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QUANTUM SERIES

For
B.Tech Students of Third Year
of All Engineering Colleges Affiliated to
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,
Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow
(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University)

CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

By
Vikas Yadav

TM

QUANTUM PAGE PVT. LTD.

Ghaziabad New Delhi
 2

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Concrete Technology (CE : Sem-5)

1st Edition : 2018-19
2nd Edition : 2019-20
3rd Edition : 2020-21

Price: Rs. 65/- only

Printed Version : e-Book.

 3

CONTENTS

KCE–051 : CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

UNIT-1 : CEMENT PRODUCTION & AGGREGATES (1–1 D to 1–26 D)

Cement : types and cement chemistry. Aggregates: mineralogy,
properties, test and standards. Quality of water for use in concrete.

UNIT-2 : CHEMICAL & MINERAL ADMIXTURES (2–1 D to 2–17 D)

Introduction & study of accelerators, retarders, water reducers, air
entrainers, water proofers, super plasticizers. Study of supplementary
cementing materials like fly ash, silica fume, ground granulated blast
furnace slag, metakaoline and pozzolana; their production, properties
and effect on concrete properties.

UNIT-3 : MIX DESIGN & RHEALOGY OF CONCRETE (3–1 D to 3–24 D)

Principle of mix proportioning, properties related to mix design,
Mix design method (IS method and ACI method). Mix design of
concrete, Rheology, mix design examples.

UNIT-4 : CONCRETE PRODUCTION, PROPERTIES & TESTING

(4–1 D to 4–30 D)
Concert production: batching, mixing and transportation of concrete.
Workability test: slump test, compacting factor test and Vee Bee
test. Segregation, bleeding and Laitance in concrete, curing of concrete
and its methods. Determination of compressive and flexural strength
as per BIS. Mechanical properties of concrete: elastic modules,
poisson’s ratio, creep, shrinkage and durability of concrete.

UNIT-5 : SPECIFIC CONCRETES (5–1 D to 5–27 D)

Study and uses of high strength concrete, self-compacting concrete,
fibre reinforced concrete, ferro cement, ready Mix Concrete, recycled
aggregate concrete and status in India.

SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1 D to SQ-17 D)

SOLVED PAPERS (2018-19 TO 2019-20) (SP-1 D to SP-20 D)

KCE 051 CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY (L-T-P 3-0-0) Credit – 3

Course Outcomes:

After completion of the course student will be able to:

CO-1 Understand the properties of constituent material of concrete.

CO-2 Apply admixtures to enhance the properties of concrete.
CO-3 Evaluate the strength and durability parameters of concrete.
CO-4 Design the concrete mix for various strengths using difference methods.
CO-5 Use advanced concrete types in construction industry.

Unit 1
Cement : types and cement chemistry. Aggregates: mineralogy, properties, test and standards.
Quality of water for use in concrete. [8]

Unit 2
Introduction & study of accelerators, retarders, water reducers, air entrainers, water proofers,
super plasticizers. Study of supplementary cementing materials like fly ash, silica fume , ground
granulated blast furnace slag, metakaoline and pozzolana; their production, properties and effect
on concrete properties . [8]

Unit 3
Concert production: batching, mixing and transportation of concrete. Workability test: slump
test, compacting factor test and Vee Bee test. Segregation, bleeding and Laitance in concrete,
curing of concrete and its methods. Determination of compressive and flexural strength as per
BIS. Mechanical properties of concrete: elastic modules, poisson’s ratio, creep, shrinkage and
durability of concrete. [8]

Unit 4
Principle of mix proportioning, properties related to mix design, Mix design method (IS method
and ACI method). Mix design of concrete, Rheology, mix design examples [8]

Unit 5
Study and uses of high strength concrete, self-compacting concrete, fibre reinforced concrete,
ferro cement, ready Mix Concrete, recycled aggregate concrete and status in India. [8]
References

1. Neville, A.M. and Brooks, J.J.," CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY", ELBS .1990.

2. Shetty, M.S, "Concrete Technology, Theory and Practice", S. Chand and Company Ltd,
New Delhi, 2008.
3. Gambhir, M.L, "Concrete Technology", Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd,
New Delhi, 2004.
4. Santhakumar, A.R; "Concrete Technology" , Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2007.
5. Gupta B.L., Amit Gupta, "Concrete Technology", Jain Book Agency, 2010.
6. Newman, K., "CONCRETE SYSTEMS in COMPOSITE MATERIALS".EDT BY L.
Holliday. Elsevier Publishing Company. 1966.
7. Popovics. S., "FUNDAMENTALS OF PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE: A
Quantitative Approach VOL 1 FRESH CONCRETE" JOHN WILEY & SONS.1982.
8. P.K. Mehta and Paulo J.M. Monteiro, "Concrete: microstructure, properties and
materials", The Mc GrawHill Companies.
9. Jayant D. Bapat (2013),Mineral admixtures in cement and concrete, Taylor and Francis
group.
10. Concrete mix proportioning as per IS 10262:2009 – Comparison with IS 10262:1982 and
ACI 211.1-91 M.C. Nataraja and Lelin Das
11. IS10262-1982 Recommended Guidelines for Concrete Mix Design, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, 1998.
12. IS456-2000 Plain and Reinforced Concrete- Code of Practice, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, 2000.
Concrete Technology 1–1 D (CE-Sem-5)

1 Cement Production
and Aggregates

Part-1 ............................................................................(1–2D to 1–13D)

• Cement : Production, Composition, Properties, Type and Cement

Chemistry
• Introduction to Supplementary Cementitious Materials

A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 1–2D

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 1–2D

Part-2 ......................................................................... (1–14D to 1–26D)

• Aggregate : Mineralogy, Properties, Test and Standards

• Quality of Water for Use in Concrete

A. Concept Outline : Part-2 ........................................................... 1–14D

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................. 1–15D
Cement Production & Aggregates 1–2 D (CE-Sem-5)

PART-1
Cement : Production, Composition, Properties, Types and Cement
Chemistry, Introduction to Supplementary Cementitious Materials.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1

Cement : Cement is a material with adhesive and cohesive properties.
Composition of Cement : The component oxides of ordinary portland
cement are : CaO, SiO2 (17-25 %), Al2O3 (3-8 %), and Fe2O3 (0.5 -6 %),
(60 -67 %).
Types of Cement :
1. Ordinary portland cement.
2. Rapid hardening cement.
3. Portland pozzolana cement.
4. Low heat portland cement.
5. Sulphate resisting cement.
6. High Alumina cement etc.
Supplementary Cementing Materials : Supplementary cementing
materials, also called mineral additives, contribute to the properties of
hardened concrete through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity.
Pozzolanic material can be divided into two groups :
1. Natural Pozzolana :
i. Clay and shales.
ii. Diatomaceous earth.
iii. Volcanic tuffs and pumicites.
2. Artificial Pozzolana :
i. Fly ash.
ii. Blast furnace slag.
iii. Silica fume.
iv. Rice husk ash.
v. Metakaoline.
vi. Surkhi.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Concrete Technology 1–3 D (CE-Sem-5)

Que 1.1. What is cement ? Also give its composition.

Answer
A. Cement :
1. Cement is a hydraulic binder and is defined as a finely ground inorganic
material which, when mixed with water, forms a paste which sets and
hardens by means of hydration reactions and processes which, after
hardening retains its strength and stability even under water.
2. Cement is the mixture of calcareous, siliceous, argillaceous and other
substances.
B. Chemical Composition : Cement has the following approximate
chemical composition :
1. The major constituents are :
i. Lime (CaO) : 60- 63 %
ii. Silica (SiO2) : 17- 25 %
iii. Alumina (Al2O3) : 03- 08 %
2. The auxiliary constituents are :
i. Iron oxide (Fe2O3) : 0.5-06 %
ii. Magnesia (MgO) : 1.5- 03 %
iii. Sulphur tri oxide (SO3) : 01- 02 %
iv. Gypsum : 01 to 04 %

Que 1.2. Describe the function of various constituents of

cement.

Answer
Functions of Cement Manufacturing Constituents :
1. Lime (CaO) :
i. Lime forms nearly two-third (2/3) of the cement.
ii. Sufficient quantity of lime forms di-calcium silicate (C2Si O2) and tri-
calcium silicate in the manufacturing of cement.
iii. Lime in excess, causes the cement to expand and disintegrate.
2. Silica (SiO2) :
i. The quantity of silica should be enough to form di-calcium silicate
(C2SiO2) and tri-calcium silicate in the manufacturing of cement.
ii. Silica gives strength to the cement.
iii. Silica in excess causes the cement to set slowly.
3. Alumina (Al2O3) :
i. Alumina supports to set quickly to the cement.
Cement Production & Aggregates 1–4 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. It also lowers the clinkering temperature.

iii. Alumina in excess reduces the strength of the cement.
4. Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) : Iron oxide gives colour to the cement.
5. Magnesia (MgO) :
i. It also helps in giving colour to the cement.
ii. Magnesium in excess makes the cement unsound.
6. Calcium Sulphate (or) Gypsum (CaSO4) : At the final stage of
manufacturing, gypsum is added to increase the setting of cement.

Que 1.3. What are Bogue’s compound of portland cement ? Also

give its properties.

Answer
Bogue’s Compound of Cement : Following are the various Bogue’s
compound of cement :
1. Calcium Silicates :
i. Alite or 3CaO.SiO2 or C3S :
a. It is responsible for early strength.
b. First 7 days strength is due to C3S.
c. It produces more heat of hydration.
d. A cement with more C3S content is better for cold weather concreting.
ii. Belite or 2CaO.SiO2 or C2S :
a. The hydration of C2S starts after 7 days. Hence it gives strength after
7 days.
b. C2S hydrates and hardens slowly and provides much of the ultimate
strength.
c. It is responsible for the later strength of the concrete.
d. It produces less heat of hydration.
2. Calcium Aluminates :
i. Aluminate or 3CaO.Al2O3 or C3A :
a. The reaction of C3A with water is very fast.
b. It may lead to an immediate stiffening of paste, and it is called flash set.
c. To prevent this flash set, 2-3 % gypsum is added at a time of grinding
cement clinker.
d. The hydrated C3A do not contribute to the strength of the concrete.
e. Low C3A for sulfate resistance Cement.
ii. Ferrite or 4CaO.Al2O3 .Fe2O3 or C4AF :
a. C4AF hydrates rapidly.
Concrete Technology 1–5 D (CE-Sem-5)

b. It does not contribute to strength of the concrete.

c. Controls the color of cement.
3. Gypsum is added to avoid the uncontrolled setting resulting from C3A
reaction with water.

Que 1.4. Explain manufacturing processes of the cement with

neat diagram. Give comparison between wet and dry process of
manufacturing.

Answer
Manufacturing Proces s es : Fo llo wing are the ste ps o f
manufacturing of cement :
A. Make Clinkers : In this step, the raw material is converted into fine
powder and it is done by following two processes :
1. Dry Process :
i. In this process calcareous material such as limestone (calcium
carbonate) and argillaceous material such as clay are ground separately
to fine powder in the absence of water and then are mixed together in
the desired proportions.
ii. Water is then added to it for getting thick paste and then its cakes are
formed, dried and burnt in kilns.
iii. This process is usually used when raw materials are very strong and
hard.
iv. In this process, the raw materials are changed to powdered form in the
absence of water.
2. Wet Process :
i. In this process, the raw materials are changed to powdered form in the
presence of water.
ii. In this process, raw materials are pulverized by using a ball mill, which
is a rotary steel cylinder with hardened steel balls.
iii. When the mill rotates, steel balls pulverize the raw materials which
form slurry (liquid mixture).
iv. The slurry is then passed into storage tanks, where correct
proportioning is done.
v. Proper composition of raw materials can be ensured by using wet
process than dry process.
vi. This process is generally used when raw materials are soft because
complete mixing is not possible unless water is added.
vii. Corrected slurry is then fed into rotary kiln for burning.
The actual purpose of both processes is to change the raw materials to
fine powder.
Cement Production & Aggregates 1–6 D (CE-Sem-5)

B. Burning :
i. Corrected slurry is feed to rotary kiln, which is a 150-500 feet long,
8-16 feet in diameter and temperature arrangement is up to
1500-1650 °C.
ii. At this temperature slurry losses moisture and forms into small lumps,
after that changes to clinkers.
iii. Clinkers are cooled in another inclined tube similar to kiln but of lesser
length.
C. Grinding :
i. Now the final process is applied which is grinding of clinker, it is first
cooled down to atmospheric temperature.
ii. Grinding of clinker is done in large tube mills. After proper grinding
gypsum (Calcium sulphate CaSO4) in the ratio of 01-04 % is added for
controlling the setting time of cement.
iii. Finally, fine ground cement is stored in storage tanks from where it is
drawn for packing.
Comparison between Wet and Dry Process :

S. No. Wet Process Dry Process

1. Moisture content of the slurry Moisture content of the pellets
is 35-50%. is 12 %.
2. Size of the kiln needed to Size of the kiln ne eded to
manufacture the cement is manufacture the cement is
bigger. smaller.
3. The amount of heat required The amount of heat required is
is higher, so the required fuel lower, so the required fuel
amount is higher. amount is lower.
4. Less economical. More economical.
5. The raw materials can be mix Difficult to control the mixing
e asily, so a bette r of raw materials process, so it
homogeneous material can be is difficult to o btain
obtained. homogeneous material.
6. The machine ry and The machine ry and
equipments do not need much e quipme nts ne e d mo re
maintenance. maintenance.

Que 1.5. Explain the various types of cements.

Answer
Following are the various types of cements :
Concrete Technology 1–7 D (CE-Sem-5)

1. Sulphate Resisting Cement :

i. In this cement, the percentage of tricalcium aluminate C3A is kept
below 5 % and it results in the increase in resisting power against
sulphates.
2. Rapid Hardening Cement :
i. The initial and final setting times of this cement are same as those of
ordinary cement. But it attains high strength in early days.
ii. It contains high percentage of tricalcium silicate C3S to the extent of
about 56 %.
3. White Cement :
i. White cement is prepared from such raw materials which are practically
free from colouring oxides of iron, manganese or chromium.
ii. It is white in colour and is used for floor finish, plaster work, ornament
work, etc.
4. Coloured Cement :
i. The cement of desired colour may be obtained by intimately mixing
mineral pigments with ordinary cement.
ii. The amount of coloring material may vary from 5 to 10 %.
iii. These types of coloured cement are widely used for finishing of floors,
external surfaces, artificial marble, window sill slabs, textured panel
faces, stair treads, etc.

S.No. Pigment Colour

1. Chromium Oxide Green
2. Cobalt Imparts Blue
3. Iron Oxide in different proportion Brown, Red, Yellow
4. Manganese Dioxide Black or Brown
5. Pozzolana Cement :
i. Pozzolana is a volcanic powder.
ii. This type of cement is used to prepare mass concrete of lean mix and
for marine structures.
iii. It is also used in sewage works and for laying concrete under water.
6. Hydrophobic Cement :
i. It is manufactured by grinding ordinary portland cement clinker with
0.1 to 0.4 % of oleic acid, stearic acid or pentachlorophenol.
ii. This addition forms water repellent film around each particle by the
moisture content of atmosphere.
iii. When concrete is prepared using this cement, the water repellent film
breaks out which improves the workability of concrete.
Cement Production & Aggregates 1–8 D (CE-Sem-5)

7. Quick Setting Cement :

i. When concrete is to be laid under water, quick setting cement is to be
used.
ii. This cement is manufactured by adding small percentage of aluminum
sulphate (Al2SO4) which accelerates the setting action.
iii. The setting action of such cement starts with in 05 minutes after
addition of water and it becomes stone hard in less than half an hour.
8. Low Heat Cement :
i. In this cement the heat of hydration is reduced by tricalcium aluminate
(C3A) content.
ii. It contains less percentage of lime than ordinary portland cement.
iii. It is used for mass concrete works such as dams etc.
9. High Alumina Cement :
1. This cement contains high aluminate percentage usually between 35-
55 %.
2. It gains strength very rapidly within 24 hours. It is also used for
construction of dams and other heavy structures.
3. It has resistance to sulphates and action of frost also.
10. Air Entraining Cement :
1. Air entraining cement is produced by grinding minute air entraining
materials with clinker or the materials are also added separately while
making concrete.
2. Entrainment of air also improves workability and durability. It is found
that entrainment of air or gas bubbles while applying cement, increases
resistance to frost action.
3. It is recommended that air contents should be 03-04 % by volume.
Natural resins, fats, oils are used as air entraining agents.

Que 1.6. What is hydration of cement ? Explain the process of

hydration of cement.

Answer
A. Hydration of Cement :
1. The reaction of cement when mixed with water is called hydration.
Both C3S and C2S make up nearly 75 % of cement.
2. The hydration of these compounds is responsible for the setting and
hardening of cement.
3. The hydration surface reaction starts immediately once cement comes
in contact with water. It is an exothermic reaction.
4. The hydration continues as long as heat and moisture are available.
Concrete Technology 1–9 D (CE-Sem-5)

5. All four Bogue's compounds along with gypsum are involved in the
hydration reaction and only a very small amount of water is needed for
it.
B. Following stages occurred in the process of hydration :
1. Stage 1 : A heat generation of rapid order takes place for close to
15 minutes. The calcium and hydrogen ions are released from the
surface and when certain levels of critical concentrations are reached,
the evolution of calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydroxide beings.
The initial reactions are dependent on the temperature.
2. Stage 2 : This stage tends to be the dormant period and the cement is
forced to become plastic for a period of 2 to 4 hours. This process of
reaction tends to slow down.
3. Stage 3 : This is the acceleration period as the silicate hydrates rapidly
along with critical concentration of ions. The entire hardening takes
place and the final set is released and the time period is generally for 4
to 8 hours.
4. Stage 4 : This is known as the deceleration stage. The overall rate of
reaction tends to slow down resulting in an independent diffusion
reaction.
5. Stage 5 : This is referred to as the steady stage and the temperature
has less effect on the hydration stage. The reaction process is constant
and is for a period of 12 to 24 hours.
The individual reaction of minerals tends to be less effective than the
combined reaction of the hydration of cement. The hydration of cement
can be split into several small components it is observed that the
aluminate and the ferrite stage tend to react first and then the reactions
tend to carry over to the silicate phase.

Que 1.7. Describe the hydration reaction of important Bogue’s

compounds indicating the products of hydration.

Answer
Hydration Reaction of Bogue's Compound :
1. Hydration of C3S :
i. The chemical reaction of C3S with water can be expressed as
C3S + water  C–S–H + C–H + heat
where, C-S-H is calcium silicate hydrate and C-H is calcium hydrate.
ii. C-S-H, Calcium silicate hydrate constitutes 50-60 % of the solids in the
paste. It forms a continuous binding matrix. It is amorphous and fibrous
and hence has a large surface area. It is an important factor for the
strength development of cement paste.
iii. C-H, Calcium hydrate makes up about 20 % of the solids in the paste.
It exists in the form of thick, crystalline hexagonal plates and is
embedded in the C-S-H matrix. Its growth fills the pore spaces. It does
Cement Production & Aggregates 1–10 D (CE-Sem-5)

not significantly contribute to strength. Its leaching causes white

patches and efflorescence.
2. Hydration of C2S :
i. The hydration of C2S is similar to the hydration of C3S. The same
products are generated. However, C 2S reacts slowly and hence
generates less heat.
ii. It contributes to strength development at later stages.
3. Hydration of C3A :
i. This hydration reaction produces a substance called ettringite as follows
:
C3A + gypsum + water  ettringite + heat
C3A + ettringite + water  monosulphoaluminate
ii. If the amount of gypsum is too little, C3A will react fast and can cause
a ‘flash set’.
iii. On the other hand, too much gypsum will delay setting and cause
undue expansion. It constitutes about 10–20 % of the solid content.
iv. It is a long, slender, and prismatic crystal and is stable only in the
presence of gypsum.
v. It plays a minor role in strength development but contributes
considerably to durability.
vi. Monosulphoaluminate is a stable hydration product. It is fairly
crystalline.
4. Hydration of C4AF :
i. The hydration of C4AF is similar to that of C3A; the same products are
formed.
ii. However, C4AF reacts slowly and hence generates less heat and
combines well with gypsum.

Que 1.8. What are the advantages of pozzolona portland cement.

Answer
Advantages :
1. In PPC, costly clinker is replaced by cheaper pozzolanic material
and hence economical.
2. Soluble calcium hydroxide is converted into insoluble cementitious
products resulting in improvement of permeability. Hence it offers, all
round durability characteristics, particularly in hydraulic structures
and marine construction.
3. PPC consumes calcium hydroxide and does not produce calcium
hydroxide as much as that of OPC.
4. It generates reduced heat of hydration and that too at a low rate.
Concrete Technology 1–11 D (CE-Sem-5)

5. PPC being finer than OPC and also due to pozzolanic action, it improves
the pore size distribution and also reduces the microcracks at the
transition zone.
6. As the fly ash is finer and of lower density, the bulk volume of 50 kg
bag is slightly more than OPC. Therefore, PPC gives more volume of
mortar than OPC.
7. The long term strength of PPC beyond a couple of months is higher
than OPC if enough moisture is available for continued pozzolanic
action.

Que 1.9. Explain briefly the physical properties of ordinary

portland cement and its uses.

Answer
Physical Properties of Ordinary Portland Cement :
1. Colour greenish grey.
2. One feels cool by thrusting one’s hand in the cement bag.
3. It is smooth when rubbed in between fingers.
4. A handful of cement thrown in a bucket of water should float.
Uses of Cement : Following are uses of cement :
1. It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels,
beams, stairs, pillars etc
2. It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
3. It is used for water tightness of structure.
4. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.
5. Cement is a very useful binding material in construction.
6. It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis courts,
lamp posts, telephone cabins, roads etc
7. It is used in the preparation of foundations, water tight floors, footpaths
etc.
8. It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such
as bridges, culverts, dams, tunnels, light houses etc
9. It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts etc.

Que 1.10. Describe the pozzolanic materials. What are the

advantages of pozzolanic material ?

Answer
A. Pozzolanic Materials :
1. Pozzolanic materials are siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials,
which in themselves possess little or no cementitious value, but will, in
Cement Production & Aggregates 1–12 D (CE-Sem-5)

finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react

with calcium hydroxide liberated on hydration, at ordinary temperature,
to form compounds, possessing cementitious properties.
2. Pozzolanic reaction is given by
Pozzolana + Calcium hydroxide + Water  C – S – H (gel)
B. Advantages of Pozzolanic Materials : Following are the advantages
of pozzolanic materials :
1. Lower the heat of hydration and thermal shrinkage.
2. Increase the water-tightness.
3. Reduce the alkali-aggregate reaction.
4. Improve resistance to attack by sulphate soils and sea water.
5. Improve extensibility.
6. Lower susceptibility to dissolution and leaching.
7. Improve workability.
8. Lower costs.

