to an acquaintance.

57
Whether you’re writing to friends, colleagues or to a potential business partner, your main goal is
to get your message across, in other words, to ensure the recipient understands you.

If you use improper or incorrect language and continuously make mistakes in your e-mail, not only
might you fail to make yourself understood, you might also fail to make a good impression on the
reader.

To avoid this, you can run your e-mail through a grammar and spell checker, however, this in itself
won’t guarantee that you’re using the right words and expressions.

In this article, you’ll find examples of language that are commonly used in different types of emails,
and hopefully, you’ll find the most appropriate one for your message.

The examples are labelled ’formal’ and ’informal’- please note that most informal expressions are
perfectly suitable to use in ’semi-formal’ situations, such as between business associates who have
worked together for some time and have established a good relationship.

GREETINGS
Formal

• Dear Sir/ Madam,

• Dear Sir or Madam,
• To whom it may concern: (especially AmE)
• Dear Mr/ Ms Jones,
• Dear Dr Smith,

58
(note: First names are NOT used. Using Miss or Mrs to address a woman is not appropriate, as you
don’t know whether she’s married or not)

Informal

• Hi Dennis,
• Hello Claire,
• Dear Mum,

(note: salutations are followed by a (,) comma, exception: ’To whom it may concern:’)

REASON FOR WRITING / REPLYING

Formal

• I am writing to make a reservation/ to apply for the position of…/ to confirm my booking/ to
ask for further information about …
• I am writing with regard to the sale of …/ to the complaint you made on 29th February
• Thank you for your e-mail of 29th February regarding the sale of… / concerning the
conference in Brussels.
• With reference to our telephone conversation on Friday, I would like to let you know that…

Semi-formal / Informal

• Just a quick note to invite you to…/ to tell you that…

• This is to invite you to join us for...
• Thanks for your e-mail, it was wonderful/great to hear from you.
• I wanted to let you know that / tell you about / ask you if…

MAKING A REQUEST / ASKING FOR INFORMATION

Formal

• Could you please let me know if you can attend … / if you are available for a meeting on
12th December?
• I would appreciate it if you could please send me a brochure/ if you could please reply
within two days.
• Could you possibly arrange a meeting with the Logistics Manager?
• I would also like to know if there are any swimming pools in your area.
• Please let me know how much the tickets cost.

59
Informal

• I was wondering if you could come and see me sometime next week.
• Would you mind coming early to help me clear up the place?
• Do you think you could call Jerry for me?
• Can you call me/ get back to me asap? (as soon as possible)

OFFERING HELP / GIVING INFORMATION

Formal

• We are happy to let you know that your article has been selected for publication.
• I am glad to inform you that we will be holding our annual conference in Brussels on 20
September 2014.
• We regret to inform you that the show has been cancelled due to bad weather conditions.
• We are willing to arrange another meeting with the CEO.
• We would be glad to send you another statement if necessary.
• Please do let me know if I can be of further assistance.
• Should you need any further information/assistance, please do not hesitate to contact us.

Informal

• I’m sorry, but I can’t make it tomorrow. (= I can’t come tomorrow.)

• I’m happy to tell you that John and I are getting married next month.
• Would you like me to come early and help you clear up the place?
• How about I come and help you out?
• Do you need a hand with moving the furniture?

COMPLAINING

Formal

• I am writing to express my dissatisfaction with… / to complain about…

• I regret to say that I was not completely satisfied with the room you provided us.
• We regret to inform you that your payment is considerably overdue.
• I would like to receive a full refund and compensation for the damages.
• I am interested to hear how your company can compensate us for the distress we suffered.

Informal

60
 • I’m sorry to say that you’re late with the payments.
• I hope you won’t mind me saying that the place you’d recommended to us wasn’t as nice as
we’d expected.

APOLOGIZING

Formal

• We would like to apologize for any inconvenience caused.

• Please accept our apologies for the delay.
• Please let us know what we can do to compensate you for the damages caused.
• We will make sure that this will not happen again in the future.
• I am afraid I will not be able to attend the conference.