Que 1.11. Describe the various types of pozzolanic materials.

Answer
Types of Pozzolanic Materials : Following are the various types of
pozzolanic materials :
1. Fly Ash :
i. Fly ash is finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of
powdered coal and transported by the flue gases and collected by
electrostatic precipitator.
ii. Fly ash is the most widely used pozzolanic material all over the world.
iii. Fly ash is categorise into two classes :
a. Class F : Fly ash normally produced by burning anthracite or
bituminous coal, usually has less than 5 % CaO. Class F fly ash has
pozzolanic properties only.
b. Class C : Fly ash normally produced by burning lignite or sub-
bituminous coal. Some class C fly ash may have CaO content in excess
of 10 %. In addition to pozzolanic properties, class C fly ash possesses
cementitious properties.
2. Silica Fume :
i. Silica fume, also referred to as microsilica or condensed silica fume, is
another material that is used as an artificial pozzolanic admixture.
ii. Silica fume is very fine pozzolanic material composed of ultrafine,
amorphous glassy sphere (average diameter, 0.10 to 0.15 mm) of silicon
dioxide (SiO2) produced during the manufacture of silicon or ferro-
silicon by electric arc furnaces at temperature of over 2000°C.
Concrete Technology 1–13 D (CE-Sem-5)

iii. The micro silica is formed when SiO gas produced in the furnace mixes
with oxygen, oxidizes to SiO2, condensing into the pure spherical
particles of micro silica that form the major part of the smoke or fume
from the furnace.
3. Rice Husk Ash :
i. Rice husk ash is obtained by burning rice husk in a controlled manner
without causing environmental pollution. When properly burnt it has
high SiO2 content and can be used as a concrete admixture.
ii. Rice husk ash exhibits high pozzolanic characteristics and contributes
to high strength and high impermeability of concrete.
iii. Rice husk ash (RHA) essentially consists of amorphous silica (90 %
SiO2), 5 % carbon and 2 % K2O.
iv. The specific surface of RHA is between 40 – 100 m2/g.
4. Surkhi :
i. Surkhi is an artificial pozzolana made by powdering bricks or burnt
clay balls.
ii. In some major works, for large scale production of surkhi, clay balls
are specially burnt for this purpose and then powdered.
iii. Its characteristics are greatly influenced by the constituent mineral
composition of soil, degree of burning and fineness of grinding.
5. Metakaolin :
i. Thermally activated ordinary clay and kaolinitic clay is known as
“Metakaolin”.
ii. It showed certain amount of pozzolanic properties, they are not highly
reactive.
iii. Highly reactive metakaolin is made by water processing to remove
unreactive impurities to make 100 % reactive pozzolana. Such a product,
white or cream in colour, purified, thermally activated is called High
Reactive Metakaolin (HRM).
iv. High reactive metakaolin shows high pozzolanic reactivity and reduction
in Ca(OH)2 ever as early as one day.
6. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) :
i. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag is another important mineral
admixture like fly ash a nonmetallic product consisting essentially of
silicates and aluminates of calcium and other bases.
ii. The molten slag is rapidly chilled by quenching in water to form a
glassy sand like granulated material.
iii. The granulated material when further ground to less than 45 micron
will have specific surface of about 400 to 600 m2/kg (Blaine).
Cement Production & Aggregates 1–14 D (CE-Sem-5)

PART-2
Aggregate : Mineralogy, Properties, Test and Standards,
Quality of Water for Use in Concrete.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2

Aggregate : These are primarily naturally occurring, inert granular
materials such as sand, gravel or crushed stone etc.
Classification of Aggregate : The classification of the aggregate is
generally based on their geological origin, shape, size, unit weight
etc.
i. Classification According to Geological Origin :
a. Natural aggregate.
b. Artificial aggregate.
ii. Classification According to size :
a. Fine aggregate.
b. Course aggregate.
c. All in aggregate.
d. Single size.
iii. Classification According to Shape :
a. Rounded aggregate.
b. Irregular aggregate.
c. Angular aggregate.
d. Flaky and elongated aggregates.
iv. Classification Based on Unit Weight :
a. Normal weight aggregate.
b. Heavy weight aggregate.
c. Light weight aggregate.
Test : Aggregates are tested for strength, abrasion, particle shape
and texture, poroisity.
i. Crushing strength test.
ii. Flakiness and elongated index test.
iii. Ten percent fines value.
iv. Impact value test.
v. Test for hardness and abrasion resistance, etc.
Water Quality : The quality of water used must be checked for
ensuring good quality concrete. Water used for mixing and curing
should be free from oil, acid and alkalis salt, and organic material.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Concrete Technology 1–15 D (CE-Sem-5)

Que 1.12. What is meant by aggregate ? Briefly describe their

classification.

Answer
A. Aggregate : These are inert materials which are mixed with binding
material such as cement or lime for manufacturing of mortar or
concrete. Aggregate are used as filler in mortar and concrete and also
to reduce their cost.
B. Classification of Aggregate :
1. According to Geological Origin :
i. Natural Aggregate :
1. These aggregates are generally obtained from natural deposits of sand
and gravels or from quarries by cutting rocks.
2. The cheapest among them are the natural sand and gravel which have
been reduced to their present size by natural agents, such as water,
wind and snow, etc.
3. The river deposits are the most common and are good quality.
ii. Artificial Aggregate :
1. The most widely used artificial aggregate are clean broken bricks and
air cooled fresh blast-furnace-slag.
2. The broken bricks of good quality provide a satisfactory aggregate for
the mass concrete and are not suitable for reinforced concrete work if
the crushing strength of brick is less than 30 to 35 MPa.
3. The bricks should be free from lime mortar and lime sulphate plaster.
4. The bricks aggregate is not suitable for waterproof construction.
5. It has poor resistance to wear and hence is not used in concrete for the
road work.
2. According to Size :
i. Fine Aggregate :
1. The aggregate which passes through 4.75 mm sieve and retained on 75
micron sieve are known as fine aggregate.
ii. Coarse Aggregate :
1. The aggregate retained on 4.75 mm sieve are known as coarse
aggregate.
iii. All-in-Aggregate :
1. It is the combination of both coarse and fine aggregate.
3. According to Shape :
i. Rounded Shape :
a. The aggregate with rounded particles (river or seashore gravel) has
minimum voids ranging 32 to 33 %.
Cement Production & Aggregates 1–16 D (CE-Sem-5)

b. The only disadvantage is that interlocking between its particles is less

and hence the development of bond is poor, making it unsuitable for
high strength concrete and pavement.
ii. Irregular Aggregate :
a. The aggregate having partly rounded particles (pit sand and gravel)
has higher of voids ranging from 35 to 38 % .
b. It required more cement paste for a given workability.
iii. Angular Aggregate : The aggregate with sharp, angular and rough
particles (crushed rocks) has a maximum of voids ranging from 38 to
40 %. The interlocking between the particles is good.
iv. Flaky Aggregate :
a. An aggregate is termed flaky when its least dimension (thickness) is
less than three-fifth of its mean dimension.
b. The presence of these particles should be restricted to 10 to 15 %.
4. According to Unit Weight :
i. Normal Weight Aggregate : The commonly used aggregate, i.e.,
sands and gravels; crushed rocks such as granite, basalt quartz,
sandstone and limestone; and brick ballast, etc., which have specific
gravities between 2.5 and 2.7 produce concrete with unit weight ranging
23 to 26 kN/m3 and crushing strength at 28 days between 15 to 40 MPa
are termed normal weight concrete.
ii. Heavy Weight or High-Density Aggregate : Concrete having unit
weight of about 30, 31, 35, 38, 40, 47 and 57 kN/m3 can be produced by
using typical goethite, limonite, baryte, magnetite, hematite,
ferrophosphorus and scrap iron, respectively.
iii. Light Weight Aggregate : The light weight aggregate having unit
weight up to12 kN/m3 are used to manufacture the structural concrete
masonry blocks for reduction of the self weight of the structure.

Que 1.13. Discuss the characteristics of good aggregates.

Answer
Following are the characteristics of good aggregate :
1. It should preferably be cubical or spherical in shape and of limiting
porosity.
2. It should be chemically inert and not be soft and porous.
3. It should not absorb water more than 5 %.
4. It should have rough surface.
5. It should not react with cement after mixing.
6. It should be durable and strong.
Concrete Technology 1–17 D (CE-Sem-5)

7. It must be clean i.e., it should be free from lumps, organic materials

etc.

Que 1.14. Briefly describe the physical mechanical and thermal

properties of aggregates in concrete.

Answer
A. Physical Properties of Aggregate :
1. Grading : It is the particle-size distribution of an aggregate as
determined by a sieve analysis using wire mesh sieves with square
openings.
2. Fineness Modulus : The result of aggregate sieve analysis is expressed
by a number called fineness modulus.
3. Flakiness Index : It is the percentage by weight of particles in it
whose least dimension is less than three-fifth of their mean dimension.
4. Elongation Index : It is the percentage of weight of particles whose
greatest dimension is greater than 1.8 times their mean dimension.
B. Mechanical Prosperities of Aggregate :
1. Aggregate Crushing Value : It gives a relative measure of the
resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied
compressive load.
2. Aggregate Impact Value : It gives a relative measure of the resistance
of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact.
3. Aggregate Abrasion Value : It gives a relative measure of resistance
of an aggregate to wear when it is rotated in a cylinder along with
some abrasive charge.
C. Thermal Properties of Aggregate : Following are the thermal
properties of aggregate :
1. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion : The coefficient of thermal
expansion of the concrete increase with the coefficient of thermal
expansion of aggregate. The coefficient of expansion of the aggregate
depends on the parent rock
2. Specific Heat : It is a measure of its heat capacity.
3. Thermal Conductivity : It is the ability of the aggregate to conduct
the heat.

Que 1.15. Explain the bulking and soundness of aggregates.

Answer
A. Bulking of Fine Aggregate :
1. The increase in the volume of a given mass of fine aggregate caused by
the presence of water is known as bulking.
Cement Production & Aggregates 1–18 D (CE-Sem-5)

2. The bulking of fine aggregate is caused by the films of water which

push the particles apart.
3. The extent of bulking depends upon the percentage of moisture present
in the sand and its fineness.
4. It is seen that bulking increases gradually with moisture content up to
a certain point and then begins to decrease with further addition of
water due to the merging of films, until when the sand is inundated.
5. With ordinary sands the bulking usually varies between 15-30 %.
6. In extremely fine sand the bulking may be of the order of 40 % at a
moisture content of 10 % but such sand is unsuitable for concrete.
B. Soundness of Aggregate :
1. The soundness indicates the ability of the aggregate to resist excessive
changes in volume due to changes in environmental conditions, e.g.
freezing and thawing, thermal changes, and alternating wetting and
drying.
2. The aggregate is said to be unsound when volume changes result in
the deterioration of concrete.
3. This may appear in the form of local scaling to extensive surface cracking
or to disintegration over a considerable depth, and thus vary from an
impaired appearance to a structurally dangerous situation.
4. IS: 2386 (Part-V)-1963 describes a method to determine the resistance
to disintegration of aggregates by saturated solution of sodium sulphate
(Na2SO4) or magnesium sulphate (MgSO4).
5. According to IS: 383-1970 the average loss of weight after ten cycles
should not exceed 12 and 18 % when tested with sodium sulphate and
magnesium sulphate, respectively.

Que 1.16. What are the effects of the shape and texture of
aggregate on the strength and workability of concrete ?

Answer
A. Effect of Shape :
1. Rounded aggregates are suitable to use in concrete because flaky and
elongated particles reduce workability, increase water demand and
reduce strength.
2. In the case of angular particles, the bond between aggregate particles
is higher due to interlocking but due to higher surface area, angular
particles increase water demand and therefore reduce workability.
B. Effect of Texture :
1. This affects the bond to the cement paste and also influences the
water demand of the mixture.
2. Smooth : It improves workability but bond between cement paste and
aggregate is weak.
Concrete Technology 1–19 D (CE-Sem-5)

3. Rough : It reduce workability but bond between cement paste and

aggregate is strong.
4. Surface texture is not a very important property from compressive
strength point of view but aggregate having rough surface texture
perform better under flexural and tensile stresses.

Que 1.17. What is alkali aggregate reaction ? What are the factors
which affect this reaction ? How can this reaction be controlled ?

Answer
A. Alkali Aggregate Reaction :
1. The phenomenon is accompanied by extensive expansion and may
lead in bad cases to complete disruption and disintegration of the
concrete and is known as alkali-aggregate reaction or sometimes
concrete cancer.
2. The trouble is due to reaction between silica in aggregate and alkalis in
the cement.
3. In some cases alkalis, mainly from the cement supplemented by alkalis
in the aggregate, react with carbonates in the aggregate to produce
similar result.
4. The types of rocks which contain reactive constituents include traps,
andesites, rhyolites, siliceous limestone and certain types of sandstones.
5. The reactive components may be in the form of opals, cherts,
chalcedony, volcanic glass (excepting basaltic glasses), zeolites, and
tridymite.
B. Factors Affecting Alkali-Aggregate Reaction :
1. Reactive Type of Aggregates : Reactive material have been found
to have serious effects if present in small quantities but not if it
constitutes the whole of the aggregate.
2. High Alkali Content Cement : If the cement contains less than
0.4 % alkalis (computed as Na2O) no expansion or disruptive effect is
likely even with a quite highly reactive aggregate, but due to difficulties
of manufacture it is not usual to specify an alkali content of less than
0.6 %.
3. Availability of Moisture : Progress of the alkali-aggregate reaction
takes place only in the presence of water.
4. Temperature Condition : The favourable temperature for the
reaction is 10-38 °C.
C. Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reaction :
1. By Selecting Non-Reactive Aggregate : Aggregate can be identified
by petrographic examination. The mortar bar test and the chemical
test are used.
Cement Production & Aggregates 1–20 D (CE-Sem-5)

2. By Using Low Alkali Cement : Cements with alkali less than

0.6 per cent should be used.
3. By Controlling Moisture : Old concrete should not be allowed to
come in contact with water. The best way is to apply mortar with water
proofing agents on concrete surface.
4. By Pozzolanas : When fly-ash or surkhi or crushed stone dust is
added this optimum condition of silica being in particular proportion
and fineness is disturbed and the aggregates turn to be inoffensive.
5. By Air Entraining Agents : The alkali-silica-gel imparts osmotic
pressure over the set cement gel and this is mainly responsible for
formation of cracks. When air entraining agents are added they absorb
the osmotic pressure and control the expansion.

Que 1.18. Describe the test conducted to determine the crushing

value, impact value and abrasion value of aggregates.

Answer
A. Determination of Crushing Value (IS 2386 Part 4-1963) :
1. Crushing value of aggregate is a relative measure of resistance of an
aggregate to crushing under gradually applied compressive load.
2. Aggregate passing through 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm
sieve is taken. About 6.5 kg of surface dry aggregate filled in the
standard cylinder in three layers, tamping each layer 25 times by a
standard tamping rod. It is leveled off. Its weight found out (A).
3. The plunger is placed on the aggregate taking care that it does not jam
the cylinder by becoming tilted.
4. The assembly is then kept under compression testing machine and
total load of 40 tonnes is applied uniformly during 10 minutes.
5. The load is released, the aggregate is taken out and sieve on 2.36 mm
sieve. The fraction passing through weight is (B).
6. The aggregate crushing value is given by,
Aggregate crushing value = B / A × 100 %.
7. Aggregate crushing value should not be more than 45 % for aggregate
used for concrete other than for wearing surface and 30 % for concrete
used for wearing surface such a runway roads, etc.
B. Determination of Impact Value (IS 2386 part 4-1963) :
1. This test gives relative measure of resistance of aggregate to suddenly
applied load or impact load.
2. The test sample consists of aggregate passing through 12.5 mm IS
sieve and retained on 10 mm IS sieve. The aggregate is oven dried at
110 °C for 4 hours.
Concrete Technology 1–21 D (CE-Sem-5)

3. The aggregate is filled in the cup, (weight A). By lifting the handle,
hammer is allowed to fall freely as it is released by the tripping
mechanism, on to the aggregate in the cup.
4. 15 such blows are given and then the aggregate is taken out and sieved
on 2.36 mm sieve.
5. The fraction passing through is weighed (weight B).
6. The fraction retained is also weighed (weight C). If (B + C) is less than
A by more than 1 gram, the result is discarded and a fresh test is made.
7. The aggregate impact value is given by,
Aggregate impact value = BA × 100
8. Standard value for this test is same as crushing value test.
C. Determination of Abrasion Value (IS 2386 Part 4-1963) :
1. This test gives the relative resistance of aggregate to wearing.
2. There are two methods prescribed in the IS code :
i. Deval Attrition Test, and
ii. Los Angeles Abrasion Value.
3. But since LA test gives more realistic results, it is more commonly
used.
4. In this method, the specified weight, 5kg or 10 kg, depending on the
size of aggregate is taken and is placed in the cylinder of the LA machine
along with the abrasive charge.
5. The abrasion charge consists of specific number of steel balls.
6. The cylinder is rotated at 20 to 33 rpm for 500 or 1000 revolution,
depending on the grading of the aggregate.
7. The aggregate is removed from the cylinder and sieved on 1.75 mm
sieve.
8. The fraction passing through 1.7 mm sieve is expressed as percentage
of original weight give the aggregate abrasion value.
9. The percentage of wear should not be more than 16 % for cement
concrete aggregate.

Que 1.19. What tests are used to find out the shape of the
aggregate ?

Answer
There are mainly two types of test for finding the shape of aggregate,
which are as follows :
A. Test for Determination of Flakiness Index :
1. The flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles
in it whose least dimension (thickness) is less than three-fifths of their
mean dimension. The test is not applicable to sizes smaller than
6.3 mm.
2. This test is conducted by using a metal thickness gauge.
3. A sufficient quantity of aggregate is taken such that a minimum number
of 200 pieces of any fraction can be tested.
Cement Production & Aggregates 1–22 D (CE-Sem-5)

4. Each fraction is gauged in turn for thickness on the metal gauge.

5. The total amount passing in the gauge is weighed to an accuracy of
0.1 % of the weight of the samples taken.
6. The flakiness index is taken as the total weight of the material passing
the various thickness gauges expressed as a percentage of the total
weight of the sample taken.
B. Test for Determination of Elongation Index :
1. The elongation index on an aggregate is the percentage by weight of
particles whose greatest dimension (length) is greater than 1.8 times
their mean dimension.
2. The elongation index is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.
3. This test is conducted by using metal length gauge.
4. A sufficient quantity of aggregate is taken to provide a minimum
number of 200 pieces of any fraction to be tested.
5. Each fraction shall be gauged individually for length on the metal
gauge.
6. The total amount retained by the gauge length shall be weighed to an
accuracy of at least 0.1 % of the weight of the test samples taken.
7. The elongation index is the total weight of the material retained on the
various length gauges expressed as a percentage of the total weight of
the sample gauged.
8. The presence of elongated particles in excess of 10-15 % is generally
considered undesirable.

Que 1.20. Explain the procedure for determination of ‘ten percent

fines value’.

Answer
Procedure for Determination of Ten Percent Fines Value :
1. The sample of aggregate for this test is the same as that of the sample
used for aggregate crushing value test.
2. The apparatus, with the test sample and plunger in position is placed in
the compression testing machine.
3. The load is applied at a uniform rate so as to cause a total penetration
of the plunger in 10 minutes of about :
i. 15 mm for rounded or partially rounded aggregates (for example
uncrushed gravels)
ii. 20.0 mm for normal crushed aggregates, and
iii. 24.0 mm for honeycombed aggregates (e.g., expanded shales and
stags).
4. After reaching the required maximum penetration, the load is released
and the whole of the material removed from the cylinder and sieved on
a 2.36 mm IS sieve.
5. The fines passing the sieve is weighed and the weight is expressed as
a percentage of the weight of the test sample.
Concrete Technology 1–23 D (CE-Sem-5)

6. This percentage would fall within the range 7.5 to 12.6, but if it does
not, repeat test is made and the load is found out which gives a
percentage of fines within the range of 7.5 to 12.5.
7. Load required for 10 % fines
14  X
=
Y 4
where, X = Load in tons, causing 7.5-12.5 % fines, and
Y = Mean percentage fines from two tests at × tons
load.
Que 1.21. What is fineness modulus ? How is sieve analysis
conducted for fine aggregates and coarse aggregates ?

Answer
A. Fineness Modulus (FM) :
1. The FM is an index of the fineness of the aggregate. The higher the FM
the coarser the aggregate. FM of fine aggregate is useful in estimating
proportions of fine and coarse aggregate in concrete mixtures.
2. The fineness modulus (FM) for both fine and coarse aggregates is
obtained by adding the cumulative percentages by mass retained on
each of a specified series of sieves and dividing the sum by 100.
 (Cumulative % retained on specified seive)
FM =
100
Sand Fineness Modulus
Fine 2.2 – 2.6
Medium 2.6 – 2.9
Coarse 2.9 – 3.2
B. Sieve Analysis :
1. This is the name given to the operation of dividing a sample of aggregate
into various fractions each consisting of particles of the same size.
2. The sieve analysis is conducted to determine the particle size distribution
in a sample of aggregate, which we call gradation.
3. The aggregates used for making concrete are normally of the maximum
size 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 600 micron,
300 micron and 150 micron. The aggregate fraction from 80 mm to
4.75 mm is termed as coarse aggregate and the fraction from
4.75 mm to 150 micron is termed as fine aggregate.
4. As Per IS : 2386(Part-1) : Fine aggregate : 6 standard sieves with
openings from 150 m to 4.75 mm. (150 m, 300 m, 600 m, 1.18 mm,
2.36 mm, 4.75 mm).
5. Coarse Aggregate : 5 sieves with openings from 4.75 mm to 80 mm.
(4.75 mm, 10 mm, 12.5 mm, 20 mm, 40 mm).
6. The size 4.75 mm is a common fraction appearing both in coarse
aggregate and fine aggregate (CA and FA).
Cement Production & Aggregates 1–24 D (CE-Sem-5)

7. Grading pattern of a sample of CA or FA is assessed by sieving a

sample successively through all the sieves mounted one over the other
in order of size, with larger sieve on the top.
8. The material retained on each sieve after shaking, represents the
fraction of aggregate coarser than the sieve in question and finer than
the sieve above.
9. Sieving can be done either manually or mechanically.

Que 1.22. Explain different method of measurement of moisture

content of aggregates.

Answer
Following are the method of measurement of moisture cement of
aggregates :
1. Drying Method :
i. The application of drying method is fairly simple. Drying is carried out
in an oven and the loss in weight before and after drying will give the
moisture content of the aggregate.
ii. If the drying is done completely at a high temperature for a long time,
the loss in weight will include not only the surface water but also some
absorbed water.
iii. A fairly quick result can be obtained by heating the aggregate quickly
in an open pan.
iv. The process can also be speeded up by pouring inflammable liquid such
as methylated spirit or acetone over the aggregate and igniting it.
2. Displacement Method :
i. In the laboratory the moisture content of aggregate can be determined
by means of pycnometer or by using Siphon-Can Method.
ii. The principle made use of is that the specific gravity of normal aggregate
is higher than that of water and that a given weight of wet aggregate
will occupy a greater volume than the same weight of the aggregate
when dry.
iii. By knowing the specific gravity of the dry aggregate, the specific gravity
of the wet aggregate can be calculated.
iv. From the difference between the specific gravities of the dry and wet
aggregates, the moisture content of the aggregate can be calculated.
3. Electrical Meter Method :
i. Re cently ele ctrical me ters have bee n develope d to me asure
instantaneous or continuous reading of the moisture content of the
aggregate.
ii. The principle that the resistance gets changed with the change in
moisture content of the aggregate has been made use of.
4. Automatic Measurement :
1. In modem batching plants surface moisture in aggregates is
automatically recorded by means of some kind of sensor arrangement.
Concrete Technology 1–25 D (CE-Sem-5)

2. The arrangement is made in such a way that the quantity of free water
going with aggregate is automatically recorded and simultaneously
that much quantity of water is reduced.

Que 1.23. What are the effects of impurities in the mixing water
on concrete ?
OR
Write a short note on the feasibility of use of sea water for mixing
concrete.

Answer
Effects of Mixing Water from Different Sources :
1. Ground Water : Presence of sulphates in ground waters highly
injurious to concrete foundations.
2. Sea Water :
i. The sea water generally contains 3.5 % of salts with about 75 % of
sodium chloride, about 15 % of chloride and sulphate of magnesium.
ii. It has been found to reduce the strength of concrete by 10-20 % and
slightly accelerate the setting time.
iii. Sea water may lead to corrosion of reinforcement.
iv. The chlorides in sea water may cause efflorescence in concrete.
v. The use of sea water is not recommended for prestressed concrete
because of stress corrosion and the small diameter wires.
vi. If sea water cannot be avoided for making reinforced concrete, particular
precautions should be taken to make the concrete dense by using low
water/cement ratio coupled with vibration and to give an adequate
cover of at least 7.5 cm.
3. Industrial Waste Water : When industrial waste water is used as
mixing water in concrete, the reduction in compressive strength is
generally less than about 10 %.
4. Water For Washing Aggregates :
i. When aggregates are washed with water containing impurities, they
get coated with layers of silt, salts and organic matters.
ii. These reduce the bond between the aggregates and cement and
markedly affect the strength.
5. Water for Curing :
i. Waters containing impurities and leading to stains is objectionable.
ii. When concrete is subjected to prolonged wetting, even a very low
concentration of iron and organic matter may cause staining.
iii. Water containing more than 0.08 ppm of iron is not recommended for
curing.

Que 1.24. Enumerate the various impurities in water having

deleterious effects on concrete.
Cement Production & Aggregates 1–26 D (CE-Sem-5)

Answer
Impurities in water can be of following types :
1. Chlorides :
i. Chlorides can cause corrosion of the steel reinforcement and can
accelerate setting.
ii. The water used may be contaminated with chlorides because of it
being sea water, the presence of admixtures and de-icing salts, or
deliberate chlorination for disinfection.
2. Sulphates : Sulphates can lead to the reformation of ettringite as well
as reduction of long-term strength levels.
3. Organic Matter : The effects of organic matter on concrete are varied.
If algae are present in water, it should not be used because it will affect
setting and strength development.
4. Sugar : Sugar retards the setting time. Too much sugar may ‘kill’ the
concrete (i.e., it will not set).
5. Wastewater : It is best not to use wastewater. Alternatively it can be
used after proper testing and treatment.
Table gives the typical limits of impurities in water as per IS : 456-2000.

Solids Permissible limits, max. (mg/L)

Organic 200
Inorganic 3000
Sulphates (as SO3) 400
Chlorides (as Cl2) :
i. For plain concrete 2000
ii. For reinforced concrete 500
Suspended matter 2000


Concrete Technology 2–1 D (CE-Sem-5)

2 Chemical and Mineral

Admixtures

Part-1 .............................................................................. (2–2D to 2–8D)

• Introduction and Study of Accelerators, Retarders, Water Reducers,

Air Entrainers, Water Proofers, Super Plasticizers

A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 2–2D

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 2–2D

Part-2 ............................................................................(2–8D to 2–17D)

• Study of Supplementary Cementing Materials Like Fly

Ash, Silica Fume, Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag,
Metakaolin, and Pozzolana; Their Production, Properties and
Effect on Concrete Properties

A. Concept Outline : Part-2 ............................................................. 2–8D

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 2–9D
Chemical & Mineral Admixtures 2–2 D (CE-Sem-5)

PART-1
Introduction and Study of Accelerators, Retarders, Water Reducers,
Air Entrainers, Water Proofers, Super Plasticizers.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1

Admixtures : It is defined as a material, other than cement, water
and aggregates that is used as an ingredient of concrete and is added to
the batch immediately before or during mixing.
Types of Admixtures : According to the effects produced in concrete,
the admixtures are classified as :
i. Accelerators.
ii. Water reducing admixtures.
iii. Retarders.
iv. Air-entraining agents.
Accelerators : These are the substances which when added to
concrete, mortar or grout, increase the rate of hydration of hydraulic
cement, shorten the time of set or increase the rate of hardening or
strength development. E.g., sodium chloride.
Retarders : These are the substances which retard the setting of
cement. E.g., sugar, soluble zinc salts etc.
Plasticizers : These are the substances which when added to concrete,
increase workability without increasing the water content.
Air-entraining Agents : These are the admixtures which cause air
to be incorporated in the form of minute bubbles in concrete during
mixing to increase the workability and resistance to freezing and
thawing and disruptive action of deicing salts.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. What is admixture ? Why is it used with concrete ? Also

give its types.

Answer
A. Admixture :
i. Admixtures are materials used to modify the properties of fresh hardened
concrete.
Concrete Technology 2–3 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. They are classified as chemical and mineral admixtures.

iii. Chemical admixtures are used in the construction industry for building
strong, durable, and waterproof structures.
B. Reason for using Admixtures with Concrete :
Following are the purposes for which the admixtures could be used with
concrete :
1. To accelerate the initial set of concrete, i.e., to speed up the rate of
development of strength at early ages.
2. To retard the initial set of concrete, i.e., to keep concrete workable for a
longer time for placement.
3. To enhance the workability.
4. To improve the penetration (flowability) and pumpability of concrete.
5. To reduce the segregation in grout and concrete mixtures.
6. To increase the strength of concrete by reducing the water content and
by densification of concrete.
7. To decrease the capillary flow of water through concrete and to increase
in impermeability to liquids.
8. To inhibit the corrosion of reinforcement in concrete.
9. To increase the resistance to chemical attack.
10. To increase the bond between old and new concrete surfaces.
C. Types of Admixtures : Following are the types of admixtures :
1. Accelerators.
2. Water reducing admixtures.
3. Retarders.
4. Air-entraining agents.

Que 2.2. Explain the accelerators with suitable example. Also

give the functions of accelerators.

Answer
Accelerator : An admixture is use to speed up the initial set of concrete
is called accelerator.
Examples : Calcium chloride, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrate, etc.
Functions : Following are the functions of accelerators :
1. These are added to concrete either :
i. To increase the rate of hydration of hydraulic cement, and hence to
increase the rate of development to strength.
ii. To shorten the setting time.
2. An increase in the rate of early strength development may help in :
i. Earlier removal of forms,
Chemical & Mineral Admixtures 2–4 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. Reduction of required period of curing, and

iii. Earlier placement of structure in service.
3. Accelerating admixtures are also used when the concrete is to be placed
at low temperatures.
4. The benefits of reduced time of setting may include :
i. Early finishing of surface,
ii. Reduction of pressure on forms or of period of time during which the
forms are subjected to hydraulic pressure, and
iii. More effective plugging of leaks against hydraulic pressure.
5. With the availability of powerful accelerators, the under-water
concreting, the basement waterproofing operations, the repair work of
the waterfront structures in the tidal zones have become easy.

Que 2.3. Describe the accelerator effect on the concrete

properties.

Answer
Following are the accelerator effect on the concrete properties :
1. The general action of accelerators is to cause a more rapid dissolution of
compounds of cement, particularly tricalcium silicate, in water and hence
facilitate more rapid hydration of these compounds.
2. The use of 2 % calcium chloride by mass of cement can reduce the
setting time by one-third and raise the one to seven day compressive
strength by 3 to 8 MPa.
3. An increase in flexural strength of 40 to 80 % of one day and up to 12 %
at 28 days in obtained.
4. Large doses of CaCl2 result in flash set of concrete and the ambient
temperature.
5. Calcium formate (a fine powder), which is somewhat less soluble than
calcium chloride and is less effective does not have the same adverse
effect on corrosion of embedded steel as CaCl2. It is added in the same
dosages.

Que 2.4. Explain the role of admixtures in concrete technology.

Answer
Following are the role of admixtures in concrete technology :
1. To Modify Fresh Property :
i. Increase the workability without increasing the water cement ratio or
decrease the water content at the same workability.
ii. Retard or accelerate the time of initial setting.
Concrete Technology 2–5 D (CE-Sem-5)

iii. Reduce or prevent the settlement or create slight expansion.

iv. Modify the rate or capacity of bleeding.
2. To Modify Harden Property :
i. Reduce the heat of evolution.
ii. Accelerate the rate of strength development at early stages.
iii. Increase the durability.
iv. Decrease the permeability of concrete.

Que 2.5. What is air-entrained concrete ? What are the

air-entraining agents ? What are factors affecting the air-
entrainment in the concrete ?

Answer
A. Air-Entrained Concrete :
1. Air-entrainment is the internal creation of tiny air bubbles in concrete.
A concrete maker introduces the bubbles by adding to the mix an air
entraining agent. The air bubbles are created during mixing of the
plastic concrete and most of them survive to be part of the hardened
concrete.
2. It contains billions of microscopic air cells per cubic foot. These air pockets
relieve internal pressure on the concrete by providing tiny chambers for
water to expand into when it freezes.
3. It is produced using air-entraining Portland cement, or by the introduction
of air-entraining agents, under careful engineering supervision, as the
concrete is mixed on the job.
4. The amount of entrained air is usually between four to seven percent of
the volume of the concrete.
B. Air-entraining Agents : Following are the air-entrainment agent used
in the concrete :
1. Natural wood resins.
2. Animal and vegetable fats and oils such as tallow, olive oil and their fatty
acids such as stearic and oleic acids.
3. Various wetting agents such as alkali salts or sulphonated organic
compounds.
4. Water soluble soaps of resins acid.
5. Miscellaneous materials such as sodium salts of petroleum sulphonic
acids, hydrogen peroxide and aluminium powder, etc.
C. Factor Affecting Air Entrainment : Following are the factor affect
the air entrainment :
1. Type and quantity of air entraining agents used.
2. Water cement ratio of mix.
Chemical & Mineral Admixtures 2–6 D (CE-Sem-5)

3. Type and grading of aggregates.

4. Mixing time.
5. Temperature.
6. Type of cement.
7. Influence of compaction.
8. Admixtures other than air entraining agents used.

Que 2.6. What are the effects of air entrainment admixture on

the properties of concrete ?
Answer
Effect of Air Entrainment on Concrete Properties : Following are
the effect of air entrainment on concrete properties :
1. Reduction in strength.
2. Improvement in workability.
3. Increased resistance to freezing and thawing.
4. Reduces the tendencies of segregation.
5. Reduces the bleeding and laitance.
6. Decreases the permeability.
7. Increases the resistance to chemical attack.
8. Permits reduction in sand content, water content, cost and heat of
hydration.
9. Reduces unit weight, alkali aggregate reaction and modulus of elasticity.
10. Enhance the durability of concrete against cycles of climatic freezing
and thawing and against the effects of de-icing salts.

Que 2.7. What are the different types of superplasticizers ?

Answer
Types of Superplasticizers : Different types of superplasticizers are
as follows :
1. Lignosulphonates : These are derived from neutralization,
precipitation, and fermentation processes of the waste liquor obtained
during production of paper-making pulp from wood
2. Sulphonated Melamine Formaldehyde (SMF) : It is manufactured
by normal resinification of melamine - formaldehyde.
3. Sulphonated Napthalene Formaldehyde (SNF) : Produced from
naphthalene by oleum or SO3 sulphonation; subsequent reaction with
formaldehyde leads to polymerization and the sulphonic acid is
neutralized with sodium hydroxide or lime.
Concrete Technology 2–7 D (CE-Sem-5)

4. Polycarboxylic Ether (PCE) : Free radical mechanism using peroxide

initiators is used for polymerization process in these systems.

Que 2.8. Discuss the role of plasticizers when used as an

admixture for concrete.

Answer
Role of Plasticizers : Admixtures are used for following purposes :
1. To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the water cement ratio at
the same workability.
2. To achieve the same workability by decreasing the cement content so as
to reduce the heat of hydration in mass concrete.
3. Water reduction more than 5 % but less than 12 %.
4. To increase the workability so as to ease placing inaccessible locations.

Que 2.9. Describe the effect of superplasticizer on the properties

of fresh and hardened concrete.

Answer
A. Effect on Fresh Concrete :
1. Superplasticizers enhance workability. The effect depends on type,
dosage, and time of addition (best with mixing water). Water requirement
is reduced by 15 to 30 %. Resulting concrete has higher strength and
lower permeability.
2. Superplasticizers produce higher than normal workability for 30-60 min
and there will be rapid loss of workability.
3. Generally bleeding is decreased (less water). If flowing concrete is made,
precautions are needed not to induce bleeding and segregation.
B. Effect on Hardened Concrete :
1. Water reduction allows producing high-strength concrete.
2. Shrinkage of superplasticized concrete is comparable to or less than
normal concrete.
3. Creep of superplasticized concrete is similar to that of a reference
concrete.
4. The use of superplasticizers allows improvements in the bond between
concrete and reinforcing steel.
C. Effect on Durability :
1. Lower water/cement ratio leads to lower permeability and enhanced
strength and durability.
2. In normal concrete, the critical spacing between air bubbles is 200 m.
In superplasticized concrete, that value is exceeded. Better freeze-thaw
durability can be expected for air entrained superplasticized concrete.
Chemical & Mineral Admixtures 2–8 D (CE-Sem-5)

3. Durability to sulphate attack depends on the particular mechanism of

sulphate attack and exposure type. For expansion, lower permeability
(less surface penetration) can lead to better durability.
4. Lower water/cement ratio leads to lower permeability and improved
resistance to chloride penetration and corrosion of steel.
5. Lower water/cement ratio leads to lower moisture penetration, which
could enhance resistance to alkali expansion.

PART-2
Study of Supplementary Cementing Materials Like Fly Ash,
Silica Fume, Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag,
Metakaolin and Pozzolana ; Their Production,
Properties and Effect on Concrete properties.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2

Material Additives : It also called supplementary cementing materials
are finely grounds siliceous materials which do not possess cementing
property in themselves, but react chemically with calcium hydroxide
released from the hydration of portland cement at normal temperature
to form compounds of low solubility having cementing properties.
Types of Pozzolana :
i. Natural Pozzolana.
ii. Artificial Pozzolana
Fly Ash : The fly ash or pulverized fuel ash is the residue from the
combustion of pulverized coal collected by mechanical dust collectors
or electrostatic precipitators or separators from the fuel gases of thermal
power plants.
Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag : It is a waste industrial by product
obtained during the production of iron. The plant furnace slag is non
metallic product having oxide composition similar to that of Portland
cement clinker.
Silica Fume : It is a light to dark grey or pink or white cementing
material composed of at least 85 % ultra fine amorphous non crystalline
spherical silicon dioxide particles.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Concrete Technology 2–9 D (CE-Sem-5)

Que 2.10. Discuss fly ash in concrete. Give the advantages and
disadvantages of fly ash.

Answer
A. Fly Ash : Fly ash is one of the residues generated in combustion, and
comprises the fine particles that rise with the flue gases. In an industrial
context, fly ash usually refers to ash produced during combustion of
coal.
B. Advantages of Fly Ash in Concrete : Following are the advantages
of fly ash :
1. Lower permeability and better resistance to sulphate attack.
2. Lower shrinkage and porosity as a result of the lower water content.
3. Improved long term strength and durability performance.
4. The rate of bleeding is reduced while workability is increased.
5. Reduced water content for a given workability or improved workability
at the same water content.
C. Disadvantages of Fly Ash in Concrete : Following are the
disadvantages of fly ash :
1. It is more difficult to control the colour of concrete containing fly ash
than mixtures with Portland cement only.
2. Fly ash reduces the amount of air entrainment, and concrete mixtures
high in fly ash often require more air- entraining admixture.
3. Fly ash admixtures can lengthen the time it takes for concrete to set.
4. Concrete changes from a liquid to a solid a few hours after pouring, but
the curing process may take much longer.

Que 2.11. What are the classifications of fly ash ? Also give the use
of fly ash concrete.

Answer
A. Types of Fly Ash : Following are the two types of fly ash :
1. Class C Fly Ash :
i. This class of fly ash has a high CaO content and used as a standalone
stabilizing agent.
ii. The strength characteristics of class C fly ash having a CaO less than 25
percent can be improved by adding lime.
2. Class F Fly Ash :
i. This class of fly ash has a low CaO content.
ii. Class F fly ash has an insufficient CaO content for the pozzolanic reaction
to occur.
Chemical & Mineral Admixtures 2–10 D (CE-Sem-5)

iii. It is not effective as a stabilizing agent by itself however, when mixed

with either lime or lime and cement, the fly ash mixture becomes an
effective agent.
B. Uses of Fly Ash Concrete : Fly ash concrete are used in :
1. Pumped concrete.
2. Road stabilization.
3. Tunnelling concrete.
4. Self compacting concrete.
5. Water retaining structure.
6. Marine environment concretes.
7. Ready mix and precast application.
8. Mass concrete section.

Que 2.12. What are the effects of fly ash on various properties of
concrete ?

Answer
Effects of Fly Ash on Concrete : Following are the effects of fly ash
on concrete :
1. On Amount of Mixing Water :
i. The use of fly ash in limited amounts as a replacement for cement or as
an addition to cement requires a little more water for the same slump
because of fineness of the fly ash.
ii. It is generally agreed that the use of fly ash, particularly as an admixture
rather than as a replacement of cement, reduces, segregation and
bleeding.
iii. If the sand is coarse the addition of fly ash produces beneficial results;
for fine sands, its addition may increase the water requirement for a
given workability.
2. On Compressive Strength : An addition of fly ash up to 30 per cent
may result in lower strength at 7 and 28 days, but may be about equal at
3 months and may further increase at ages greater than 3 months
provided curing is continued.
3. On Modulus of Elasticity : It is lower at early ages and higher at later
ages.
4. On Curing Condition : It is similar to Portland cement concrete.
5. On Shrinkage of Concrete : Coarse fly ash and those having high
carbon content are more liable to increase drying shrinkage than the
finer fly ashes and those having low carbon content.
6. On Permeability : The permeability of concrete reduces on addition of
fly ash to cement.
Concrete Technology 2–11 D (CE-Sem-5)

7. On Resistance to Chemical Attack : Fly ash slightly improves the

resistance of concrete to sulphate attack.
8. On Heat of Hydration : Fly ash reduces the heat of hydration in
concrete. A substitution of 30 % fly ash may result in a reduction of
50-60 % heat of hydration.
9. On Air Entrainment : The presence of fly ash reduces the amount of
air entraining agent.
10. On Setting Time : A 30 % substitution of fly ash may result in an
increase of initial setting time up to 2 hours.

Que 2.13. What is silica fume ? How is it produced ? Give the

chemical composition of it.

Answer
A. Silica Fume :
i. Silica fume, also known as micro silica, is a byproduct of the reduction of
high-purity quartz with coal in electric furnaces in the production of
silicon and ferrosilicon alloys.
ii. Silica fume is also collected as a byproduct of the production of other
silicon alloys such as ferrochromium, ferromanganese, ferro magnesium,
and calcium silicon.
B. Chemical Composition:
1. It is mostly made of silica having silica percent more than 80.
2. The other chemical composition includes Fe2O3, Al2O3, CaO, MgO, Na2O,
K2O in small percentages.

Que 2.14. What is the physical characteristics and functions of

silica fume ?

Answer
A. Physical Characteristics : Following are the physical properties of
silica fume :
1. It should be in premium white and standard grey colour.
2. The specific gravity of the silica fume concrete is 2.2.
3. Particle size is less than 1 micron with average diameter of 0.1 micron.
4. Its specific surface area is to be 20,000 m2 / kg.
5. The shape of the particle is spherical.
6. It should be in amorphous in nature.
B. Functions of Silica Fume : Following are the various functions of
silica fume :
Chemical & Mineral Admixtures 2–12 D (CE-Sem-5)

1. The hydration of Portland cement produces many components, including

calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) and calcium hydroxide (CH).
2. The additional calcium silicate hydrates produced by the silica fume is
more resistant to attack from aggressive chemicals then the weaker
calcium hydroxide.
3. The silica fume is added to the calcium hydroxide for produce the
additional calcium silicate hydrates to obtain a very good compressive
strength can exceed 15000 psi.

Que 2.15. Explain the effects of silica fume on concrete properties.