Informal

• I’m sorry for the trouble I caused.

• I apologize for the delay.
• I promise it won’t happen again
• I’m sorry, but I can’t make it to the meeting.

ATTACHING FILES

Formal

• I am attaching my CV for your consideration.

• I am sending you the brochure as an attachment.
• Please see the statement attached.
• Please find attached the file you requested.
• I am afraid I cannot open the file you have sent me.
• Could you send it again in … format?

Informal

• I’m attaching/sending you the holiday photos.

• Sorry, but I can’t open it. Can you send it again in … format?

ENDING

Formal

61
 • I look forward to hearing from you.
• I look forward to hearing when you are planning to visit our town.

Informal

• Hope to hear from you soon.

• I’m looking forward to seeing you.

CLOSING FORMULA

Formal

• Yours faithfully, (when you start with Dear Sir/ Madam,)

• Yours sincerely, (when you start with the name e.g. Dear Ms Collins)
• Sincerely Yours, (AmE)
• Sincerely, (AmE)
• Yours Truly, (AmE)

Informal

• Love,
• Thanks,
• Take care,
• Yours,
• Best regards, (semi-formal, also BR)

Practice Exercise

1. Write an e-mail to your Project Manager regarding monitoring activities related to your project.

2. Write an e-mail to your H. R. manager regarding discipline issues in your company.

3. Write an e-mail to the procurement department to issue purchase orders.

62
 **************************

LETTER WRITING

Common Components and Formats

The following are the common components of a letter: Formal or Business

Heading
The heading contains the writer’s address and the date of the letter. The writer’s name is not included and only
a date is needed in headings on letterhead stationery.

Inside Address
The inside address shows the name and address of the recipient of the letter. This information helps prevent
confusion. Also, if the recipient has moved, the inside address helps to determine what to do with the letter. In
the inside address, include the appropriate title of respect of the recipient; and copy the name of the company
exactly as that company writes it. When you do have the names of individuals, remember to address them
appropriately: Mrs., Ms., Mr., Dr., and so on. If you are not sure what is correct for an individual, try to find
out how that individual signs letters or consult the forms-of-address section in a dictionary.

Salutation
The salutation directly addresses the recipient of the letter and is followed by a colon (except when a friendly,
familiar, sociable tone is intended, in which case a comma is used). Notice that in the simplified letter format,
the salutation line is eliminated altogether. If you don’t know whether the recipient is a man or woman, the
traditional practice has been to write “Dear Sir” or “Dear Sirs”-— but that’s sexist! To avoid this problem,
salutations such as “Dear Sir or Madame,” “Dear Ladies and Gentlemen,” “Dear Friends,” or “Dear People”
have been tried - but without much general acceptance. Deleting the salutation line altogether or inserting “To
Whom It May Concern” in its place, is not ordinarily a good solution either - it’s impersonal. The best solution
is to make a quick, anonymous phone call to the organization and ask for a name; Or, address the salutation
to a department name, committee name, or a position name: “Dear Personnel Department,” “Dear
Recruitment Committee,” “Dear Chairperson,” “Dear Director of Financial Aid,

Subject or Reference line.

As shown in the order letter, the subject line replaces the salutation or is included with it. The subject line
announces the main business of the letter.
Body of the Letter
The actual message of course is contained in the body of the letter, the paragraphs between the salutation and
the complimentary close. Strategies for writing the body of the letter are discussed in the section on business-
correspondence style.

Complimentary Close
The “Sincerely yours” element of the business letter is called the complimentary close. Other common ones are
“Sincerely yours,” “Cordially,” “Respectfully,” or “Respectfully yours.” You can design your own, but be
careful not to create florid or wordy ones. Notice that only the first letter is capitalized, and it is always
followed by a comma.

Signature Block
Usually, you type your name four lines below the complimentary close, and sign your name in between. If you
are a woman and want to make your marital status clear, use Miss, Ms., or Mrs. in parentheses before the typed

63
version of your first name. Whenever possible, include your title or the name of the position you hold just
below your name.
.
End Notations
Just below the signature block are often several abbreviations or phrases that have important functions.