Answer
A. Effect of Silica Fume on the Properties of Fresh Concrete :
1. Workability :
i. Reduced workability.
ii. Water demand increases in proportion to silica fume added. Water
demand is 1 % for every 1 % replacement of cement.
iii. Lower slump and more cohesive mix.
2. Bleeding and Segregation :
i. Bleeding is reduced as silica fume particles find their way in between
two cement grains.
ii. Segregation is reduced has the concrete mix is more cohesive due to
increase in number of solid to solid contact points.
3. Time of Setting : The initial setting time and final setting time is not
greatly influenced. The increase may be 30 min or so.
4. Plastic Shrinkage : Since silica fume concrete show no bleeding, fresh
concrete is subjected to plastic shrinkage.
B. Effects of Silica Fume on the Properties of Hardened Concrete :
1. Drying Shrinkage : Long term shrinkage of concrete is not affected
significantly by the addition of silica fume.
2. Creep : The creep of concrete containing silica fume will be lower than
corresponding Portland cement concrete.
3. Chemical Resistance : A major reason for the improved resistance of
concrete to acidic and sulphate waters is the reduction in the Ca(OH)2
content of the cement paste, which decreases linearly with the amount
of silica fume added.
4. Alkali Aggregate Reaction : Less than 10 % of silica fume is found
adequate for reducing the alkali aggregate expansion as compared to fly
ash which requires 30 %-40 % replacement.
5. Strength : Strength of 62-80 MPa can be easily achieved.
Concrete Technology 2–13 D (CE-Sem-5)

6. Permeability : Silica fume reduce the size of voids in hydrated cement

paste, thus making them almost impermeable even at early ages with
10 % addition of silica fume by weight of cement.
7. Freeze and thaw Effect : The effect of silica fume concrete on freeze-
thaw affect is not very significant.

Que 2.16. What are the advantages, disadvantages and uses of

silica fume ?

Answer
A. Advantages of Silica Fume : Following are the advantages of silica
fume :
1. Lowers concrete permeability.
2. Significantly increases concrete durability.
3. Increases ultimate strength gain.
4. Beneficial in all types of high strength concrete applications.
5. Improves bond strength to steel.
6. Significantly reduces alkali-silica reactivity.
7. Provides excellent resistance to sulphate or seawater attack.
8. Reduces steel corrosion.
9. Improves freeze/thaw durability of concrete.
B. Disadvantages of Silica Fume : Following are the disadvantages of
silica fume :
1. Silica fume concrete shrinkage rate is a large.
2. Silica fume concrete workability is poor.
3. It is easy to produce temperature cracks.
C. Uses of Silica Fume :
1. For production of high strength concrete, corrosion- resistant concrete,
abrasion-resistant concrete, and low permeability concrete.
2. Used to make sewer and manhole repair products. Reduces rebound in
shotcrete application.

Que 2.17. What is ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) ?

What are its benefits and also write down the chemical composition
of the slag GGBS.

Answer
A. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) :
1. The blast furnace slag is a byproduct of the iron manufacturing industry.
Iron ore, coke and limestone are fed into the furnace and the resulting
molten slag floats above the molten iron at a temperature of about
1500 °C to 1600 °C.
Chemical & Mineral Admixtures 2–14 D (CE-Sem-5)

2. The molten slag has a composition of about 30 % to 40 % SiO2 and about

40 % CaO, which is close to the chemical composition of Portland cement.
B. Benefits of GGBS in Concrete :
1. Heat of Hydration : Gradual hydration of GGBS with cement generates
lower heat than Portland cement. This reduces thermal gradients in the
concrete.
2. Water Demand : GGBS is a glassy material and its smoother surface
requires less water to adequately cover the particles.
3. Setting Time : Increased setting time may be advantageous in extending
the time for which the concrete remains workable and, may reduce the
risk of cold joints.
4. Appearance :
i. GGBS cement also produces a smoother, more defect free surface, due
to the fineness of the GGBS particles.
ii. GGBS is effective in preventing efflorescence when used at replacement
levels of 50 % to 60 %.
5. Bleeding : GGBS reduce bleeding than that of Portland cement and
therefore reduces risk of delaminations.
6. Workability : GGBS particles are less water absorptive than Portland
cement particles and thus GGBS concrete is more workable than
Portland cement concrete. For equivalent workability, a reduction in
water content of up to 10 % is possible.
7. Sulphate Resistance : GGBS is a sulphate-resisting, specifying GGBS
at 50 %-70 % content gives optimum protection against sulphate attack.
8. Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR) : GGBS reduce the deleterious
effect of AAR due to its low reactive alkali content and its ability to
inhibit AAR.
C. Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Slag :
Parameter Percentage
SiO2 37.73 %
Al2O3 14.42 %
Fe 2O3 1.11 %
CaO 37.34 %
MgO 8.71 %
MnO 0.02 %
Sulphide sulphur 0.39 %
Glass content (%) 92 – 95 %
Concrete Technology 2–15 D (CE-Sem-5)

Que 2.18. What are the effects of using GGBS in concrete ?

Answer
A. Effects of GGBS on the Properties of Fresh Concrete :
1. The cementitious material containing GGBS exhibited greater
workability due to the increased paste content and increased cohesiveness
of the paste.
2. Usually, an increase in time of setting can be expected when GGBS is
used as replacement for part of the Portland cement in concrete mixtures.
3. GGBS is finer than the Portland cement and is substituted on an equal-
mass basis, bleeding is reduced;
4. When the GGBS is coarser, the rate and amount of bleeding may
increase.
B. Effects of GGBS on the Properties of Hardened Concrete :
1. Decrease strength and rate of strength gain.
2. Increase the resistance to freezing and thawing.
3. Increase the resistance to deicing chemicals.
4. Increase the resistance to the corrosion of reinforcement.
5. Reduction of expansion due to alkali-silica reaction (ASR).
6. Increase the resistance to sulfate attack.
7. Reduce the permeability.

Que 2.19. What is the use of GGBS in concrete ?

Answer
Following are the uses of GGBS in concrete :
1. GGBS is used to make durable concrete structures in combination with
ordinary Portland cement and/or other pozzolanic materials.
2. Two major uses of GGBS are in the production of quality- improved slag
cement, namely Portland Blast Furnace Cement (PBFC) and High-Slag
Blast-Furnace Cement (HSBFC), with GGBS content ranging typically
from 30 to 70 %; and in the production of ready-mixed or site-batched
durable concrete.

Que 2.20. Describe the metakaolin. Discuss the advantages and

disadvantages of metakaolin.

Answer
A. Metakaolin :
1. Metakaolin is an admixture used as an partial replacement of cement in
HSC (high strength concrete).
Chemical & Mineral Admixtures 2–16 D (CE-Sem-5)

2. A concrete is said to be high strength concrete if its compressive strength

is more than 40MPa.
3. Metakaolin is prepared by calcination of kaolin (clay mineral) at an
temperature of 650-800ºC. It has pozzolanic properties.
4. Chemical formula of Metakaolin is Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O
5. It reacts with Ca(OH)2 one of the by-products of hydration reaction of
cement and results in additional C-S-H gel which results in increased
strength.
B. Advantages of Metakaolin : Following are the advantages of
metakaolin :
1. Strength and durability of concrete increases.
2. Accelerates initial setting time of concrete.
3. Compressive strength of concrete increases by 20 %.
4. Cross section of structure can be reduced safely i.e., amount of concrete
used can be reduced.
5. Reduces shrinkage in concrete.
6. Eco-friendly by reducing amount of CO2 emission.
7. Reduces heat of hydration leading to shrinkage and crack control.
C. Disadvantages of Metakaolin : Following are the disadvantages of
metakaolin :
1. Increased cost price.
2. Higher water ratio.
3. Workability.
4. Additional raw material.
5. At low addition rate increase shrinkage.

Que 2.21. What are the chemical compositions of metakaolin ?

Also write is physical properties.

Answer

A. Chemical Composition of Metakaolin :

Chemical Composition Percentage (%)
Silica (SiO2) 54.3
Alumina (Al2O3) 38.3
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 4.28
Calcium oxide (CaO) 0.39
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.08
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.12
Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.50
Concrete Technology 2–17 D (CE-Sem-5)

B. Physical Properties of Metakaolin :

1. Physical form – powder
2. Fineness of metakaolin – 700 to 900 m2/kg
3. Color of metakaolin – white/grey
4. Specific gravity – 2.50
5. Specific surface – 8 to 15 m2/g.

Que 2.22. Write down the application of metakaoline.

Answer
Application of Metakaolin : It can be used in constructions of :
1. Nuclear power stations. 2. Mass concreting.
3. Off shore structures. 4. High rise building.
5. Water retaining structures 6. Bridges.
7. Dams.

Que 2.23. What are the difference between fly ash and GGBS ?

Answer

Fly Ash GGBS

Source It is obtain fro m the It is obtain by quenching

combustion of powdered coal molten iron blast furnace
in electric generating plants. slag in water or stream.
Consistency It is a byproduct of electric It is a co -pro duct o f a
power generation that varies controlled process, iron
from source to source. production, which results in
a very uniform composition
from source to source.
Chemical Fly ash usually contains very It has very similar chemical
composition high SiO2 and Al2O3, but very compositions to ordinary
low in CaO (< 2 %) portland cement. Such as
30-40 % CaO, 35-38 % SiO2,
10-18 % Al2O3 , 10 – 18 %
MgO etc.
Permitted In OPC is 15-30 % but not GGBS in OPC or concrete
replacement more than 30 % concrete is 25-78 %
ratio
Hydration Fly ash does not take part in GGBS take part in
activity hydration activity. hydration activity.


Concrete Technology 3–1 D (CE-Sem-5)

3 Mix Design and

Rhealogy of Concrete

Part-1 ............................................................................(3–2D to 3–11D)

• Principle of Mix Proportioning

• Properties Related to Mix Design
• Mix Design Method (ACI and IS)
• Mix Design of Concrete
• Packing Density

A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 3–2D

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 3–2D

Part-2 ......................................................................... (3–11D to 3–24D)

• Rheology
• Mix Design Examples

A. Concept Outline : Part-2 ........................................................... 3–11D

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................. 3–11D
Mix Design & Rhealogy of Concrete 3–2 D (CE-Sem-5)

PART-1
Principle of Mix Proportioning, Properties Related to Mix Design,
Mix Design Method (ACI and IS), Mix Design of Concrete,
Packing Density.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1

Principles of Mix Proportions : According to IS 456 : 2000 and
IS 1343 – 1980 the design of concrete mix should be based on following
principles :
i. Grade designation.
ii. Type and grade of cement.
iii. Minimum nominal size of aggregate.
iv. Grading of combined aggregate.
v. Water cement ratio.
vi. Workability.
vii. Durability.
viii. Quality control.
Concrete Mix Design : It is a process of selecting suitable ingredients
for concrete and determining their proportions which would produce,
as economically as possible, i.e., concrete having a certain minimum
compressive strength, workability and durability.
Factors of Mix Proportioning :
i. Water-cement ratio.
ii. Cement Content or cement-aggregate ratio.
iii. Gradation of the aggregate.
iv. Consistency.
Methods of Mix Design : Following are the various method of concrete
mix design :
i. ACI mix design method.
ii. Indian standard recommended method for mix design.
iii. Rapid method for mix design etc.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.1. What do you mean by ‘mix design’ in concrete ? Explain

its types and objectives.
Concrete Technology 3–3 D (CE-Sem-5)

Answer
Concrete Mix Design : Mix Design is the science of determining the
relative proportions of the ingredients of concrete to achieve the desired
properties in the most economical way.
Types of Mixes : Following are the types of mixes :
1. Nominal Mixes : In the specifications for concrete prescribed the
proportions of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. These mixes of
fixed cement aggregate ratio which ensures adequate strength are
termed nominal mixes
2. Standard Mixes : IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into
a number of grades as M10, M15, M20, M25, M30, M35 and M40. In this
designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the
specified 28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm2.
3. Design Mixes : In these mixes the performance of the concrete is
specified by the designer but the mix proportions are determined by
the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement content
can be laid down
Objective of Mix Design : Following are the objective of mix design :
1. To achieve the designed/desired workability in the plastic stage.
2. To achieve the desired minimum strength in the hardened stage.
3. To achieve the desired durability in the given environment conditions.
4. To produce concrete as economically as possible.

Que 3.2. What are the various principles of proportioning of

mix design ?

Answer
Principles of Mix Design : Following are the various principles of
mix design :
1. The environment exposure condition for the structure.
2. The grade of concrete, their characteristic strength's and standard
deviations.
3. The type of cement.
4. The types and sizes of aggregates and their sources of supply.
5. The nominal maximum sizes of aggregates.
6. Maximum and minimum cement content in kg/m3.
7. Water cement ratio.
8. The degree of workability of concrete based on placing conditions.
9. Air content inclusive of entrained air.
Mix Design & Rhealogy of Concrete 3–4 D (CE-Sem-5)

10. The maximum/minimum density of concrete.

11. The maximum/minimum temperature of fresh concrete.
12. Type of water available for mixing and curing.
13. The source of water and the impurities present in it.

Que 3.3. Discuss the Abram’s water / cement ratio law and its
validity. How strength of concrete is estimated by Abram’s law.

Answer
Abram’s Water / Cement Ratio Law :
1. According to Abram’s law the strength of fully compacted concrete is
inversely proportional to the water-cement ratio.
2. Here the water-to-cement ratio is the relative weight of the water to
the cement in the mixture. For most applications, water-to-cement
should be between 0.4 and 0.5, lower for lower permeability and higher
strength.
Validity : If not properly compacted, the concrete mix will contain
large valids, which contribute to porosity. Thus, at low water/cement
ratio where full compaction is hard to achieve, Abram’s law is not valid.
Expression :
1. According to Abram’s law, compressive strength can be expressed as :
A1
F=
B1x
log F = log A1 – x log B1
where, F = Compressive strength of concrete.
A1, B1 = Constant.
x = Water cement ratio by weight.
Que 3.4. What are the different factors in the choice of mix
proportions ?

Answer
Factors Influencing Choice of Mix Design : According to IS
456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 following are the factor affecting the design
of concrete mix :
1. Grade of Concrete :
i. The grade of concrete gives characteristic compressive strength of
concrete.
ii. The grade M20 denotes characteristic compressive strength fck of
20 N/mm2.
Concrete Technology 3–5 D (CE-Sem-5)

iii. Depending upon the degree of control available at site, the concrete
mix is to be designed for a target mean compressive strength (fck)
applying suitable standard deviation.
2. Type of Cement :
i. The higher the strength of cement used in concrete, lesser will be the
cement content.
ii. The use of 43 grade and 53 grade of cement, gives saving in cement
consumption as much as 15 % and 25 % respectively, as compared to 33
grade of cement.
3. Maximum Nominal Size of Aggregates :
i. It is designated by the sieve size higher than larger size on which 15 %
or more of the aggregate is retained.
ii. The maximum nominal size of aggregate should not be more than
one-fourth of minimum thickness of the member.
iii. For heavily reinforced concrete members as in the case of ribs of main
beams, the nominal maximum size of the aggregate should usually be
restricted to sum less than the minimum clear distance between the
main bars or 5 mm less the minimum cover to the reinforcement,
whoever is smaller.
4. Grading of Combined Aggregates :
i. The relative proportions of the fine and coarse aggregate in a concrete
mix is one of the important factors affecting the strength of concrete.
ii. For dense concrete, it is essential that the fine and coarse aggregate be
well graded.
5. Maximum Water/Cement Ratio : The lower the water/cement ratio,
the greater is the compressive strength.
6. Workability : Workability of fresh concrete determines the case with
which a concrete mixture can be mixed, transported, placed, compacted
and finished without harmful segregation and bleeding.
7. Durability :
i. Durability require low water/cement ratio.
ii. It is usually achieved not by increasing the cement content, but by
lowering the water demands at given cement content.
iii. Water demand can be lowered by through control of the aggregate
grading and by using water reducing admixtures.

Que 3.5. Write short note on quality control of concrete.

Answer
1. The strength of concrete varies from batch to batch over a period of
time.
Mix Design & Rhealogy of Concrete 3–6 D (CE-Sem-5)

2. The sources of variability in the strength of concrete may be considered

due to variation in the quality of the constituent materials, variations
in mix proportions due to batching process, variations in the quality of
batching and mixing equipment available, the quality of supervision
and workmanship.
3. These variations are inevitable during production to varying degrees.
4. Controlling these variations is important in lowering the difference
between the minimum strength and characteristic mean strength of
the mix and hence reducing the cement content.
5. The factor controlling this difference is quality control.
6. The degree of control is ultimately evaluated by the variation in test
results usually expressed in terms of the coefficient of variation.

Que 3.6. Discuss the statistical quality control of concrete.

Explain common terminology used in statistical quality control of
concrete.

Answer
A. Statistical Quality Control of Concrete :
1. Statistical quality control method provides a scientific approach to the
concrete designer to understand the realistic variability of the materials
so as to lay down design specifications with proper tolerance to cater
for unavoidable variations.
2. The acceptance criteria are based on statistical evaluation of the test
result of samples taken at random during execution. By devising a
proper sampling plan it is possible to ensure a certain quality at a
specified rise.
3. Thus the method provides a scientific basis of acceptance when is not
only realistic but also restrictive as required by the design requirements
for the concrete construction.
Common Terminology : The common terminologies that are used
in the statistical quality control of concrete.
1. Mean Strength : This is the average strength obtained by dividing
the sum of strength of all the cubes by the number of cubes.
x
x=
n
where, x = Mean strength.
x = Sum of the strength of cubes.
n = Number of cubes.
2. Variance : This is the measure of variability or difference between
any observed data from the mean strength.
Concrete Technology 3–7 D (CE-Sem-5)

3. Standard Deviation :
i. This is the root mean square deviation of all the results, is denoted by
s or . Numerically it can be explained as,

 ( x  x )2
=
n1

where,  = Standard deviation.

n = Number of observations.
x = Particular value of observations.
x = Arithmetic mean.
ii. Standard deviation increases with increasing variability.
iii. The characteristics of the normal distribution curve are fixed by the
average value and the standard deviation.
4. Coefficient of Variation :
i. It is an alternative method of expressing the variation of result.
ii. It is a non-dimensional measure of variation obtained by dividing the
standard deviation by the arithmetic mean and is expressed as :

V=  100
x
where, V = Coefficient of variation.

Que 3.7. Step by step explain the American Concrete Institute

method of mix design.

Answer
Following are the steps in American Concrete Institute method :
1. Data to be Collected :
i. Fineness modulus of selected fine aggregate.
ii. Unit weight of dry rodded coarse aggregate.
iii. Specific gravity of coarse and fine aggregates in SSD condition
iv. Absorption characteristics of both coarse and fine aggregates.
v. Specific gravity of cement.
2. From the minimum strength specified, estimate the average design
strength by using standard deviation.
3. Find the water/cement ratio from the strength and durability points of
view. Adopt the lower value.
4. Decide the maximum size of aggregate to be used. Generally for RCC
work 20 mm and pre-stressed concrete 10 mm size are used.
5. Decide workability in terms of slump for the given job.
Mix Design & Rhealogy of Concrete 3–8 D (CE-Sem-5)

6. The total water in kg/m3 of concrete is determined, corresponding to

the selected slump and selected maximum size of aggregate.
7. Cement content is computed by dividing the total water content by the
water/cement ratio.
8. Select the bulk volume of dry rodded coarse aggregate per unit volume
of concrete, for the particular maximum size of coarse aggregate and
fineness modulus of fine aggregate.
9. The weight of CA per cubic meter of concrete is calculated by multiplying
the bulk volume with bulk density.
10. The solid volume of coarse aggregate in one cubic meter of concrete is
calculated by knowing the specific gravity of CA.
11. Similarly the solid volume of cement, water and volume of air is
calculated in one cubic meter of concrete.
12. The solid volume of FA is computed by subtracting from the total
volume of concrete the solid volume of cement, CA, water and entrapped
air.
13. Weight of fine aggregate is calculated by multiplying the solid volume
of fine aggregate by specific gravity of FA.

Que 3.8. Step by step explain the IS method of mix proportioning.

Answer
Following are the steps of IS method of mix design :
Step 1 : Calculation of Target Strength of Concrete :
Target strength is denoted by ft which is obtained by characteristic
compressive strength of concrete at 28 days (fck) and value of standard
deviation ()
ft = fck + 1.65 × 
Standard deviation can be taken from below table 3.8.1.
Table 2.8.1.

Grade of concrete Standard deviation (N/mm2)

M10 3.5
M15 3.5
M20 4.0
M25 4.0
M30 ...... so on 5.0

Step 2 : Selection of Water-Cement Ratio :

Water cement ratio is selected from the below curve for 28 days
characteristic compressive strength of concrete.
Concrete Technology 3–9 D (CE-Sem-5)

28 day compressive strength 60.0

50.0
of concrete, N/mm 2

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0
0
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
Water cement ratio
Fig. 3.8.1.
Step 3 : Determination of Aggregate Air Content :
i. Air content in the concrete mix is determined by the nominal maximum
size of aggregate used.
ii. Below table will give the entrapped air content in percentage of volume
of concrete.
Table 3.8.2.
Nominal Maximum Size Air Content
of Aggregate (% of Volume of Concrete)
10 mm 5%
20 mm 2%
40 mm 1%
Step 4 : Selection of Water Content for Concrete :
i. Select the water content which is useful to get required workability
with the help of nominal maximum size of aggregate as given in below
table 3.8.3.
ii. The table given below is used when only angular shaped aggregates
are used in concrete as well as the slump should be 25 to 50 mm.
Table 3.8.3.
Nominal Maximum Maximum Water Content
Size of Aggregate
10 mm 208
20 mm 186
40 mm 165
Step 5 : Selection of Cement Content for Concrete : Water-cement
ratio is determined in step 2 and quantity of water is determined in
Mix Design & Rhealogy of Concrete 3–10 D (CE-Sem-5)

step-4. So, we can easily calculate the quantity of cement from these
two conditions. But, the value obtained should satisfy the minimum
conditions as given in the table 3.8.4. The greater of the two values is
decided as quantity of cement content.

Table 3.8.4. Cement Content for PCC and RCC

Exposure Minimum Cement Max Free water Minimum Grade
Content kg/m3 Cement Ratio of Concrete
PCC RCC PCC RCC PCC RCC
Mild 220 300 0.6 0.55 – M20
Moderate 240 300 0.6 0.5 M15 M25
Severe 250 320 0.5 0.45 M20 M30
Very severe 260 340 0.45 0.45 M20 M35
Extreme 280 360 0.4 0.4 M25 M40

Step 6 : Calculation of Aggregate Ratio : For the given nominal

maximum size of aggregate, we can calculate the ratio of volumes of
coarse aggregate and volume of total aggregates for different zones of
fine aggregates from the below table.
Table 3.8.5.
Nominal Ratio of volume of coarse aggregate and
maximum size volume of total aggregate for different zones
of aggregate of fine aggregate
Zone-1 Zone-2 Zone-3 Zone-4
10 mm 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.50
20 mm 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66
40 mm 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.75

Step 7 : Calculation of Aggregate Content for Concrete : We

already determine the coarse aggregate volume ratio in the total
aggregate volume. So, it is very easy that, 1- volume of coarse aggregate
will give the volume of fine aggregate.
Mass of fine aggregate is calculated from below formula

 C  1 FA   1
V = W   X   
G  (1 – P ) G 1000
 c  f  
Similarly, mass of coarse aggregate is calculated from below formula.
 C 1 CA   1
V = W   X  
 Gc  p Gca   1000
Concrete Technology 3–11 D (CE-Sem-5)

where, V = Volume of concrete.

W = Water content.
C = Cement content.
Gc = Specific gravity of cement.
P = Aggregate ration obtained in step 6.
FA and CA = Masses of fine and coarse aggregates.
Gf and Gca = Specific gravities of fine and coarse aggregates.
Step 8 : Trial Mixes for Testing Concrete Mix Design Strength :
Based on the values obtained above, conduct a trail test by making at
least 3 cubes of 150 mm size as per above standards. Test that cubes
and verify whether the required strength is gained or not. If not,
redesign the mix with proper adjustments until required strength of
cube occurs.

PART-2
Rheology, Mix Design Example.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2

Rheology : It may be defined as the science of the deformation and
flow of materials, and is concerned with relationship between stress,
strain rate of strain and time.
Effective factors of rheology properties of concrete :
i. Hardening and stiffening.
ii. Aggregate shape and texture.
iii. Aggregate grading.
iv. Admixtures.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.9. What do you mean by Rheology of fresh concrete ?

Explain the parameters of Rheology.

Answer
1. Rheology : It may be defined as the science of the deformation and
flow of materials, and concerned with relationships between stress,
strain, rate of strain, and time.
2. The term rheology deals with the materials whose flow properties are
more complicated than of simple fluids (liquids or gases).
Mix Design & Rhealogy of Concrete 3–12 D (CE-Sem-5)

Parameters of Rheology : Following are the parameter of rheology :

1. Stability :
i. It is defined as a condition in which the aggregate particles are held in
homogeneous dispersion by matrix, and random sampling shows the
same particle size distribution during transportation, placing and
compaction.

Segregation Relative density Viscosity

Flowability
Stability Compactability Cohesion
or mobility

Bleeding Internal
friction

Rheology of
fresh concrete

Fig. 3.9.1. Parameters the rheology of fresh concrete.

ii. The stability of concrete is measured by its segregation and bleeding

characteristics.
2. Mobility :
i. The mobility of fresh concrete is its ability to flow under momentum
transfer, i.e., under mechanical stresses. The flow is restricted by
cohesive, viscous and frictional forces.
ii. The cohesive force develops due to adhesion between the matrix and
aggregate particles. It provides tensile strength of fresh concrete that
resists segregation.
iii. The viscosity of the matrix contributes to the ease with which the
aggregate particles can move and rearrange themselves within the
matrix.
iv. The internal friction occurs when a mixture is displaced and the
aggregate particles translate and rotate.
v. The resistance to deformation depends on the shape and texture of the
aggregate, the richness of the mixture, the water-cement ratio, and
the type of cement used.
3. Compactability :
i. It measures the ease with which fresh concrete is compacted.
ii. Compacting consist of expelling entrapped air and repositioning the
aggregate particles in a dense mass without causing segregation.
iii. Compactability is measured by the compacting factor test.
Concrete Technology 3–13 D (CE-Sem-5)

Que 3.10. Describe the Bingham model of Rheology of fresh

concrete.

Answer
1. The flow behaviour of fresh concrete does not conform to Newtonian
liquid.
2. The ratio of shear stress to shear rate is not constant but depends upon
the shear rate at which it is measured, and may also depend on the
shear history of the concrete sample being investigated.
3. However, at low shear rates that are important in practice, the
behaviour can be represented by a straight line which does not pass
through-the origin, i.e., which has an intercept on the stress axis.
4. The intercept indicates the minimum stress below which no flow occurs.
5. The fact that concrete can stand in a pile (as in the case of the slump
test) suggests that there is some minimum stress necessary for flow to
occur at all.
6. The minimum stress is called yield stress and designated by the symbol
0 . Thus the simplest flow equation of concrete illustrated in
Fig. 3.10.1 can be written as :

Second experiment
point required
Rate of shear, 

to fix the line

2

+
0 Slope = 1/
=
Experiment point
1

0 Shear stress, 
Fig. 3.10.1. Bingham model.
 = 0 + 
where, 0 = Yield value indicating the cohesion of the
material.
 = Constant having the dimensions of viscosity
and termed plastic viscosity.
7. This mathematical relationship is called the Bingham model.
8. Bingham model relates the shear stress of the material expressed in
terms of its cohesion to plastic viscosity, and the rate at which the
shear load is applied.
Mix Design & Rhealogy of Concrete 3–14 D (CE-Sem-5)

9. To establish a straight line, at least two points are required. Accordingly,

the workability of concrete cannot be defined by the single-point tests
that determine only one parameter, i.e., produce only single point, and
therefore have to be used in combination with other tests to achieve a
better understanding of concrete rheology.
10. For example, the Vee-Bee test can be used with compacting factor test
to measure mobility and compactability.

Que 3.11. Explain the affective factors of rheological properties

of concrete.

Answer
Following are the affecting factors of rheological properties of concrete :
1. Mix Proportion : A concrete mix having an excess amount of coarse
aggregate will lack sufficient mortar to fill the void system, resulting in
a loss of cohesion and mobility.
2. Consistency : The consistency of concrete, as measured by the slump
test, is an indicator of the relative water content in the concrete mix.
3. Hardening and Stiffening :
i. Elevated temperature, use of rapid-hardening cement, cement deficient
in gypsum, and use of accelerating admixtures, increase the rate of
hardening which reduces the mobility of concrete.
ii. The dry and porous aggregate will rapidly reduce workability by
absorbing water from the mixture or increasing the surface area to be
wetted.
4. Aggregate Shape and Texture :
i. The rough and highly angular aggregate particles will result in higher
percentage of voids being filled by mortar, requiring higher fine
aggregate contents and correspondingly higher water content.
ii. Similarly, an angular fine aggregate will increase internal friction in
the concrete mixture and require higher water content than
well-rounded natural sand.
5. Aggregate Grading : A well-graded aggregate gives good workability.
These effects are greater in the fine aggregate than in coarse aggregate.
6. Maximum Aggregate Size : An increase in the maximum size of
aggregate will reduce the fine aggregate content required to maintain a
given workability, and will thereby reduce the surface area to be wetted.
7. Admixtures : The admixtures which have significant effect on the
rheology of concrete are plasticizers and super-plasticizers, air-
entraining agents, accelerators and retarders.

Que 3.12. Describe the effect of rheological properties on different

types of concrete.
Concrete Technology 3–15 D (CE-Sem-5)

Answer
Effect of Rheological Properties on Different Types of Concrete.
1. Different types of concrete :
i. Fig. 3.12.1 shows the three-dimensional relationship between different
types of concrete and the rheological parameters.
For Example :
i. Compared to reference concrete, a wet concrete can be produced by
decreasing both yield stress and plastic viscosity, whereas a stiffer
concrete can be produced by increasing the yield stress.
ii. Initially, addition of silica fume decreases viscosity (fine particle content
increases the flow), whereas higher dosage increases the yield stress
as well as viscosity.
Shear yield stress, 0

Stiff

Viscous
Ref

Wet

Plastic viscosity, 
Fig. 3.12.1. Different types of concrete with
respect to flow characteristics.
2. Different Additives : The effect of air, water, and other mineral
admixtures on rheological parameters of concrete is shown in
Fig. 3.12.2.
Shear yield stress, 0

Silica fume
Less paste
Less water
Ref
Air
More water More paste
Fly ash

SP
Plastic viscosity, 
Fig. 3.12.2. Effect of air, water, and mineral admixtures on
flow characteristics of concrete,
Mix Design & Rhealogy of Concrete 3–16 D (CE-Sem-5)

3. Rheological Properties of Different Concretes :

i. Shear yield stress of self-compacting concrete is in the range of 0-50
Pa, whereas for normal concrete it is high in the range of 100-300 Pa as
shown in Fig. 3.12.3.
ii. Plastic viscosity of normal concrete is in the range of 0-40 Pa-s.
iii. However, plastic viscosity for self-compacting concrete is fairly high
having a range of 50-90 Pa-s.
350
300
Shear yield stress (Pa)

250
Normal
200
concrete
150

100

50
Self-compacting concrete
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Plastic Viscosity (Pa-s)
Fig. 3.12.3. Rheological properties of normal
and self-compacting concrete.

Que 3.13. Design a concrete mix (by ACI method) for construction
of an elevated water tank. The specified design strength of concrete
(characteristic strength) is 30 MPa at 28 days measured on standard
cylinders. Standard deviation can be taken as 4 MPa. The specific
gravity of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate are 2.65 and 2.7
respectively. The dry rodded bulk density of coarse aggregate is
1600 kg/m3, and fineness modulus of fine aggregate is 2.80. Ordinary
Portland cement (Type I) will be used. A slump of 50 mm is necessary.
Coarse aggregate is found to be absorptive to the extent of 1 % and
free surface moisture in sand is found to be 2 %. Assume any other
essential data.

Answer
1. Assuming 5 per cent of results are allowed to fall below specified design
strength. The mean strength,
fm = fmin + k
= 30 + 1.64 × 4 = 36.56  36.5 MPa
2. Since OPC is used, from ACI 211.1 : 1991, the estimated w/c ratio is
0.47.
i. This w/c ratio from strength point of view is to be checked against
maximum w/c ratio given for special exposure condition given in
ACI 211.1 : 1991 and minimum of the two is to be adopted.
Concrete Technology 3–17 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. From exposure condition ACI 211.1 : 1991 the maximum w/c ratio
is 0.50
Therefore, adopt w/c ratio of 0.47.
3. From ACI 211.1 : 1991, for a slump of 50 mm, 20 mm maximum size of
aggregate, for non-air-entrained concrete, the mixing water content is
185 kg/m3 of concrete. Also the approximate entrapped air content is
2 %.
185
The required cement content =  394 kg/m3
0.47
4. From ACI 211.1 : 1991, for 20 mm coarse aggregate, for fineness
modulus of 2.80, the dry rodded bulk volume of coarse aggregate is
0.62 per unit volume of concrete.
5. Therefore the weight of coarse aggregate = 0.62 × 1600 = 992 kg/m3.
6. From ACI 211.1 : 1991, the first estimate of density of fresh concrete
for 20 mm maximum size of aggregate and for non-air-entrained
concrete = 2355 kg/m3.
7. The weight of all the known ingredient of concrete
Weight of water = 185 kg/m3
Weight of cement = 394 kg/m3
Weight of CA = 992 kg/m3
Weight of FA = 2355 – (185 + 394 + 992) = 784 kg/m3
8. Alternatively the weight of FA can also be found out by absolute volume
method which is more accurate, as follows :
Item Ingredients Weight Absolute volume
number kg/m3 cm 3
394
1. Cement 394 × 103 = 125 × 103
3.15
185
2. Water 185 × 103 = 185 × 103
1
992
3. Coarse aggregate 992 × 103  367 × 103
2.7
2
4. Air × 106 = 20 × 103
100
Total absolute volume = 697 × 103 cm3
Therefore absolute volume of FA = (1000 – 697) × 103 = 303 × 103 cm3
Weight of FA = 303 × 2.65  803 kg/m3
9. Estimated quantities of materials per cubic meter of concrete are :
Cement = 394 kg
FA = 803 kg
CA = 992 kg
Water = 185 kg
Density of fresh concrete 2374 kg/m 3 as against 2355 read from
ACI 211.1 : 1991.
Mix Design & Rhealogy of Concrete 3–18 D (CE-Sem-5)

10. Proportions :
Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate Water
394 803 992 185
1 2.04 2.52 0.47
Weight of materials for one bag mix in kg = 50 : 102 : 126 : 23.5
The above quantity is on the basis that both FA and CA are in saturated
and surface dry condition.
11. The proportions are required to be adjusted for the field conditions. FA
has moisture of 2 per cent.
2
i. Total free surface moisture in FA = × 803 = 16.06 kg/m3
100
ii. Weight of FA in field condition
= 803 +16.06 = 819.06 kg/m3  819 kg/m3
iii. CA absorbs 1 % water
1
Quantity of water absorbed by CA = × 992 = 9.92 kg/m3
100
iv. Weight of CA in field condition
= 992 – 9.92 = 982.08 kg/m3  982.0 kg/m3
v. With regard to water, 16.06 kg of water is contributed by FA and
9.92 kg of water is absorbed by CA.
Therefore 16.06 – 9.92 = 6.14 kg of extra water is contributed by
aggregates. This quantity of water is deducted from total water
185.00 – 6.14 = 178.86 kg/m3  179 kg/m3
12. Quantities of materials to be used in the field duly corrected for free
surface moisture in FA and absorption characteristic of CA
Cement = 394 kg/m3
FA = 819 kg/m3
CA = 982 kg/m3
Water = 179 kg/m3
Field density of fresh concrete = 2374 kg/m3

Que 3.14. Design a concrete mix for M45 grade of concrete with
the following data :
1. Type of cement OPC 43 grades
2. Maximum size of aggregate 20 mm
3. Exposure Condition Severe (RCC)
4. Workability 125 mm slump
5. Minimum cement content 320 kg / m3
6. Maximum W/C ratio 0.45
7. Method of placing concrete Pumping
8. Degree of supervision Good
9. Type of aggregate Crushed angular Agg.
10. Super plasticizer will be used
11. Specific gravity of coarse aggregate 2.80
Concrete Technology 3–19 D (CE-Sem-5)

12. Specific gravity of fine aggregate 2.70

13. Water absorption
Coarse aggregate 0.5 percent
Fine aggregate 1.0 percent
14. Free surface moisture
Coarse aggregate Nil
Fine aggregate Nil
15. Grading of coarse aggregate conforming to Table 2 of IS 383.
16. Grading of fine aggregate conforming to grading Zone II.

Answer
1. Target Mean Strength :
Characteristic strength fck= 45
Target mean strength, f ck = fck+ 1.65 ×  = 45 + 1.65 × 5 = 53.25 N/mm2
Where  is the standard deviation taken as 5 N/mm2.
2. Water/Cement Ratio :
i. Water / Cement ratio is taken from the experience of the mix designer
based on his experience of similar work elsewhere.
W/C ratio = 0.42
ii. This water cement ratio is to be selected both from strength
consideration and maximum w/c denoted in Table 5 of IS 456 and
lesser of the two is to be adopted durability requirement.
iii. W/C proposed is 0.42. This being lesser than 0.45, we should adopt
W/C ratio as 0.42.
3. Selection of Water Content :
i. Maximum water content as per table 3.8.3 is 186 litre. This is for 50 mm
slump.
ii. Estimated water content for 125 mm slump
9
= 186 × + 186  203 litre
100
(3 % increase for every 25 mm slump over and above 50 mm slump)
iii. Really speaking separate trials are required to be done to find out the
efficiency of plasticizers.
iv. In the absence of such trial, it is assumed that the efficiency of super
plasticizer used 25 percent. Therefore actual water to be used
= 203 × 0.75  152 litre.
4. Calculation of Cement Content :
i. W/C ratio = 0.42
Water used = 152 litre
W
ii. Cement content = = 0.42
C
152
C= = 362 kg/m3
0.42
iii. This cement content is to be checked against minimum cement content
given in table 5 of IS 456 for durability requirement.
Mix Design & Rhealogy of Concrete 3–20 D (CE-Sem-5)

iv. As the calculated cement 362 kg/m3 is more than minimum cement
mentioned in table 5 of IS 456 i.e., 320 kg/m3, the cement content of
362 kg/m3 should be accepted. Adopt cement content of 362 kg/m3.
5. Calculation of Coarse and Fine Aggregate Content :
i. From Table 3.8.5 volume of coarse aggregate corresponding to 20 mm
size aggregate and fine aggregate zone II, for w/c ratio of 0.50 is found
out to be 0.62.
ii. In the present case w/c 0.42 i.e., it is less by 0.08. As the w/c is reduced
it is desirable to increase the coarse aggregate proportion to reduce the
fine aggregate content.
iii. The coarse aggregate is increased at the rate of 0.01 for every decrease
in w/c ratio of 0.05.
0.01
 × 0.08 = 0.016
0.05
0.016
Volume of CA = 0.62 =
0.636
iv. Corrected proportion of volume of CA = 0.636
Since it is angular aggregate and the concrete is to be pumped, the
coarse aggregate can be reduced by 10 %.
v. Final volume of coarse aggregate
= 0.636 × 0.9 = 0.572 say 0.57
vi. Volume of fine aggregate = 0.43
6. Calculation of Mix Proportions :
i. Volume of concrete =1 m3
362 1
ii. Absolute volume of cement =  m3 = 0.115 m3
3.15 1000
iii. Volume of water = 152 litre = 0.152 m3
iv. Volume of chemical admixture
1.2  362 1 362  1.2
=   = 0.004 m3
100  1.1 1000 110  1000
(Assuming dosage of 1.2 % by weight of cementitious material and
assuming specific gravity of admixture as 1.1.)
v. Absolute volume of all the materials except total aggregates
= 0.115 + 0.152 + 0.004 = 0.271 m3
vi. Absolute volume of total aggregate
= 1 – 0.271 = 0.729 m3
vii. Weight of coarse aggregate
= 0.729 × 0.57 × 2.80 × 1000  1163 kg/m3
viii. Weight of fine aggregate
= 0.729 × 0.43 × 2.70 x 1000  846 kg/m3
7. Mix Proportions for Trial Number 1
Cement 362 kg/m3
Water 152 kg/m3
Fine aggregate 846 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate 1163 kg/m3
Concrete Technology 3–21 D (CE-Sem-5)

Chemical admixture 4 kg/m3

Wet density of concrete 2527 kg/m3
w/c ratio 0.42
8. Site Correction :
i. Absorption of fine aggregate = 1.0 %
1
= × 846 = 8.46 litre
100
ii. Absorption of coarse aggregate
0.5
= × 1163 = 5.82 litre
100
iii. Total absorption = 14.28 litres
iv. Actual amount of water to be used = 152 + 14.28 = 166.28 litres
v. Actual weight of FA to be used = 846 –8.46 = 837.5 kg/m3
vi. Actual weight of CA to be used = 1163 – 5.82 = 1157.20 kg/m3
vii. Proportion of materials at the site
Cement 362 kg/m3
Water 166.28 kg/m2
CA 1157.2 kg/m3
FA 837.5 kg/m3
Admixture 4.0 kg/m3
viii. With the above proportion of materials carry out trial mix number-1
and see the quality of concrete.
ix. If it is not satisfactory carry out trial mix number 2, 3 and 4 as indicated
earlier under trial mixes. Arrive at the final proportions of concrete
mix to satisfy the required parameters.

Que 3.15. Design a concrete mix for M 35 grade using fly ash (as
per IS 10262 : 2009). Other data are given below :
1. Type of cement OPC 43 grade
2. Type of fly ash F type conforming to IS
3812 (Part I)
3. Max size of aggregate (MSA) 20 mm
4. Minimum cement contact 320 kg / m3
5. Maximum w/c ratio 0.45
6. Workability 100 mm slump
7. Exposure condition Severe (RCC)
8. Method of placing concrete Pumping
9. Degree of supervision Good
10. Chemical admixture Superplasticizer
11. Specific gravity of cement 3.15
12. Specific gravity of fly ash 2.2
13. Specific gravity of CA 2.78
14. Specific gravity of FA 2.70
15. Water absorption
i. CA 0.5 %
ii. FA Nil
Mix Design & Rhealogy of Concrete 3–22 D (CE-Sem-5)

16. Free surface moisture

i. CA Nil
ii. FA 1.5 %
17. Grading of CA is conforming to Table 2 of IS 383 and grading of
FA is falling in Zone I.