Initials
The initials in all capital letters in Figure 1-1 are those of the writer of the letter, and the ones in lower case
letters just after the colon are those of the typist.

Enclosures
To make sure that the recipient knows that items accompany the letter in the same envelope, use such
indications as “Enclosure,” “Encl.,” “Enclosures (2).” For example, if you send a resume and writing sample
with your application letter, you’d do this: “Encl.: Resume and Writing Sample.” If the enclosure is lost, the
recipient will know.

Copies
If you send copies of a letter to others, indicate this fact among the end notations also. If, for example, you
were upset by a local merchant’s handling of your repair problems and were sending a copy of your letter to the
Better Business Bureau, you’d write this: “cc: Better Business Bureau.” If you plan to send a copy to your
lawyer, write something like this: “cc: Mr. Raymond Mason, Attorney.”

EXAMPLES (Informal)

Write a letter to a friend, congratulating her on her having passed an examination securing very high
marks.

5 Raopuia Road,
Bangalore

March 10,1994.

Dear Pinky,
I have just heard that you have passed your examination and come off with flying colours. May I offer you my
heartiest congratulations ?

It is an achievement of which you ought to be proud. Undoubtedly, you deserved to get through with such am
high score. You really worked very hard throughout the year. You stand very high and, I think, you are sure to
win a scholarship. Mother joins me in singing your praises. She says your parents ought to be proud of such a
child. You have really distinguished yourself in the examination and brought honour to your family.

Which college are you going to join ?

With love,

Yours sincerely,
Lily

64
Write a letter of condolence to a friend who has recently lost his mother.

17 University Road,
Bombay.

July 20,1994.

Dear Pratap,

I have just heard of your sad loss and hasten to send you my deepest sympathies. It is vain to try to console you
at such a time. I must say I share your grief. This is really an irreparable loss.

Your mother’s life was a long, useful and pious one. I hope you may will find some slight consolation in the
thought that your mother was in every way a truly noble woman and that you have your friends to sympathize
deeply in your sorrow, to whatever little extent it might be a source of consolation at such times.

May God give you strength to bear this blow.

Yours very sincerely,

Anand

EXAMPLES (Formal)

Business letter should be (1) brief, and (2) clear.

Write a letter to a bookseller, ordering books and stationeries.

16, Gandhi Road

Karnal.

May 16,1994

To
Messrs. Goyal Brothers Prakashan,
Educational Publishers, 11/1903,
Chuna Mandi, Pahar Ganj,
New Delhi-110055.
SUB: ordering books and stationeries
Dear Sir:

I shall be obliged if you send me the following articles per V.P.P.

at your earliest convenience: One copy each of:

• English Grammar and Composition –Wren &Martin

65
 • General Knowledge Today: Books I-VIII
• Spell-Well English Wordbooks: I-VIII.
Yours truly,
P.K. Desai

From a business firm to a customer in answer to his complaint that the goods sent for were received in
damaged condition

Messrs. Johnson & Sons,

12 Connaught Circus,
New Delhi.

January 30, 1994

To,
David Green, Esq.
Hill Road,
Dehradun

SUB: Regarding your complaint that the goods sent for were received in damaged condition

Dear Sir:

In reply to your letter, we regret to find that the goods sent by us were received by you in damaged condition.
We beg to assure you that the goods were very carefully packed and were in perfectly good condition when
they left our godown. We are very sorry to say that we cannot see our way to replace the damaged goods, as we
take no responsibility for any damage suffered by them in transit.

May we, however, suggest you should draw the attention of the railway authorities to the matter with a view to
obtaining a compensation ?

Yours faithfully,
K.C.Dhoomi
Manager

66
 EXERCISE

Write the following letters in about 100 words.

1. You have celebrated your birthday recently. One of your uncles, living in a foreign country, had sent you a
lovely birthday present. Write a letter of thanks to him, telling him of some other presents you got and saying
why you liked the present sent by him most.