Answer
1. Target Mean Strength :
f ck = fck+ 1.65 × Standard deviation
= 35 + 1.65 × 5 = 35 + 8.25 = 43.25 N/mm2
2. Selection of w/c R atio : Fro m the experie nce of de signer,
43.25 N/mm2 can be achieved in 28 days by using a w/c ratio of 0.46.
But as per table 5 of IS 456, a maximum w/c ratio permitted is 0.45.
 Adopt w/c ratio of 0.45.
3. Selection of Water Content :
i. From table 3.8.3, maximum water content for MSA 20 mm aggregate is
186 litre (for stump to 50 mm and w/c ratio of 0.5)
ii. Estimated water content for 100 mm slump
6
= 186 + 186 ×  197 litre
100
iii. As superplasticizer is used, it is assumed that water content can be
reduced to the extent of 25 percent.
 Net amount of water required to be used = 197 x 0.75  148 litres
4. Calculation of Cement and Fly Ash Content :
i. w/c ratio = 0.45
ii. Cementitious material (cement + fly ash) content
148
=  329 kg/m3
0.45
Since 329 > 320 it is OK.
iii. IS 456 table number 5 permits minimum cement content 320 kg/m3 for
severe expose condition.
iv. Since fly ash is not as active as that of cement, it is usual to increase
the cementitious material by some percentage, based on experience
and trials.
v. Cementitious material an increase of 10 % in considered.
 Cementitious material content
= 329 × 1.1 = 362 kg/m3
vi. Let us take the percentage of fly ash as 25 %
25
 Fly ash content = × 362  91 kg/m2
100
vii. Cement = 362 – 91 = 271 kg/m3
148
viii. Water/cementitious ratio =  0.41
362
5. Proportion of Volume of CA and FA Content :
i. From Table 3.8.5, volume of coarse aggregate for 20 mm MSA and fine
aggregate falling on zone I and w/c of 0.5 = 0.60.
Concrete Technology 3–23 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. In the present case w/c is 0.45. Therefore volume of CA is required to

be increased to decrease the FA content.
iii. As the w/c is lower by 0.05 the proportion of volume of coarse aggregate
is increased by,
0.01
× 0.05 = 1.587 × 10 – 4  0.01.
3.15
iv. Therefore corrected proportion of volume of coarse aggregate for the
water cement ratio of
0.45 = 0.60 + 0.01 = 0.61
v. For pumpable concrete, CA may be reduced by 10 per cent.
a. Volume of CA = 0.61 × 0.9 = 0.55
b. Volume of FA = 1 – 0.55 = 0.45
6. Mix Calculation :
i. Volume of concrete = 1 m3
ii. Absolute volume of cement
271 1
=  = 0.086 m3
3.15 1000
iii. Absolute volume of fly ash
91 1
=  = 0.041 m3
2.2 1000
iv. Volume of water = 0.148 m3
v. Volume of chemical admixture, assuming
Dosage of 1.2 % by weight of cementitious material and specific gravity
of 1.1
1.2
=  362 = 4.34 kg/m3
100
4.34 1
=  = 0.004 m3
1.1 1000
vi. Total volume of all in aggregate
= 1 – {0.086 + 0.041 + 0.148 + 0.004}
= 1 – (0.279) = 0.721 m3
vii. Weight of coarse aggregate
= 0.721 × 0.55 × 2.78 × 1000
= 1102 kg/m3
viii. Weight of fine aggregate
= 0.721 × 0.45 × 2.70 × 1000 = 876 kg/m3
7. Mix proportion for Trial Number 1 :
Cement 271 kg/m3
Fly ash 91 kg/m3
Water 148 kg/m3
Fine aggregate 876 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate 1102 kg/m3
Chemical admixture 4.00 kg/m3
Wet density 2492 kg/m3
Mix Design & Rhealogy of Concrete 3–24 D (CE-Sem-5)

148
Water/Cementitious ratio = = 0.41
362
Coarse aggregate can be further divided into 10 mm size and 20 mm
size, depending upon the grading required.
We may divide the total aggregate into 40 percent of 10 mm size and 60
percent of 20 mm size.
In that case quantity of 10 mm size
40
= 1102 × = 440 kg/m3
100
60
Quantity of 20 mm size = 1102 × = 662 kg/m3
100
8. Field Correction :
i. Fine aggregate quantity = 876 kg/m3.
Absorption = Nil
Surface moisture = 1.5 %
ii. Quantity of surface moisture
1.5
= × 876 = 13.14 kg
100
iii. Weight of fine aggregate in field condition
= 876 + 13.14 = 889 kg/m3
0.5
iv. Absorption of CA = 1102 × = 5.51 kg/m3
100
v. Weight of CA in field condition = 1102 – 5.51 ≈ 1097 kg/m3
vi. As regard to water, 13.14 kg of water is contributed by FA and 5.51 kg
is absorbed by CA Therefore 13.14 – 5.51 = 7.63 kg of extra water is
contributed. This quantity of water is to be deducted from total water
i.e., 148 – 7.63 = 140.37 say 140 kg/m3
vii. Quantities of materials to be used in the field is duly corrected for free
surface moisture in FA and absorption characteristic of CA.
Cement 271 kg/m3
Fly ash 91 kg/m3
Water 140 kg/m3
Fine aggregate 889 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate 10 mm 439 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate 20 mm 658 kg/m3
Chemical admixture 4.00 kg/ m3
Wet density 2492 kg / m3
9. With the above proportion of materials carry out trial mix number 1.
See the quality of concrete. If not satisfactory carry out trial mix number
2, 3 and 4 as indicated earlier under trial mixes. Arrive at the final
proportion of concrete mix to satisfy the required parameter.


Concrete Technology 4–1 D (CE-Sem-5)

4 Concrete Production,
Properties and Testing

Part-1 .............................................................................. (4–2D to 4–9D)

• Concrete Production
• Batching
• Mixing and Transportation of Concrete
• Workability
• Test for Workability (Slump Test, Compacting Factor Test and
Vee-Bee Test)

A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 4–2D

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 4–2D
Part-2 ............................................................................(4–9D to 4–15D)
• Segregation and Bleeding in Concrete
• Curing of Concrete and Its Method
A. Concept Outline : Part-2 ........................................................... 4–10D
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................. 4–10D
Part-3 ......................................................................... (4–15D to 4–21D)
• Determination of Compressive and Flexural Strength as Per BIS
A. Concept Outline : Part-3 ........................................................... 4–15D
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................. 4–15D
Part-4 ......................................................................... (4–21D to 4–30D)

• Mechanical Properties of Concrete : Elastic Modulus

• Poisson’s Ratio
• Creep
• Shrinkage and Durability of Concrete

A. Concept Outline : Part-4 ........................................................... 4–21D

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................. 4–22D
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–2 D (CE-Sem-5)

PART-1
Concrete Production, Batching, Mixing and Transportation of
Concrete, Workability, Test for Workability(Slump Test,
Compacting Factor Test and Vee-Bee Test).

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1

The various stages in the manufacturing of concrete are given below :
i. Batching. ii. Mixing.
iii. Transporting. iv. Placing.
v. Compacting. vi. Curing.
vii. Finishing.
Batching : It is the process of measuring specified quantities of cement,
aggregate, water and admixture as per the mix proportions for a
specified grade of concrete.
Mixing : It is done by :
i. Hand, and ii. Machines.
Transpoting : Following are the methods used for transportation of
concrete.
i. Dumper and trucks. ii. Cranes and cable ways.
iii. Conveyors system. iv. Concrete bucket.
Workability : It is the property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar
which determines the ease and homogeneity with which it can be
mixed, placed, compacted and finished.
Test for workability :
i. Slump test. ii. Compacting factor test.
ii. Flow test. iv. Vee-Bee test.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.1. Explain the various steps in the manufacturing of

concrete.

Answer
The various stages in the manufacture of concrete are as follows :
1. Batching of Concrete : Batching is the process of measuring concrete
mix ingredients by either mass or volume and introducing them into the
mixer . To produce concrete of uniform quality, the ingredients must be
measured accurately for each batch.
Concrete Technology 4–3 D (CE-Sem-5)

The two methods of batching are as follows :

i. Volume Batching :
a. Volume batching is not a good method because of the inaccuracies it
introduces in the measurement of granular materials.
b. Loose sand in a moist condition occupies more volume than dry compacted
sand due to the phenomenon of bulking. Hence, the effect of bulking
must be considered while measuring sand.
c. Despite drawbacks, for less important non-engineered small works,
this method is adopted because of its ease in application. However, it is
unscientific and hence not recommended for important works.
ii. Weigh Batching :
a. Weigh batching is the correct method of measuring the materials that
are used to make concrete.
b. Use of weigh batching system facilitates accuracy, flexibility, and
simplicity.
c. For large works, a weigh batching plant is used.
2. Mixing : The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous,
uniform in colour and consistency.
Methods of Mixing :
i. Hand mixing.
ii. Machine mixing.
3. Transporting : It is the process of transferring of concrete from the
mixing plant to the construction site. It can be done by following
equipments :
i. Mortar Pan : Concrete is carried in small quantities.
ii. Wheelbarrows and Buggies : Short flat hauls on all types of onsite
concrete construction.
iii. Cranes and Buckets : Used for work above ground level , buckets use
with cranes, cableways, and helicopters.
4. Compaction of Concrete :
i. Compaction of concrete is process adopted for expelling the entrapped
air from the concrete.
ii. In the process of mixing, transporting and placing of concrete air is
likely to get entrapped in the concrete.
iii. It has been found from the experimental studies that 1 % air in the
concrete approximately reduces the strength by 6 %.
5. Curing :
i. It is the process in which the concrete is protected from loss of moisture
and kept within a reasonable temperature range.
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–4 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. The result of this process is increased strength and decreased

permeability.
iii. Curing is also a key player in mitigating cracks in the concrete, which
severely impacts durability.
6. Finishing :
i. The finish can be strictly functional or decorative.
ii. Finishing makes concrete attractive and serviceable.
iii. The final texture, hardness, and joint pattern on slabs, floors, sidewalks,
patios, and driveways depend on the concrete’s end use.

Que 4.2. Explain the mixing and transporting operations of

concrete in a work site.

Answer
A. Methods of Mixing : Concrete is mixed either by hand mixing or by
machine mixing, based on the quantity of concrete required.
1. Hand Mixing :
i. Mixing by hand is employed only for specific cases where quality is not of
much importance, either because of the unimportant nature of the
work or because the quantity of concrete required is less.
ii. Hand mixing generally does not produce uniform concrete and hence
should not be normally used, unless it is for very small domestic works.
2. Mechanical Mixing :
i. Mechanical mixers can be divided into two main types : batch mixer and
continuous mixers.
ii. Batch mixers produce concrete batch by batch, one batch at a time. The
operation is intermittent. The raw material is loaded at one end and the
concrete is discharged at the other end. This constitutes a cycle of
operation which is repeated until enough quantity of concrete is
produced.
iii. Continuous mixers produce concrete at a specified rate. The raw materials
are continuously entered at one end and mixed concrete exits from the
delivery end.
B. Transportation of Concrete : The following methods are used for
transporting concrete :
1. Direct Discharge into Forms by Short Chutes :
i. Short chutes in a semi-circular shape stiffened at intervals are simple
and economical to use.
ii. Free fall of concrete from a height of more than 2 m must be avoided.
2. Barrows :
i. Manual wheelbarrows of approximately 80 kg capacity can be used for
long horizontal distances.
Concrete Technology 4–5 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. For major works, power barrows of 800 kg capacity, up to 300 m hauls
are used.
3. Dumpers and Trucks :
i. These are used for horizontal long hauls.
ii. Because of jolting, especially if the terrain is rough, the concrete during
transit has the risk of segregation.
4. Elevating Towers and Hoist : In multi-storied buildings, elevating
towers are used for lifting concrete buckets. The lifted concrete is then
distributed by either chutes or barrows. This type of transportation can
be used where high lifts are required.
5. Monorail System :
i. In tunnels and in dam sites, a single track is laid to carry a monorail
power wagon which moves at a speed of 80 m/min.
ii. This type of transportation can be used for covering long distances.
6. Cranes and Cableways :
i. When concreting is to be done in a large project covering mountains and
valleys, cranes and cableways are used to provide three-dimensional
transport enabling both horizontal and vertical movement.
ii. Depending on the site condition, the type of crane can be chosen. It may
be a derrick, crawler, or wheel mounted.
7. Belt Conveyor :
i. It can be used when hauling concrete over long distances.
ii. It is not very much recommended because of its vulnerability to
segregation.
iii. The initial setting-up cost is also high. Discharge can be as high as
115 m3/h.
8. Concrete Bucket and Skip : The capacity of the skip varies from
about 0.2 m3 to 10 m3.

Que 4.3. What are the precautions to be taken while transporting

concrete ? What are the advantages and disadvantages of concrete
pump ?

Answer
A. Precautions in Transporting of Concrete : Following precautions
should be used during transporting of concrete :
1. While water is added to cement, the procedure of hydration starts and
with the passage of time, so concrete should be transported as fast as
possible to the formwork within the initial setting time of cement.
2. The procedure of mixing, transporting, placing and compacting concrete
should not take more than 90 minutes in any case.
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–6 D (CE-Sem-5)

3. No water shall be lost from the mix during transportation.

4. The concrete combine should be protected from drying in hot weather
and from rain during transport from the place of mixing to the position
of placing.
5. Segregation of concrete should be avoided under all circumstances.
6. The concrete shall be kept agitated in truck mixer in order to avoid it
from becoming stiff if more time is likely to be spent during transportation.
B. Advantages of Concrete Pump :
1. Concrete pumping is a faster and easier method to complete a project.
2. Concrete pumping reduces labour costs.
3. It reduces site congestion as there are less construction workers.
4. It provides a steady work pace, increasing productivity.
5. It is effective and economical for various sized projects, including
residential and commercial.
6. Several pumps can pour simultaneously for larger projects.
C. Disadvantages of Concrete Pump :
1. Possibility of a concrete pump breaking down.
2. Risk of injury to construction workers and damage to property.
3. During busy periods it is not always easy to find a concrete pump that is
available.

Que 4.4. Define workability. What are the factors affecting the
workability of concrete ?

Answer
A. Workability of Concrete :
i. A concrete is said to be workable if it is easily transported, placed,
compacted and finished without any segregation.
ii. Workability is a property of freshly mixed concrete, and a concrete is a
mixture of cement, aggregate, water and admixture.
B. Factors Affecting of Workability of Concrete : Following are the
factors affecting of workability of concrete :
1. Water Content : Workability of concrete increases with increase in
water content.
2. Aggregate/Cement Ratio : The higher the aggregate/cement ratio,
the leaner is the concrete, resulting in lesser workability.
3. Size of Aggregate : For a given quantity of water and paste, bigger size
of aggregates will give higher workability.
4. Shape of Aggregate : Better workability is ensured to rounded
aggregate than angular, elongated or flaky aggregate.
Concrete Technology 4–7 D (CE-Sem-5)

5. Grading of Aggregate : This is one of the factors which will have

maximum influence on workability. A well graded aggregate can lead to
good workability.
6. Surface Texture of Aggregate : Rough textured aggregate will show
poor workability and smooth or glassy textured aggregate will give better
workability.
7. Use of Admixture : The right way of improving workability is to use
chemical admixtures such as plasticizers, super plasticizers, air entraining
agents, etc.
Que 4.5. Mention the different tests which are commonly adapted
to measure workability and explain any one test in detail.

Answer
A. Test for Measure Workability : Following are the test used for
measure workability :
i. Slump test.
ii. Compacting factor test.
iii. Vee-Bee test.
B. Concrete Slump Test Procedure :
1. Firstly, the internal surface of the mould is cleaned carefully. Oil can be
applied on the surface.
2. The mould is then placed on a base plate.
3. The mould is filled with fresh concrete in three layers. Each layer is
tamped 25 times with a steel rod.
4. After filling the mould, excess concrete should be removed and the
surface should be leveled.
5. Then the mould is lifted gently in the vertical direction and then
unsupported concrete will slump. The decrease in height at the centre
point is measured to nearest 5 mm or 0.25 inch and it is known as
‘slump’.

Que 4.6. How do you conduct compacting factor test in

laboratory.
Answer
Compaction Factor Test :
1. The compaction factor test gives the behavior of fresh concrete under
the action of external force.
2. In this test, the compaction achieved through a free fall of concrete
determines its workability.
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–8 D (CE-Sem-5)

Compaction Factor Test Procedure :

1. The concrete sample is placed in the upper hopper.
2. Then the door of hopper is opened. The sample drops into lower hopper
filling it to overflowing.
3. The trap door of the lower hopper is then opened and the sample falls
into the cylinder which is also filled to overflowing.
4. The surplus concrete is removed from the top of the cylinder with the
help of a trowel.
5. The outside surface of cylinder is wiped and cleaned.
6. The cylinder is then weighed and it is recorded as weight of partially
compacted concrete.
7. The cylinder is again filled with concrete in layers not exceeding 50 mm
in thickness. Each layer is fully compacted with tamping rod.
8. The cylinder is again weighed after wiping and cleaning the outside
surface of cylinder. This weight is recorded as the weight of fully
compacted concrete.
9. The compacting factor is then calculated from the formula :
Compacting factor = Weight of partially compacted concrete/Weight of
fully compacted concrete.

Que 4.7. Explain the Vee-Bee test of determining workability with

neat sketch.

Answer
1. The test is suitable for stiff concrete mixes having low or very low
workability.
2. Compared to the slump and compacting factor tests, the Vee-Bee test
has the advantage that the concrete in the test receives a treatment
similar to what it would in actual practice.
3. The test consists of moulding a fresh concrete cone in a cylindrical
container mounted on a vibrating table (Fig. 4.7.1).
4. When the concrete cone is subjected to vibration using a standard
vibrator, it starts to occupy the cylindrical container by way of getting
remoulded.
5. The remoulding is considered complete when the concrete surface
becomes horizontal.
6. The time (in seconds) required for the complete remoulding is considered
as a measure of workability and is expressed as the number of Vee-Bee
seconds.
7. The end point of the test, when the concrete surface becomes horizontal,
has to be ascertained visually.
Concrete Technology 4–9 D (CE-Sem-5)

Glass plate
rider

Fig. 4.7.1. Vee-Bee apparatus.

Que 4.8. What is the effect of time and temperature on

workability ?

Answer
A. Effect of Time on Workability :
1. Freshly mixed concrete stiffens with the passage of time. This is different
from the hardening of the mix.
2. As time passes, water is lost due to absorption by aggregates if they are
not already saturated. Some water is lost due to evaporation, especially
if the concrete is exposed to hot weather and wind then workability
decrease.
B. Effect of Temperature on Workability :
1. When temperature increases, then in the same proportion workability
of fresh concrete decreases.
2. The reason that stands behind is “when temperature increases then
evaporation rate also increases due to that hydration rate decreases and
hence, concrete will gain strength earlier”.
3. Due to fast hydration of concrete, a hardening comes in concrete and
that decreases the workability of fresh concrete.

PART-2
Segregation and Bleeding in Concrete, Curing of Concrete and Its
Method.
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–10 D (CE-Sem-5)

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2

Segregation : It is defined as the separating out of ingredients of
concrete mix so that the mix is no longer in a homogeneous condition.
Bleeding : Bleeding as concrete is said to occur when unreacted water
in the mix tends to rise to the surface of freshly placed concrete due to
sedimentation of constituents of concrete.
Curing : The process by which the loss of water from concrete is
prevented is known as curing.
Method of Curing : Following are the various method of curing of
concrete :
i. Chemical curing.
ii. Steam curing.
iii. Curing of concrete by infrared radiation.
iv. Electrical curing of concrete.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.9. Write about segregation and its causes. How reduce
segregation of concrete ?

Answer
A. Segregation : It is defined as the separation of the constituents of a
homogeneous mixture of concrete. It is caused by the differences in
sizes and weights of the constituent particles.
B. Causes of Segregation in Concrete :
1. Transporting concrete mixes for long distances.
2. Poorly proportioned mix, where sufficient matrix is not there to bind the
aggregates.
3. Dropping concrete from more than 1m.
4. Vibrating concrete for a long time.
C. Remedial Measures :
i. To reduce segregation, well graded aggregates are used and concrete is
placed with enough compaction.
ii. The concrete should not be dropped from a height of more than 1.5 m.

Que 4.10. Discuss the factors affecting bleeding of concrete.

Concrete Technology 4–11 D (CE-Sem-5)

Answer
Factors Affecting Bleeding of Concrete : Following are the factors
that affecting the bleeding of concrete :
1. Water Content and Water Cement Ratio :
i. Any increase in the amount of water or water-to-cementitious material
ratio results in more available water for bleeding.
ii. A one-fifth increase in water content of a normal concrete mixture can
increase bleeding rate more than two and a half times.
2. Cement :
i. The type, content and fineness of cement can effect bleeding. As the
fineness of the cement increases, the amount of bleeding decreases.
ii. Increases in cement content, reduces the water-cement ratio, and also
reduces bleeding.
3. Supplementary Cementing Materials :
i. Fly ash, slag, silica fume, rice husk ash and natural pozzolanas can
reduce bleeding by their inherent properties and by increasing the amount
of cementitious materials in a mixture.
4. Aggregate :
i. Aggregate that contain a high amount of silt, clay or other material
passing the75 µm sieve can have a significant effect in reducing bleeding.
5. Chemical Admixture :
i. Air-entraining agents have been used largely because the air bubbles
appear to keep the solid particles in suspension.
ii. Water reducers also reduce the amount of bleeding because they release
trapped water in mixture.

Que 4.11. How would you reduce bleeding from concrete ?

Answer
Controlling Measures of Bleeding : Following are the controlling
measures of bleeding from concrete :
1. Proper proportioning of concrete.
2. A complete and uniform mixing of concrete.
3. If we can increase the traveling length of water to be bleeded, the
bleeding can be reduced considerably. For this purpose we can use
finely divided pozzolanic materials
4. An introduction of air-entrainment by using air entraining agent can
reduce bleeding.
5. The use of finer cement.
6. By using of a rich mix rather than lean mix.
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–12 D (CE-Sem-5)

7. Controlled vibration can reduce bleeding.

Que 4.12. What are the effects of bleeding on concrete properties ?

Answer
Following are the effects of bleeding on concrete properties :
1. Due to bleeding concrete losses its homogeneity.
2. Bleeding is responsible for causing permeability in concrete.
3. This accumulation of water creates a water voids and reduces bond
between the aggregate and cement past. So the strength of concrete
reduces.
4. Water that accumulates below the reinforcing bars, particularly below
the cranked bars, reduces the bond between the reinforcement and
concrete.
5. The bleeding water flows at over the unsupported side of pavement
which causes collapsing of sides.
6. In pavement construction bleeding water delays surface finishing and
application of curing compound.
7. Bleeding causes of ‘Laitance in concrete’. Due to the formation of
Laitance, structures may lose its wearing capacity and decreases its life.
8. Water while moving from bottom to the top, forms continuous channels.
Due to this channel, concrete becomes permeable and allow water to
move, which forms water voids in the matrix and reduces the bond
between aggregate and the cement paste.

Que 4.13. Describe the curing and importance of curing. Explain

the different methods of curing.

Answer
A. Curing : It is a procedure that is adopted to promote the hardening of
concrete under conditions of humidity and temperature which are
conducive to the progressive and proper setting of the constituent
cement.
B. Importance of Curing : Following are the importance of curing of
concrete :
1. To maintain moisture content in the mix for complete hydration of
concrete.
2. To maintain uniform temperature of the concrete.
3. To preserve the properties of concrete, such as impermeability, durability
and strength.
4. To reduce the shrinkage of the concrete.
C. Methods of Curing of Concrete : Following are the methods of curing :
Concrete Technology 4–13 D (CE-Sem-5)

1. Ponding of Water over the Concrete Surface after it has Set :

This is the most common method of curing the concrete slab or pavements
and consists of storing the water to a depth of 50 mm on the surface by
constructing small puddle clay bunds all around.
2. Covering the Concrete with Wet Straw or Damp Earth : In this
method the damp earth or sand in layers of 50 mm height are spread
over the surface of concrete pavements. The material is kept moist by
periodical sprinkling of water.
3. Covering the Concrete with Wet Burlap : The concrete is covered
with burlap (coarse jute or hemp) as soon as possible after placing, and
the material is kept continuously moist for the curing period.
4. Sprinkling of Water :
i. This is a useful method for curing vertical or inclined surfaces of concrete.
ii. The spraying can be done in fine streams through nozzles fixed to a pipe
spaced at set intervals.
iii. Flogging is done in the same way except that the flogging nozzles produce
a mist-like effect, whereas spraying nozzles shed out fine spray.
5. Covering the Surface with Waterproof Paper :
i. Waterproof paper prevents loss of water in concrete and protects the
surface from damage.
ii. A good quality paper can be often reused. The paper is usually made of
two sheets struck together by rubber latex composition.
6. Leaving the Shuttering or Formwork : The thick watertight
formwork also prevents the loss of moisture in concrete and helps in
curing the sides and the base of the concrete.
7. Membrane Curing of the Concrete :
i. The process of applying a membrane forming compound on concrete
surface is termed membrane curing.
ii. Often, the term membrane is used not only to refer to liquid membranes
but also to a solid sheeting used to cover the concrete surface.
iii. The curing membrane serves as a physical barrier to prevent loss of
moisture from the concrete to be cured.
iv. A curing liquid membrane should dry within 3 to 4 hours to form a
continuous coherent adhesive film free from pinholes and have no
deleterious effect on concrete.
8. Chemical Curing :
i. Chemical curing is accomplished by spraying the sodium silicate (water
glass) solution on concrete surface.
ii. About 500 g of sodium silicate mixed with water can cover 1 m2 of
surface and from a hard and insoluble calcium silicate film.
iii. It actually acts as a case hardener and curing agent.
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–14 D (CE-Sem-5)

Que 4.14. Explain maturity concept of concrete.

Answer
Maturity of Concrete :
1. The strength of concrete depends on both the period of curing (i.e. age)
and temperature during curing, the strength can be visualized as a
function of period and temperature of curing.
2. The maturity of concrete is defined as the summation of product of time
and temperature.
Maturity =  (Time × Temperature)
3. Its units are °C hr or °C days.
4. A sample of concrete cured at 18 °C for 28 days is taken to be fully
matured which is equal to
M28 days = 28 × 24[18 – (–11)] = 19488 °C hr.
5. The temperature is reckoned from – 11 °C as origin in the computation
of maturity, since hydration continues to take place up to about this
temperature.

Que 4.15. The strength of a sample of fully matured concrete is

found to be 40MPa. Find the strength of identical concrete at the age
of 7 days when cured at an average temperature during day time at
20 °C and night time at 10 °C. Take A = 32, B = 54. Use % of strength of

concrete at maturity = A + B log10  Maturity  .

 1000 

Answer

Given : Strength of matured concrete = 40 MPa, A = 32 and B = 45

To Find : Strength of concrete the age of 7 days.
1. Maturity of concrete at the age of 7 days
=  (Time × Temperature)
= 7 × 12 × [20 – (– 11)] + 7 × 12 × [10 – (– 11)]
= 7 × 12 × 31 + 7 × 12 × 21
= 4368 °C-h.
2. The percentage strength of concrete at maturity of 4368 °C-h.
(Maturity)  4368 
= A + B log10 = 32 + 54 × log10   = 66.5%
1000  1000 
66.5
3. The strength at 7 days = 40.0 × = 26.5 MPa.
100
Concrete Technology 4–15 D (CE-Sem-5)

Que 4.16. Differentiate between accelerated curing and normal

curing.

Answer

S. No. Accelerated Curing Normal Curing

1. In accelerated curing In normal curing compressive
compressive strength of a strength of a concrete mix is
concrete mix is determined determined by curing concrete
by curing concrete cubes for cubes for 28 days.
about 28 hrs.
2. In accelerated curing In normal curing temperature of
temperature of curing water curing water is normal.
is raised.
3. Carbonation depth under Carbonation depth under normal
accelerated curing is higher. curing is lower.

PART-3
Determination of Compressive and Flexural Strength as Per BIS.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-3

Test for Determining Compressive and Flexural Strength :
1. Cube test of concrete.
2. Spilt tensile test.
3. Flexure test.
4. Rebound hammer test.
5. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.17. Explain the various types of tests for compressive

strength and tensile strength of concrete.

Answer
Following are the various test used for determining compressive and
tensile strength :
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–16 D (CE-Sem-5)

1. Concrete Cube Test :

i. Concrete characteristic is determined by characteristics compressive
cube strength test of concrete.
ii. For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15 cm × 15 cm × 15 cm
or 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm depending upon the size of aggregate are used.
iii. For most of the works cubical moulds of size 15 cm × 15 cm × 15 cm are
commonly used.
iv. These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after
7 days curing or 28 days curing.
v. Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till
the specimens fails.
2. Tensile Strength Test :
i. The concrete structures are highly vulnerable to tensile cracking and
hence the determination of tensile strength of concrete is very
important.
ii. The tensile strength of concrete structures is determined by :
a. Split cylinder test.
b. Flexure test.
3. Core Strength Test :
i. Cylindrical cores are cut from the finished structure with a rotary cutting
tool.
ii. The core is soaked, capped and tested in compression to give a measure
of the concrete strength in the actual structure.
iii. The ratio of core height to diameter and the location where the core is
taken affect the strength.
iv. The strength is lowest at the top surface and increases with depth
through the element.
v. A ratio of core height-to-diameter of 2 gives a standard cylinder test.
Que 4.18. Describe the flexure test and split tensile test of concrete.

Answer
A. Flexure Test :
1. The guidelines for performing the flexure test is as per BIS 1881: Part
118 : 1983.
2. Here a concrete beam specimen of dimension 15 × 15 × 75 cm is loaded.
3. The span of the beam specimen must be three times the depth.
4. As shown in the Fig. 4.18.1 equal load application is done at one third
distance from the end supports. The reactions are equal at the support.
Concrete Technology 4–17 D (CE-Sem-5)

P/2 P/2

d d d
P/2 P/2
L = 3d
L = 4d to 5d

Fig. 4.18.1. Experimental arrangement for flexural strength test.

5. The bottom beam fibre experiences increase in stress with the increase
in load application.
6. The increase of stress is at a rate of 0.02 MPa and 0.10 MPa.
7. For low strength concrete we make use of low rate and for high strength
we use high rate.
8. The theoretical maximum tensile stress at the bottom face at failure is
calculated. This is termed the modulus of rupture. It is about 1.5 times
the tensile stress determined by the splitting test.
9. Modulus of rupture is given by,
PL
fbt =
bd 2
B. Split Cylinder Test :
1. Here, the tensile strength is determined indirectly. The test is performed
based on BIS: 5816-1970.
Initial contact line P
Wood strip

Sample Concrete sample

diameter
d

Wood strip

P Strip width
Fig. 4.18.2. Arrangement for split tensile strength.
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–18 D (CE-Sem-5)

2. The test specimen employed is 30 cm × 15 cm which is placed over a

compression testing machine.
3. The load is applied over the specimen diametrically and uniformly through
the cylinder length till the cylinder undergoes failure.
4. The failure of the cylinder will be along the diameter in vertical direction.
5. Between the specimen and the loading plates, plywood strips are placed
to avoid direct stress due to direct point of application.
6. The tensile stress formed with the progress of load will split the cylinder
into two halves. The splitting takes place along the vertical plane. This is
caused due to the indirect tensile stress.
7. Split tensile strength is given by,
2P
ft =
DL
where, ft = Tensile strength.
P = Compressive load.
D = Diameter of cylinder.
L = Length of cylinder.

Que 4.19. Explain the various steps involved in evaluation of

compressive strength of concrete from preparation to testing of
sample.

Answer
Following are the step for cube testing :
1. Cube Casting :
i. Measure the dry proportion of ingredients (cement, sand and coarse
aggregate) as per the design requirements. The ingredients should be
sufficient enough to cast test cubes.
ii. Thoroughly mix the dry ingredients to obtain the uniform mixture.
iii. Add design quantity of water to the dry proportion (water-cement ratio)
and mix well to obtain uniform texture.
iv. Fill the concrete to the mould with the help of vibrator for thorough
compaction.
v. Finish the top of the concrete by trowel and tapped well till the cement
slurry comes to the top of the cubes.
2. Curing :
i. After some time the mould should be covered with red gunny bag and
put undisturbed for 24 hours at a temperature of (21 ± 2) °C.
ii. After 24 hours remove the specimen from the mould.
iii. Keep the specimen submerged under fresh water at 27 °C. The specimen
should be kept for 7 or 28 days. Every 7 days the water should be
renewed.
Concrete Technology 4–19 D (CE-Sem-5)

iv. The specimen should be removed from the water 30 minutes prior to
the testing.
v. The specimen should be in dry condition before conducting the testing.
vi. The cube weight should not be less than 8.1 kg.
3. Testing :
i. Now place the concrete cubes into the testing machine (centrally).
ii. The cubes should be placed correctly on the machine plate (check the
circle marks on the machine). Carefully align the specimen with the
spherically seated plate.
iii. The load will be applied to the specimen axially.
iv. Now slowly apply the load at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the
cube collapse.
v. The maximum load at which the specimen breaks is taken as a
compressive load.
4. Calculation : Compressive Strength of concrete = Maximum
compressive load / Cross sectional area.

Que 4.20. Describe the non destructive testing of hardened

concrete.

Answer
Non-Destructive Tests on Concrete : The main non-destructive
tests for strength on hardened concrete are as follows :
1. Rebound Hammer (Hardness) Test :
i. The Schmidt hammer is used in the rebound hardness test in which a
metal hammer held against the concrete is struck by another spring-
driven metal mass and rebounds.
ii. The amount of rebound is recorded on a scale and this gives an indication
of the concrete strength.
iii. The larger the rebound number is, the higher is the concrete strength.
2. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test :
i. In the ultrasonic pulse velocity test the velocity of ultrasonic pulses that
pass through a concrete section from a transmitter to a receiver is
measured.
ii. The pulse velocity is correlated against strength.
iii. The higher the velocity is, the stronger is the concrete.
3. Pull Out Test :
i. The pull out test will determine the force that is required to pull out a
steel rod specially shaped from hardened concrete to which the steel
was cast.
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–20 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. Pulling out of steel is done with a cone of concrete that have a slope of
45°.
iii. The force required to pull the concrete out is related with the compressive
strength of the concrete.
4. Penetration Resistance Test :
i. Penetration resistance tests on concrete offers a means of determining
relative strengths of concrete in the same structure or relative strength
of different structures.
ii. Because of nature of equipments, it cannot be expected to yield absolute
values of strength.

Que 4.21. What are the requirements of non destructive testing of

concrete ? Also give their advantages and disadvantages.

Answer
A. Requirement of Non Destructive Test : Following are the requirement
of NDT :
1. Assessment of existing structures in the absence of drawings.
2. Quick assessment of the structure.
3. Quality control of construction, in situ.
4. Determining position of reinforcement.
5. Location of cracks/joints/honeycombing.
6. In some cases, it required to assess of concrete damaged due to fire or
any other natural calamity due judge the condition of structure.
B. Advantages : Following are the advantages of non destructive testing :
1. Access to hidden items - “see through walls”.
2. Better investigations with NDT.
3. Rapid and on site accumulation of data.
4. Generally less expensive than destructive testing.
5. Gives result without structural damage.
C. Disadvantages : Following are the disadvantages of non destructive
testing :
1. More than one test method may be required.
2. Environmental conditions may affect or distort results.
3. Construction details and building components may affect results.
4. Some conditions cannot be determined with a reasonable degree of
accuracy without destructive testing.

Que 4.22. What is modulus of elasticity of concrete ? With the help

of stress-strain curve, describe the various types of modulus of
elasticity ?
Concrete Technology 4–21 D (CE-Sem-5)

Answer
A. Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete : It is defined as the slope of the
line drawn from a stress of zero to a compressive stress of 0.45 fc.
B. Types of Modulus of Elasticity :
1. Initial Tangent Modulus : It is given by the slope of a line drawn
tangent to the stress-strain curve at the origin. It is used to characterize
concrete deflection at very low stresses.
Initial tangent
Tangent
f0
IT

ff
Stress

Secant

0 u
Strain
Fig. 4.22.1. Stress-strain plot.

2. Tangent Modulus : It is given by the slope of a line drawn tangent to

the stress-strain curve at any point on the curve. It is used to simulate
the structure to loading or unloading at different unloading stages.
3. Secant Modulus : It is given by the slope of a line drawn from the
origin to a point on the curve corresponding to a 40 % stress of the
failure stress. It is used to simulate the structure during its initial loading
stage when permanent load prevail.

PART-4
Mechanical Properties of Concrete : Elastic Modulus, Poisson ’s
Ratio, Creep, Shrinkage and Durability of Concrete.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-4

Mechanical Properties of Concrete : Following are the mechanical
properties of concrete :
1. Modulus of elasticity.
2. Creep.
3. Shrinkage.
4. Poisson’s ratio.
5. Durability.
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–22 D (CE-Sem-5)

Modulus of Elasticity : It is the ratio of the applied stress to the

corresponding strain with in elastic limit.
E = 5000 f ck
Types of Modulus of Elasticity :
1. Initial tangent modulus of elasticity.
2. Tangent modulus of elasticity.
3. Secant modulus of elasticity.
Creep : It can be defined as the elastic and long term deformation of
concrete under a continuous load.
Shrinkage of Concrete : The volumetric change of concrete structure
due to loss of moisture by evaporation is known as shrinkage of
concrete. It is a time dependent deformation which reduces the volume
of concrete without the impact of external forces.
Types of Shrinkage :
1. Drying shrinkage.
2. Plastic shrinkage.
3. Carbonation shrinkage.
4. Autogenous shrinkage.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.23. What are the affecting factors of modulus of elasticity of

concrete ?

Answer
Following are the factor affecting the modulus of elasticity of concrete :
1. Coarse Aggregate Properties : Coarse aggregate properties like elastic
modulus of aggregate, type of aggregate (crushed or natural), petrology
and mineralogy, and quantity of aggregate. The higher the volume of
aggregate in the mix, the higher the elastic modulus.
2. Mix Design : Mix design includes total cementitious content and w/c
ratio. Less paste is good for higher elastic modulus.
3. Curing Conditions : Moist cured specimen showed better results
than that of dry cured, due to shrinkage and associated cracks.
4. Loading Rate : High loading rate will result in higher compressive
strength and higher elastic modulus.
5. Chemical Admixture : It does not have much influence on elastic
modulus. But some type of admixture can produce higher cement
Concrete Technology 4–23 D (CE-Sem-5)

dispersion and thus will result in higher compressive strength and elastic
modulus.
6. Mineral Admixture : Mineral admixture as they affect the strength of
concrete, they affect the elastic modulus too.
Que 4.24. Discuss the relationship between modulus of elasticity
and strength concrete.

Answer
Relation between Modulus of Elasticity and Strength of
Concrete :
1. Modulus of elasticity of concrete is a key factor for estimating the
deformation of structural elements, as well as a fundamental factor for
determining modular ratio, n, which is used for the design of structural
members subjected to flexure.
2. The modulus of elasticity of concrete is directly proportional to the square
root of characteristic compressive strength in the range of normal
concrete strength,
3. The IS 456 : 2000 gives the modulus of elasticity of concrete as :

Ec = 5000 f ck
where, E = Modulus of elasticity.
fck = Characteristic strength of concrete.

Que 4.25. Explain the procedure for determining the dynamic

modulus of elasticity using ultrasonic pulse velocity equipment.

Answer
Test for Determining Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity :
1. In this method pulses of compression waves are generated by an electro-
acoustical transducer that is held in contact with one surface of the
prismatic or cylindrical concrete specimen.
2. After traversing through the concrete, the pulses are received and
converted into electrical energy by a second transducer located at a
distance L from the transmitting transducer.
3. The pulse velocity V = L/T is related to the physical properties of a solid
by the eq. (4.25.1)
Ed V 2
V 2 = (K ) or Ed = ...(4.25.1)
 K
where, L = Distance between transducers, m
T = Transit time, seconds
Ed = Dynamic modulus of elasticity, Pa (N/m2)
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–24 D (CE-Sem-5)

V = Pulse velocity, m/sec

 = Mass density, kg/m3
K = 1 (for a cylindrical specimen).
Transmitting Receiving
Transducer Transducer

Time
Display
unit

Time
Pulse Receiver
Measuring
Generator Amplifier
Circuit

Fig. 4.25.1. Schematic of pulse velocity circuit

Que 4.26. What is creep ? What are the factors influencing creep of
concrete ?

Answer
Creep :
1. When concrete is subjected to compressive loading it deforms
instantaneously. This immediate deformation is called instantaneous
strain. Now, if the load is maintained for a considerable period of time,
concrete undergoes additional deformations even without any increase
in the load. This time-dependent strain is termed as creep.
Factor Affecting Creep : Following are the factors affecting creep of
concrete :
1. Concrete Mix Proportion :
i. Creep increases with increase in water/cement ratio.
ii. A poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep.
iii. The amount of paste content and its quality is one of the most important
factors influencing creep.
iv. Creep is inversely proportional to the strength of concrete.
2. Aggregate Properties :
i. Light weight aggregate shows substantially higher creep than normal
weight aggregate.
Concrete Technology 4–25 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. The higher the modulus of elasticity the less is the creep.
iii. Aggregates influence creep of concrete through a restraining effect on
the magnitude of creep.
3. Age at Loading :
i. Age at which a concrete member is loaded will have a predominant
effect on the magnitude of creep.
ii. The moisture content of the concrete being different at different age
also influences the magnitude of creep.
4. Curing Condition : Larger the curing smaller the creep.
5. Cement Properties :
i. The type of cement effects creep in so far as it influences the strength of
the concrete at the time of application of load.
ii. Fineness of cement affects the strength development at early ages and
thus influences creep.
iii. The finer the cement the higher its gypsum requirement so that re
grinding of cement in laboratory without the addition of gypsum produces
an improperly retarded cement, which exhibits high creep.
6 Temperature :
i. The rate of creep increases with temperature up to about 70 °C when,
for a 1:7 mix and 0.6 w/c ratio. It is approximately 3.5 times higher than
at 21 °C.
ii. Between 70 °C and 96 °C it drops off to 1.7 times than at 21 °C.
iii. As far as low temperature is concerned, freezing produces a higher
initial rate of creep but it quickly drops to zero.
iv. At temperature between 10 °C and 30 °C, creep is about one half of
creep at 21 °C.
7. Stress Level :
i. Higher the stress higher will be the creep.
ii. There is no lower limit of proportionality because concrete undergoes
creep even at very low stress.

Que 4.27. What is the effect of creep on concrete structures ?

Answer
Effects of Creep on Concrete Structures :
1. In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with time
and may be a critical consideration in design.
2. In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can
lead to buckling.
3. Loss of prestress due to creep of concrete in prestressed concrete structure.
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–26 D (CE-Sem-5)

4. Creep property of concrete will be useful in all concrete structures to

reduce the internal stresses due to non-uniform load or restrained
shrinkage.
5. In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential
temperature conditions at the interior and surface, creep is harmful and
by itself may be a cause of cracking in the interior of dams.

Que 4.28. Explain how creep is measured ?

Answer
Calculating Creep of Concrete :
1. The creep strain-stress relation in concrete is commonly taken to be
c= 
where  is called the specific creep.
2. The concept of specific creep is useful for comparing the creep of different
concrete specimens at different stress levels. A typical value of  is
approximately 150 µ /MPa, µ = 10 – 6.
3. Later the American Concrete Institute (ACI) has developed a simplified
creep equation of the form :
0.6
c t
= Cult
e B  t 0.6
where, t = Time.
B = Constant that depends on the age of the concrete before
loading.
Cult = Ultimate creep coefficient, Cult = 2.35.

Que 4.29. What is shrinkage of concrete ? Explain about

classification of shrinkage.

Answer
A. Shrinkage :
1. Shrinkage of concrete is the time-dependent strain measured in an
unloaded and unrestrained specimen at constant temperature.
2. Shrinkage is shortening of concrete due to drying and is independent of
applied loads.
B. Types of Shrinkage : Following are the various types of shrinkage :
1. Plastic Shrinkage :
i. Plastic shrinkage occurs very soon after pouring the concrete in the
forms.
Concrete Technology 4–27 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. The hydration of cement results in a reduction in the volume of concrete

due to evaporation from the surface of concrete, which leads to cracking.
2. Drying Shrinkage :
i. The shrinkage that appears after the setting and hardening of the
concrete mixture due to loss of capillary water is known as drying
shrinkage.
ii. Drying shrinkage generally occurs in the first few months and decreases
with time.
3. Carbonation Shrinkage :
i. Carbonation shrinkage occurs due to the reaction of carbon dioxide
(CO2) with the hydrated cement minerals, carbonating Ca(OH)2 to
CaCO3 .
ii. The carbonation slowly penetrates the outer surface of the concrete.
iii. This type of shrinkage mainly occurs at medium humidity and results
increased strength and reduced permeability.
4. Autogenous Shrinkage :
i. Autogenous shrinkage occurs due to no moisture movement from
concrete paste under constant temperature.
ii. It is a minor problem of concrete and can be ignored.

Que 4.30. What are the different factors affecting of shrinkage.

Answer
Affecting Factors of Shrinkage :
1. Drying Conditions :
i. The most important factor is the drying condition or the humidity in the
atmosphere.
ii. No shrinkage will occur if the concrete is placed in one hundred percent
relative humidity.
2. Time :
i. The shrinkage rate will decrease rapidly with time.
ii. It has been documented that 14 to 34 % of the 20 year shrinkage will
occur within two weeks of it being poured.
iii. Within one year of the concrete being poured, shrinkage will be about
66 to 85 % of the 20 year shrinkage.
3. Water Cement Ratio :
i. The water to cement ratio will influence the amount of shrinkage that
occurs.
ii. The concrete’s richness also affects the shrinkage.
iii. The process of swelling and then drying affects the concrete's integrity
and the shrinkage.
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–28 D (CE-Sem-5)

Que 4.31. What are the effect of shrinkage on concrete and how is
it reduces ?

Answer
Effects of Shrinkage : Following are the effects of shrinkage on concrete :
1. Shrinkage of concrete between movement joints causes joints to open
or makes it wider. Therefore joints must be designed to accommodate
the widening caused by shrinkage.
2. Where other materials, such as ceramic tiles, are fixed on top of concrete
surface, shrinkage of the concrete causes relative movement between
the different materials. The resulting stresses can cause failure at the
interface.
3. If shrinkage is restrained, the concrete is put into tension and when
tensile stress becomes equal to tensile strength, the concrete cracks.
4. Shrinkage of the concrete causes the concrete to grip reinforcing bars
more tightly. This increases friction between concrete and steel and so
improves bond strength, especially for plain bars
5. The deflection of flexural members is increased by shrinkage. This is
because the lightly reinforced compression zone is free to shrink more
than heavily reinforced tension zone.
6. Shrinkage causes a reduction in pre stressing force.
Prevention of Shrinkage : Following are the measures to be taken to
reduced shrinkage :
1. Provide sun shades in case of slab construction to control the surface
temperature.
2. Dampen the subgrade of concrete before placement it is liable to water
absorption but should not over damp.
3. Try to start the curing soon after finishing.
4. Use chemical admixtures to accelerate the setting time of concrete.