2. Write a letter to a dentist, asking him for an appointment.

3. Write a letter to a business firm, acknowledging receipt of

the goods you had ordered and complaining about the
damage caused in transit on account of bad packing.

4. Write a letter to your landlord, asking him to do certain

repairs in the house you are occupying

5. Write a letter to the Manager of a sugar factory, seeking his

permission for you and your friends to visit the factory.

6. Write a letter to a bookseller, complaining that the books

sent by him were not those that you ordered.

***************************

67
 ABSTRACT WRITING

Keep in mind the ABCS of a good abstract:

❖ Accuracy – a good abstract includes only information included in the original document

❖ Brevity – a good abstract gets straight to the point, contains precise language, and does not
include superfluous adjectives

❖ Clarity – a good abstract does not contain jargon or colloquialisms and always explains any
acronyms
❖ Several writing guidelines can make writing a good abstract easier:

➢ Do not refer to the author (e.g. “Dr. Seuss argues”)

➢ Do not refer to what type of document you are abstracting (e.g. “This book describes”)
➢ Use complete sentences
➢ Use active verbs whenever possible
➢ Use familiar terminology whenever you can (and always explain terms that may be unfamiliar to the
average reader)
The Informative Abstract
One common type of abstract is an informative abstract. If you are writing an abstract for a strictly-structured
document like an experiment, investigation, or survey, you will write an informative abstract.

An informative abstract is made up of four parts:

o Purpose
o Methodology
o Results
o Conclusions
The purpose section of an informative abstract should state either the reason for or the primary objectives of the
experiment or investigation. The purpose section of an informative abstract might also contain the hypothesis of
the experiment. The methodology section of an informative abstract should describe the techniques used in
conducting the experiment. This section should give only as much detail as is necessary to understand the
experiment; the abstract should not focus entirely on research methods unless that is the primary focus of the
original document. The results section of an informative abstract should relate the observations and/or data collected
during the experiment. This section should be concise and informative, and only the most important results need be
included. The conclusion section of an informative abstract should state the evaluation or analysis of the experiment
results. It should also briefly state the implications of these results. This conclusion section might also state whether
the driving hypothesis of the experiment was correct.

A Sample Informative Abstract:

Subjects’ car clocks were set ten minutes fast in order to determine if deliberately setting a clock ahead will reduce
lateness. One group of subjects knew their clocks had been set ahead, while a second group of subjects was not
informed of the change. Over a four-week period, the subjects who were aware of the clock change regularly arrived
on time or late for their scheduled appointments. Over the same period of time, the subjects who were unaware of
the clock change tended to arrive early or on time for their appointments. Data suggest that intentionally setting a
clock to run fast does not reduce lateness because one accounts for that extra time in his or her schedule.

The Indicative Abstract

A second type of abstract is an indicative abstract. If you are writing an abstract for a less-structured document
68
like an essay, editorial, or book, you will write an indicative abstract.
An indicative abstract is generally made up of three parts:
o Scope
o Arguments Used
o Conclusions
The scope section of an indicative abstract should state the range of the material dealt with in the original
document as well as the starting premise of the document. An abstract for an essay on Shakespeare’s comedies, for
example, would state that the Bard’s comedies make up the focus of the essay. The arguments used section of an
indicative abstract should state the main arguments and counterarguments employed in the original document.
These arguments should be stated in the same progression in which they appear in the document. Not all documents
contain a progression of arguments; in some cases this section may outline analysis is preferred.
A Few More Tips
If you are writing an abstract about a document not written by you, make sure to include the document’s
bibliographic information before your abstract. Also, because you could write an abstract for documents of any size,
there are general guidelines about how long your abstract should be:

o For an editorial or letter to the editor, 30 words or less

o For a short note or short communication, 100 words or less
o For a shorter paper or article, 150-200 words or less
o For a longer paper, article, or book chapter, 250 words or less
o For long documents like a thesis or book, 300 words or less
While these length guidelines can help you as you learn how to write abstracts, with practice you will develop a
sense about what length—and how much description—is sufficient for each individual abstract.

Polishing the Abstract

After you’ve completed your abstract, go back over the ABCs of a good abstract and ask yourself a few questions:
o How accurate is my abstract? Is it consistent with the information in the original document?
o How brief is my abstract? Did I substantially reduce the amount of text necessary to convey the main ideas?
o How clear is my abstract? Can a non specialized reader easily understand all the information?

Also, be sure to proofread your abstract carefully for errors and typos. If you have a bibliographic heading,
double-check it for accuracy and correct spelling as well.

Writing Abstracts
An abstract is a short, objective description of an intellectual resource, usually a written document. Professors often
assign students to write abstracts to accompany their papers. When writing an abstract, it is important to keep in
mind the purposes of an abstract. One main purpose is to provide readers with useful information about a
document. Another main purpose of an abstract is to help readers to evaluate and select a document that they would
find useful in their own research. An abstract should allow a reader to get the bare-bones information about a
document without requiring them to read the actual document. An abstract is NOT, however, a simple summary of a
document; neither is it a critique of a document.

Writing the Abstract

Because an abstract is a description of an entire document, you can write an abstract only for a document that is
complete. If you are writing an abstract as part of a class paper, you need to finish your paper before you start
working on your abstract.session instead. The conclusions section of an indicative abstract should state the
document’s main closing argument and its implications as suggested by the original author. This conclusion section
might also state plot resolution when the original document is a work of fiction.

A Sample Indicative Abstract:

69
Types of female power in Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice are discussed. Mrs. Bennet an Charlotte Lucas represent
the lack of power possessed by married women of the middle class. Lady Catherine and Caroline Bingley
demonstrate the power of wealthy, single women to occasionally flaunt rules of etiquette. Lydia Bennet represents
the risks of female power when bestowed upon too immature a woman, but Elizabeth and Jane Bennet characterize
the positive personal and social effects of women who recognize their own power over self.

INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET

The IPA is a system for representing phonetic sounds with symbols. The IPA helps us to pronounce a word
correctly. If you understand IPA symbols, you will know the correct pronunciation. In English a letter can
have several sounds. Therefore the spelling of a word does not help us know the correct sound.IPA is a
method of representing the letters in a word as a sound.

This Phonetics primer lists the 44 sounds in the English language and then gives steps for teaching those 44
sounds and their most common spelling patterns. In addition to learning sounds and spellings, each day the
student must read lists of phonetically related words and spell these words from dictation. Phonics
instruction must be reinforced by having the student read decodable text.

The 44 Sounds in the English Language

5 Short-Vowel Sounds 18 Consonant Sounds 7 Digraphs

70
short /ă/ in apple /b/ in bat /ch/ in chin
short /ĕ/ in elephant /k/ in cat and kite /sh/ in ship
short /ĭ/ in igloo /d/ in dog unvoiced /th/ in thin
short /ŏ/ in octopus /f/ in fan voiced /th/ in this
short /ǔ/ in umbrella /g/ in goat /hw/ in whip *
/h/ in hat /ng/ in sing
/j/ in jam /nk/ in sink
/l/ in lip
/m/ in map * (wh is pronounced /w/ in
/n/ in nest some areas)
/p/ in pig
/r/ in rat
/s/ in sun
/t/ in top
/v/ in van
/w/ in wig
/y/ in yell
/z/ in zip

6 Long-Vowel Sounds 3 r-Controlled Vowel Diphthongs and Other

Sounds Special Sounds

long /ā/ in cake /ur/ in fern, bird, and hurt /oi/ in oil and boy
long /ē/ in feet /ar/ in park /ow/ in owl and ouch
long /ī/ in pie /or/ in fork short /ŏŏ/ in cook and pull
long /ō/ in boat /aw/ in jaw and haul
long /ū/ (yoo) in mule /zh/ in television
long /ōō/ in flew

71
Phonics
Short-Vowel Sounds

short /ă/ in apple

short /ĕ/ in elephant

short /ĭ/ in igloo

short /ŏ/ in octopus

short /ŭ/ in umbrella

Consonant Sounds

/b/ in bat /k/ in kite /s/ in sun

/k/ in cat /l/ in lip /t/ in top

/d/ in dog /m/ in map /v/ in van

/f/ in fan /n/ in nest /w/ in wig

/g/ in goat /p/ in pig /ks/ in fox

/h/ in hat /kw/ in queen /y/ in yell

/j/ in jam /r/ in rat /z/ in zip

Practice two-letter blends. Drill until blending is automatic.

After you know the short-vowel sounds and consonant sounds, practice how to orally blend two letters (b-
a, ba) and read two-letter blends such as: ba, be, bi, bo, bu.

Two-Letter Blends

b + a = ba s + a = sa j + a = ja

b + e = be s + e = se j + e = je

b + i = bi s + i = si j + i = ji

b + o = bo s + o = so j + o = jo

b + u = bu s + u = su j + u = ju

72
Practice three-letter blends. Drill until blending is automatic.
After you can read two-letter blends, progress to three-letter blends, that is, words. Each day, read a set of
short-vowel words, then write these same words. This not only will help you remember the phonics lesson
just learned, but it greatly improves spelling.

Golden Rule of Phonics: Never skip, guess, or substitute words. Accuracy is more important than speed.

Three-Letter Blends

fa + t = fat ki + t = kit ro + d = rod

de + n = den ma + d = mad se + t = set

bo + x = box ye + s = yes tu + g = tug

hi + d = hid no + t = not wi + n = win

ju + g = jug pu + n = pun la + p = lap

Learn the twin-consonant endings, plurals, and two-consonant blends. Drill until blending is
automatic.

Twin-Consonant Endings Two-Consonant Blends Two-Consonant Blends

puff blab stun, fist

sell brag swam

kiss club trot

fuzz crop twin

lock drag fact

fled raft

Plurals: frog bulb

cats (sounds like /s/) glum held

beds (sounds like /z/) grip elf

plug sulk

prim film

scat help

skip, mask silt

73
 sled jump

smug hand

snip mint

spot, gasp kept

Learn the digraphs (ch, sh, th, wh, ng, nk). A digraph consists of two consonants that form a new
sound when combined. Also teach three-consonant blends.
Digraphs Three-Consonant
Blends

chin, such, patch (silent t) scruff

ship, wish split

thin, with (unvoiced /th/) strap

this (voiced /th/) thrill

whip

sang, sing, song, sung

sank, sink, honk, sunk

Read and practice a few high-frequency words necessary to read most sentences.
After you can read three-letter and four-letter words easily, it’s time to add a few high-frequency words that
are necessary to read most sentences. Some high-frequency words are phonetically regular (such as “or”),
but are introduced out of sequence because of their importance. Other words are truly irregular, because
they contain one or more letters that don’t follow the rules of phonics (such as “once” and “who”).

The Basic High-Frequency Words table lists the most important words. Write each word on an index card.
Introduce three or four new words a week. Drill on these words everyday, getting encouraged to sound
out as much of the word as possible (usually the vowel sound is the only irregular part). As you
master each word, file the card in the card file under “Words I Know.” When you come across a new
“wacky” word (such as “sugar” in which the “s” is pronounced /sh/), make up a new index card and file it
under “Words To Learn.”

Tip: What distinguishes this high-frequency word list from the typical “sight word” list? Many words in
the list below cannot be completely sounded out, either because they contain one or more letters that
don’t “follow the rules” or the rule is learned later. In contrast, the typical “sight word” list contains
mostly phonetically regular words (such as “and” and “when”) that one is forced to memorize simply
because he has never been taught to sound them out.

74
75
 Basic High-Frequency Words

Introduce after student can Introduce after student can

read short-vowel words, /th/, and /sh/ read long-vowel words

A vowel by itself says its name: was, were, are

a, I doing, does
said, says, have, give
“e” at the end of a short word says its name: you, your, yours
be, he, me, we, she, the* they, their, there
where, what, why, who
“o” at the end of these words says its name: once, one, come, some
no, go, so done, none
two, too
“or” says /or/: or, for

do, to, into, of, off, put

* also pronounced /thŭ/

Learn the long-vowel sounds and their spellings. Note that there are five common spellings for each
long-vowel sound. Also teach the “Silent-e Rule”: When a one-syllable word ends in “e” and has the
pattern vce (vowel-consonant-e), the first vowel says its name and the “e” is silent.
Long-Vowel Sounds Common Spellings Less Common Spellings

long /ā/ cake, rain, pay, eight, baby steak, they, vein

long /ē/ Pete, me, feet, sea, bunny key, field, cookie, receive,
pizza

long /ī/ bike, hi, fly, pie, night rye, type

long /ō/ hope, go, boat, toe, snow soul, though

long /ū/ & /ōō/ mule, blue, boot, tuna, flew fruit, soup, through, feud

76
Learn the r-controlled vowel sounds and their spellings.
r-Controlled Common Spellings Less Common Spellings
Vowel Sounds

/ur/ fern, bird, hurt pure, dollar, worm, earth

/ar/ farm orange, forest

/or/ fork door, pour, roar, more, war

Learn the diphthongs /oi/ and /ow/ and their spellings. A diphthong consists of two vowels that form a
new sound when combined. Also teach other special sounds.
Sound Common Spellings

/oi/ oil, boy

/ow/ owl, ouch

short /ŏŏ/ cook, pull

/sh/ vacation, session, facial

/zh/ vision

Learn /aw/, /awl/, /awk/ and their spellings.

Sound Common Spellings

/aw/ jaw, haul, wash, squash

/awl/ bald, wall

/awk/ talk

Learn these sounds and spelling patterns.

Sound Common Spellings

/s/ spelled c cent, face, cinder, cycle

Rule: c followed by e, i, or y sounds like /s/.

/j/ spelled g, ge, dge frigid, age, fudge, gym

Rule: g followed by e, i, or y usually sounds like
/j/.

77
/f/ spelled ph phone, phonics
Rule: ph sounds like /f/ in words of Greek origin.

/k/ spelled ch chorus, Christmas

Rule: ch sounds like /k/ in words of Greek origin.

/sh/ spelled ch chef, champagne

Rule: ch sounds like /sh/ in words of French
origin.

in English there is a mismatch between the spelling and the pronunciation. For
instance the spelling ―ough‖ is pronounced in different ways, in words like ―through‖,
―thorough‖, ―cough‖, etc. Whereas, in other Languages, we don‘t have any difficulty in
pronouncing the words because we read what we write.
Thirdly, there are a few sounds in English that are absent in Telugu, example, the
sound ‗Z‘ in zero is pronounced as /dz: r /. The sound / / in ―bank‖ is pronounced as /bja:
nk/.
Finally, unlike other Languages, we have many silent letters in English which are spelt, but not
pronounced. Example: subtle, psychology etc.
Phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the scientific study of speech sounds.‘ It is a branch of
linguistics that deals with pronunciation. Every language has a set of sounds produced with
the air that we breathe out. Different sounds are produced with different parts of the mouth.
The throat takes different positions and the air (breath) comes out through these positions.
Phonology is the study of sounds within a language system.

Organs of Speech: The organs that are involved in the production of speech sounds are
called ―phonatory organs‖.
A diagram showing the various speech organs or phonatory organs is displayed below:

78
 The various speech organs are described as follows:
Alveolar ridge: It is also referred to as the (alveolar process) the teeth ridge. This inferiorly
directed ridge of the maxilla houses the upper teeth.
Soft palate: The soft palate is also referred to as the velum. This musculo-tendious structure
extends posterior from the hard palate and acts to modify the communication between the
oral cavity below and nasal cavity above.
Teeth: The teeth are embedded in the alveolar process of maxilla and mandible.
Lips: The lips from the orifice of the mouth comprise of muscle fibres from a number of
different facial muscles.
Oral cavity: The oral cavity is also referred to as the mouth. It is a resonating chamber
whose shape is modified by articulation to produce the various oral and nasal speech sounds.
Epiglottis: The epiglottis is a leaf shaped cartilaginous structure located behind the thyroid
bone and at the root of the tongue.
Vocal folds: Pair of vocal folds is located in the larynx, coursing from the thyroid cartilage
interiorly to the arytenoid cartilages. The vocal folds vibrate to create the sounds for vowels
& voiced consonants.
Pharynx: The pharynx is a resonating cavity or chamber lying above the hard & soft palate.
Mandible: It is also known as the lower jaw. The mandible houses the lower teeth. The
tongue and lower tip also reside on the mandible.
Hard palate: The hard palate forms the roof of the mouth along with the soft palate.
Tongue blade: It is the part of the tongue lying just above the upper alveolar ridge.
Tongue back: It is the part of the tongue lying below the soft palate.
Tongue tip: (apex):- It is the part of the tongue lying closest to the front teeth.

Mechanism of Sound production: When speech organs activate in a set pattern, the sounds
are produced depending on the articulation. The sounds in English language are divided into
2 types based on the position of vocal cords,
1. Voiced 2. Voiceless

The Mechanism of Production

Consonants: The consonants can be described based on their place of articulation, manner
of articulation and whether the sound is voiced or voiceless.

1. Manner of articulation: Manner of articulation refers to how the sound is produced and
the way the air stream is modified as it passes through the vocal folds.
It is of 6 types.
a. Plosives: It is a consonant characterized by complete obstruction of the outgoing air
stream by one of the articulators, a build of intra oral air pressure and a release.

79
 b. Fricatives: It is a consonant produced by forcing the breath stream through a
construction formed by the articulators in the vocal folds.
c. Affricates: It is a consonant characterized by having both Plosive and fricative manners
of production.
d. Nasals: It refers to a consonant produced with a complete closure of the oral cavity
along with a lowered velum to allow air flow through the nasal cavity.
e. Lateral: It is a genetic label used to classify two approximate English consonants /r/
and /l/.
f. Semi Vowels: It is a consonant characterized by a continuous gliding motion of the
articulators into the following vowel also referred to as semi-level /j/ and /w/.
2. Place of articulation: Place of articulation refers to which articulators are involved in the
production of a particular sound. These are divided into seven types.
a. Bi-labial:-It refers to a speech sound, produced by the contact of the upper and lower
lips.
b. Labio-dental: It is produced by the lower lip contacting the upper front teeth.
c. Dental: It is produced by the tongue contacting the teeth.
d. Alveolar: It refers to a consonant sound produced by the tongue contacting the upper
alveolar ridge.
e. Palato-alveolar: It is produced by the tongue contacting hard palate.
f. Velar: It refers to a consonant produced by the tongue contacting the velum.
g. Glottal: It is a place of articulation referring to a consonant that is produced by
completely or partially contacting the glottis.
Voice of articulation: Voicing refers to either vocal folds or their vibration during the
production of a consonant. It is of two types.
1) Voiced: A voiced sound is produced by the vibration of the abducted vocal folds in the
larynx.
2) Voiceless: Voiceless sounds are produced without vibration of vocal folds.

80
PRACTICE ACTIVITIES

i) Fill the spaces with appropriate consonant sounds and then read the words aloud.
1. Tap / ǽ /
2. Shut / Λ /
3. Budge / Λ /
4. Cross / /
5. Dose / ∂U /
6. Sell / e /
7. Zoo / u: /
8. Possible / I /
9. Student / u /
10. Sure / U∂ /
11. Rat / ǽ /
12. Beat / i: /
13. Busy / i i: /
14. Moss / /
15. Town / ∂U /
16. Soar / /

81
Fill in the spaces with appropriate vowel sounds and then read the words aloud.

a) Food /f d/
b) Foot /f t/
c) Sheet /∫ _t /
d) Seven /s vn/
e) Mouse /m z/
f) Early / l /
g) Trial /tr l/
h) Fin /f n/
i) Dear /d r/
j) Poor / p _s_ /
k) Apple / pl/
l) Zebra /z b /
m)Loud /l d/
n) Gate / g t/
o) Ago / g /

82