Que 4.32. What do you mean by Poisson’s ratio of concrete.

Answer
Poisson’s ratio :
1. It is determined as the ratio of lateral to longitudinal strain in
compression test and may vary from 0.13 to 0.21.
2. The Poisson’s ratio can also be determined from the fundamental
resonant frequency of longitudinal vibration of concrete specimen using
ultrasonic pulse velocity method.
3. The Poisson’s ratio  can be determined from
Concrete Technology 4–29 D (CE-Sem-5)

 v2  (1   )
  = (1  2)(1  )
 2nL 
where, v = Pulse velocity, mm/sec
n = Resonant frequency of longitudinal vibration in Hz
L = Distance between transducers, mm
4. The value of Poisson’s ratio as determined by dynamic tests is slightly
higher and ranges from 0.20 to 0.25.

Que 4.33. Define durability of concrete. Discuss the factor affecting

concrete durability.

Answer
Durability :
1. The durability of concrete is defined as its ability to resist weathering
action, chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process of deterioration.
2. Durable concrete will retain its original form, quality, and serviceability
when exposed to environment.
Factors Affecting Durability : Following are the factors affecting the
durability of concrete :
1. Physical Factors :
i. Temperature :
a. Unfavourable temperature conditions can lead to shrinkage cracks
and volume changes.
b. Variation in temperature changes cause secondary stresses in
structures.
ii. Moisture :
a. Moisture induces corrosion in steel. Moisture also acts as a carrier
of chemicals inside the body of concrete.
b. Moisture can also cause efflorescence on structural surfaces.
c. Seepage / Leakages cause inconvenience to occupants and
deteriorates structures due to permeable concrete.
iii. Freezing and Thawing : Leads to expansion of concrete and cracking.
2. Chemical Factors :
i. When we are dealing with durability, chemical attack which results in
volume change, cracking and consequent deterioration of concrete
become a major cause of concern.
ii. Ice-melting salts cause erosion of concrete.
3. Cement Content and w/c Ratio of Concrete : Volume change result
in cracks and cracks are responsible for disintegration of concrete.
Concrete Production, Properties & Testing 4–30 D (CE-Sem-5)

4. Workmanship : Batching, mixing, transportation, placing, compaction

and curing require proper workmanship for a durable concrete.
5. Cover to Embedded Steel : (As per IS 456:2000)
i. For main reinforcement up to 12 mm dia bar for mild exposures, the
nominal cover may be reduced by 5 mm
ii. Unless specified otherwise, actual concrete cover should not deviate
from the required nominal cover by +10 mm.
6. Mineral Oil : usually effects only fresh concrete in their hardening
process (petrol, petroleum distillates etc)
7. Organic acid has corrosive effect.
8. Vegetable and animal oils and fats cause deterioration of concrete
surfaces due to their corrosive action.
9. Action of sugar has retarding effect on fresh concrete and has gradual
corrosive effect on hardened concrete.
10. Action of Sewage : Concrete sewers running full remain unaffected;
but in partially filled sewers where hydrogen sulphide gas is evolved and
sulphuric acid is formed, concrete above sewage level gets affected due
to corrosive action of such acids.


Concrete Technology 5–1 D (CE-Sem-5)

5 Specific Concretes

Part-1 .............................................................................. (5–2D to 5–8D)

• Study and Uses of High Strength Concrete, Self Compacting Concrete

A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 5–2D

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 5–2D

Part-2 ............................................................................(5–8D to 5–21D)

• Study and Uses of Fiber Reinforced Concrete, Ferro Cement

A. Concept Outline : Part-2 ............................................................. 5–8D

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 5–9D

Part-3 ......................................................................... (5–21D to 5–27D)

• Study and Uses of Ready Mix Concrete, Recycled Aggregate Concrete

and Status in India

A. Concept Outline : Part-3 ........................................................... 5–21D

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................. 5–22D
Specific Concretes 5–2 D (CE-Sem-5)

PART-1
Study and Uses of High Strength Concrete, Self Compacting
Concrete.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1

High Strength Concrete : It has compressive strength of upto
100 MPa as against conventional concrete which has compressive
strength of less than 50 MPa. Concrete having compressive strength
greater than 200 MPa is classified as ultrahigh strength concrete.
Advantages of High Strength Concrete :
i. Superior durability and long term performance.
ii. Reduced maintenance cost.
Self Compacting Concrete : Fresh concrete can be made to flow
without any external effort. Such a flowing concrete which compacts
itself due to its own flowability is known as self compacting concrete.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.1. What do you understand by high strength concrete ?

Write down its advantages and disadvantages.

Answer
A. High Strength Concrete : For mixtures made with normal-weight
aggregates, high-strength concretes are considered to be those which
have compressive strengths in excess of 40 MPa.
B. Advantages of HSC :
1. High compressive strength.
2. Increases rental space.
3. Reduces space occupied by columns.
4. Reduces dead load.
5. Reduces amount of steel.
6. High rise buildings can be build by reduced columns.
7. To use the concrete service at early age, e.g., pavement in 3 days
C. Disadvantages of HSC :
1. Must be expertise in selection of ingredients.
2. Damaged at high temperature i.e., less resistance to fire.
Concrete Technology 5–3 D (CE-Sem-5)

Que 5.2. Discuss the guidelines to selection of materials for HSC.

Answer
1. For the higher target compressive strength of concrete, the maximum
size of concrete selected should be small, so that the concrete can become
more dense and compact and less void ratio.
2. Up to 70 MPa compressive strength can be produced with a good coarse
aggregate of a maximum size ranging from 20 to 28 mm.
3. To produce 100 MPa compressive strength aggregate with a maximum
size of 10 to 20 mm should be used.
4. Concretes with compressive strengths of over 125 MPa have been
produced with 10 to 14 mm maximum size coarse aggregate.
5. Using supplementary cementitious materials, such as blast-furnace slag,
fly ash and natural pozzolanas, not only reduces the production cost of
concrete, but also addresses the slump loss problem.
6. The optimum substitution level is often determined by the loss in 12 or
24 hour strength that is considered acceptable, given climatic conditions
or the minimum strength required.
7. While silica fume is usually not really necessary for compressive strengths
under 70 MPa, most concrete mixtures contain it when higher strengths
are specified.

Que 5.3. What are the various methods to achieve high strength
in concrete ? Also discuss their applications.

Answer
A. Methods to Achieve High Strength in Concrete : Following are the
special methods to achieve high strength in concrete :
1. Seeding : This involves adding a small percentage of finely ground, fully
hydrated Portland cement to the fresh concrete mix. This method may
not hold much promise.
2. Revibration : Controlled revibration removes all the defects like
bleeding, water accumulates, plastic shrinkage, continuous capillary
channels and increases the strength of concrete.
3. High Speed Slurry Mixing : This process involves the advance
preparation of cement - water mixture which is then blended with
aggregate to produce concrete.
4. Use of Admixtures : Use of water reducing agents are known to
produce increased compressive strength.
5. Sulphur Impregnation : Satisfactory high strength concrete have
been produced by impregnating low strength porous concrete by sulphur.
The sulphur infiltrated concrete has given strength up to 58 MPa.
Specific Concretes 5–4 D (CE-Sem-5)

6. Inhibition of Cracks : If the propagation of cracks is inhibited, the

strength will be higher. Concrete cubes made this way have yielded
strength up to 105MPa.
B. Applications of High Strength Concrete :
1. High strength concrete is required in engineering projects that have
concrete components that must resist high compressive loads.
2. High strength concrete is typically used in the erection of high-rise
structures.
3. It has been used in components such as columns (especially on lower
floors where the loads will be greatest), shear walls, and foundations.
4. High strengths are also occasionally used in bridge applications as well.
5. High strength concrete is occasionally used in the construction of highway
bridges.
6. Use of HSC in column section decreases the column size.
7. Use of HSC in column decreases amount of steel required for same
column.
8. In high rise building, use of HSC increases the floor area for rental
purpose.
9. In bridges, use of HSC reduces the number of beams supporting the
slab.

Que 5.4. What is self compacting concrete ? What are the

properties, advantages and disadvantages of self compacting
concrete ?

Answer
A. Self Compacting Concrete : It is defined as “a concrete that is able to
flow under its own weight and completely fill the formwork, while
maintaining homoge neity e ven in the pre sence o f conge sted
reinforcement, and then consolidate without the need for vibrating
compaction”.
B. Properties of SCC : In fresh state, SCC have the following properties :
1. Filling Ability : Flows easily at certain speed into formwork.
2. Passing Ability : Passes through reinforcement without blocking.
3. Segregation Resistance : The distribution of aggregate particles
remains homogeneous in both vertical and horizontal direction.
C. Advantages of SCC : Following are the advantages of SCC :
1. A faster rate of placing, without vibration.
2. Improved pumpability.
3. Improved consolidation around reinforcement.
4. Reduced permeability.
Concrete Technology 5–5 D (CE-Sem-5)

5. Reduced wear and tear on forms from vibration.

6. Improves the quality, durability, and reliability of concrete structures
due to better compaction and homogeneity of concrete.
7. Ease of placement results in cost savings through reduced equipment
and labour requirement.
8. Less noise from vibrators and reduced danger from hand-arm vibration
syndrome (HAVS).
9. Improves working conditions and productivity in construction industry.
10. Reduced construction period.
11. Elimination of problems associated with vibration.
D. Disadvantages of SCC : Following are the disadvantages of SCC :
1. More stringent requirements on the selection of materials.
2. Lack of globally accepted test standards and mix designs.
3. Costlier than conventional concrete based on concrete material cost
(exception to placement cost).
4. Requires more trial batches at laboratory as well as at ready-mixed
concrete plants.
5. More precise measurement and monitoring of the constituent materials.

Que 5.5. Explain the materials used for self compacting concrete.
Also give its applications.

Answer
A. Material Required for SCC : Following are the various material
required for making SCC :
1. Cement : Ordinary Portland cement of 43 or 53 grade can be used.
2. Aggregates : Well graded cubical or rounded aggregates are desirable.
3. Water Quality : Maintained same as reinforced concrete.
4. Chemical Admixtures : Super plasticizers particularly poly-
carboxylated ethers are used in SCC.
5. Mineral Admixtures : Following are the mineral admixtures used is
SCC :
i. Fly Ash : It improves the quality and durability of concrete.
ii. GGBFS : It improves rheological properties (semi-solid and liquid
state).
iii. Silica Fume : It improves mechanical properties.
iv. Stone Powder : Finely crushed limestone, dolomite, granite may
be added to increase powder content.
B. Application of SCC : Self compacting concrete is ideal to be used in the
following applications :
Specific Concretes 5–6 D (CE-Sem-5)

1. It has been used in bridges and even on pre-cast sections.

2. Drilled shafts.
3. Column.
4. Earth retaining systems.
5. Areas with high concentration of rebar and pipes / conduits, etc.

Que 5.6. Compare the hardened properties of normal concrete

and self compacting concrete.
Answer
Following are the comparison of properties between normal concrete
and self compacting concrete :
1. Compressive Strength : The compressive strength of SCC when
compared with normal concrete made for a particular strength is almost
the same. The self-compacting property of SCC has very little effect on
the strength of concrete.
2. Tensile Strength : A comparison between cylinders made of SCC
and normal concrete of the same grade shows that there is no major
difference between them.
3. Bond Strength : The pull-out test carried out to determine the bond
strength of SCC indicates superior bond strength of SCC.
4. Modulus of Elasticity : The modulus of elasticity for SCC and for
normal concrete is the same.
5. Freeze-thaw Resistance : The low-strength of SCC has less resistance
to freeze and thaw conditions as compared with low-strength normal
concrete.
6. Creep : SCC normally is more pasty as compared with normal concrete.
So its creep is slightly higher.
7. Durability : Durability is slightly higher in SCC because of the
elimination of errors which may occur during placing and compaction
of normal concrete. SCC is likely to have less voids.
8. Exposure to Fire : SCC has a more compact microstructure. This can
lead to high vapour pressure. So SCC has a higher risk of spalling
when exposed to fire.

Que 5.7. Explain the tests used for flow properties of self
compacting concrete.

Answer
Following are the various test that carried out on self compacting concrete
is fresh state :
Concrete Technology 5–7 D (CE-Sem-5)

1. Slump Flow and T50 Test :

i. Slump flow test is used to find the filling ability of the SCC.
ii. The SCC sample is poured in to the slump cone then the slump flow
diameter is measured.
iii. The flow time is measured and is known as T50 slump time.
iv. The higher the slump flow value, the greater its ability to fill formwork
under its own weight.
10 Dia

2.5
10

1.3
30 0.2
At Least
Thick 0.16 cm Thick
0.2 Thick

0.6 20 Dia
(All dimension in cm)
Fig. 5.7.1.
2. L-Box Test :
i. The L-box test is used to find the passing ability of SCC.
ii. The SCC sample is poured in to the L-box apparatus, now the plate is
removed to allow flow.
iii. The L-box ratio is calculated as H2/ H1.
iv. When the ratio of H2 to H1 is larger than 0.8, self compacting concrete
has good passing ability.

0.60 m

0.15 m
0.70 m
0.20 m
Fig. 5.7.2.
3. V-Funnel Test and V-Funnel Test at T-5 Minutes :
i. The V-funnel test is used to find the segregation resistance of SCC.
Specific Concretes 5–8 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. The SCC sample is poured in to the V-funnel apparatus, now it's allowed
to flow by its weight.
iii. The emptying time of V-funnel is noted.
iv. This test measured the ease of flow of the concrete, shorter flow times
indicate greater flow ability. After 5 minutes of setting, segregation of
concrete will show a less continuous flow with an increase in flow time
490 mm

425 mm

150 mm
75 mm
65 mm
Fig. 5.7.3.

PART-2
Study and Uses of Fiber Reinforced Concrete, Ferro Cement.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2

Fiber Reinforced Concrete : They have improved tensile strength
and toughness compared to conventional concrete. They also have
improved energy absorption capacity. Advanced composites offer high
tensile strength, durability, ductility, and preferred energy absorption
capacity.
Ferro Cement : It is a type of thin wall reinforced concrete commonly
constructed of hydraulic cement mortar reinforced with closely spaced
layers of continuous and relatively small size wire mesh. The mesh
may be made of metallic or other suitable materials
Material Used in Ferro Cement :
i. Cement mortar mix.
ii. Skeletal steel.
iii. Steel mesh reinforced.
iv. Fiber-reinforced polymeric meshes.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Concrete Technology 5–9 D (CE-Sem-5)

Que 5.8. What is the necessity fibre reinforced concrete and

explain briefly the factors affecting properties of fibre reinforced
concrete.

Answer
Necessity of Fiber Reinforced Concrete :
1. It increases the tensile strength of the concrete.
2. It reduces the air voids and water voids the inherent porosity of gel.
3. It increases the durability of the concrete.
4. Fibers such as graphite and glass have excellent resistance to creep,
while the same is not true for most resins.
5. The differential deformations of concrete and the reinforcement are
minimized.
6. It has been recognized that the addition of small, closely spaced and
uniformly dispersed fibers to concrete would act as crack arrestor and
would substantially improve its static and dynamic properties.
Factors Affecting the Properties of FRC : Following are the factors
affecting the properties of fibre reinforced concrete :
1. Volume of Fiber :
i. Low volume fraction (< 1%) : Used in slab and pavement that have large
exposed surface leading to high shrinkage cracking.
ii. Moderate volume fraction (between 1 and 2 %) : Used in construction
method such as shotcrete and in structures which requires improved
capacity against delamination, spalling and fatigue.
iii. High volume fraction (> 2 %) : Used in making high performance fiber
reinforced composites.
2. Aspect Ratio of Fiber :
i. It is defined as ratio of length of fiber to its diameter (L/d).
ii. Increase in the aspect ratio upto 75, there is increase in relative strength
and toughness.
iii. Beyond 75 of aspect ratio, there is decrease in strength and toughness.
3. Orientation of Fibers : Fibers aligned parallel to applied load offered
more tensile strength and toughness than randomly distributed or
perpendicular fibers.
4. Relative Fiber Matrix :
i. Modulus of elasticity of matrix must be less than of fibers for efficient
stress transfer.
ii. Low modulus fibers like Nylons and Polypropylene imparts more energy
absorption while high modulus fibers (Steel, Glass, and Carbon) imparts
strength and stiffness.
Specific Concretes 5–10 D (CE-Sem-5)

5. Workability and Compaction of Concrete : Incorporation of steel

fiber decreases the workability considerably. This situation adversely
affects the consolidation of fresh mix. Even prolonged external vibration
fails to compact the concrete.
6. Size of Coarse Aggregate : Fibers also act as aggregate maximum size
of the coarse aggregate should be restricted to 10 mm, to avoid appreciable
reduction in strength of the composite.
7. Mixing : Mixing of fiber reinforced concrete needs careful conditions to
avoid balling of fibers, segregation and in general the difficulty of mixing
the materials uniformly.

Que 5.9. Explain the various types of fiber used in fiber

reinforcement concrete.

Answer
Types of Fiber : Following are the various types of fibers used in fiber
reinforced concrete :
1. Steel Fiber :
i. Steel fiber is one of the most commonly used fiber. They are generally
round. The diameter may vary from 0.25 mm to 0.75 mm.
ii. The steel fiber is likely to get rusted and lose some of its strength.
iii. Use of steel fiber makes significant improvements in flexural impact
and fatigue strength of concrete.
iv. Steel fibers have been extensively used in overlays or roads pavements,
air fields, bridge decks, thin shells and floorings subjected to wear and
tear and chemical attack.
2. Glass Fiber :
i. These are produced in three basic forms :
a. Rovings.
b. Strands.
c. Woven or chopped strand mat.
ii. Major problems in their use are breakage of fiber and the surface
degradation of glass by high alkalinity of the hydrated cement paste.
iii. Glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC) is mostly used for decorative
application rather than structural purposes.
iv. With the addition of just 5 % glass fibers, an improvement in the impact
strength of up to 1500 % can be obtained as compared to plain concrete.
v. With the addition of 2 % fibers the flexural strength is almost doubled.
3. Plastic Fiber :
i. Fibers such as polypropylene, nylon, acrylic, aramid and polyethylene
have high tensile strength thus inhibiting reinforcing effect.
Concrete Technology 5–11 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. Polypropylene and nylon fibers are found to be suitable to increase the
impact strength.
iii. Their addition to concrete has shown better distribute cracking and
reduced crack size.
4. Carbon Fiber :
i. Carbon fibers possess high tensile strength and high young’s modulus.
ii. The use of carbon fiber in concrete is promising but is costly and
availability of carbon fiber in India is limited.
5. Asbestos Fiber :
i. Asbestos is a mineral fiber and has proved to be most successful fiber,
which can be mixed with OPC.
ii. The maximum length of asbestos fiber is 10 mm but generally fibers are
shorter than this

Que 5.10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using

fiber reinforced concrete ?

Answer
Advantages of FRC : Following are the advantages of FRC :
1. FRC possesses enough plasticity to go under large deformation once the
peak load has been reached.
2. Structure can be made into thin sheets or irregular shapes.
3. Higher flexural strength, depending on addition rate.
4. Greater retained toughness in conventional concrete mixes.
5. Easily placed, cast, sprayed and less labour intensive than placing rebar.
6. Ideal aspect ratio which makes them excellent for early-age performance.
7. Does not rust nor corrode and requires no minimum cover.
8. High modulus of elasticity for effective long term reinforcement, even
in the hardened concrete.
Disadvantages of FRC : Following are the disadvantages of FRC :
1. High cost of materials.
2. Greater reduction of workability.
3. Generally fibers do not increase the flexural strength of concrete, and
so cannot replace moment resisting or structural steel reinforcement.

Que 5.11. Explain the mechanical properties of FRC as compared

to reinforced concrete and structural behaviour of FRC.

Answer
A. Mechanical Properties of FRC : Following are the mechanical
properties of FRC :
Specific Concretes 5–12 D (CE-Sem-5)

1. Flexure : The flexural strength was reported to be increased by 2.5

times using 4 percent fibers.
2. Modulus of Elasticity : Modulus of elasticity of FRC increases slightly
with an increase in the fibers content. It was found that for each 1
percent increase in fiber content by volume, there is an increase of 3
percent in the modulus of elasticity.
3. Compressive Strength : The presence of fibers may alter the failure
mode of cylinders, but the fiber effect will be minor on the improvement
of compressive strength values (0 to 15 percent).
4. Impact Resistance : The impact strength for fibrous concrete is
generally 5 to 10 times that of plain concrete depending on the volume
of fiber.
5. Fatigue Strength : The addition of fibers increases fatigue strength of
about 90 percent.
6. Toughness : For FRC, toughness is about 10 to 40 times that of plain
concrete.
7. Splitting Tensile Strength : The presence of 3 percent fiber by
volume was reported to increase the splitting tensile strength of mortar
about 2.5 times that of the unreinforced one.
B. Structural behaviour of FRC : Fibres plays an important role to
improving the structural behaviour of concrete. Following are the
structural behaviour of FRC :
1. High Strength Concrete : Fibers increases the ductility of high strength
concrete. Fiber addition will help in controlling cracks and deflections.
2. Torsion :
i. The use of fibers eliminates the sudden failure characteristic of plain
concrete beams.
ii. It increases stiffness, torsional strength, ductility, rotational capacity,
and the number of cracks with less crack width.
3. Flexure :
i. The use of fibers in reinforced concrete flexure members increases
ductility, tensile strength, moment capacity, and stiffness.
ii. The fibers improve crack control and preserve post cracking structural
integrity of members.
4. Cracking and Deflection :
i. Fiber reinforcement effectively controls cracking and deflection, in
addition to strength improvement.
ii. In conventionally reinforced concrete beams, fiber addition increases
stiffness, and reduces deflection.
5. Column :
i. The increase of fiber content slightly increases the ductility of axially
loaded specimen.
Concrete Technology 5–13 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. The use of fibers helps in reducing the explosive type failure for columns.
6. Shear :
i. Addition of fibers increases shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams
up to 100 percent.
ii. Addition of randomly distributed fibers increases shear-friction strength
and ultimate strength
Que 5.12. Explain the use of fiber reinforced concrete.

Answer
Following are the uses of fiber reinforced concrete :
1. Runway, Aircraft Parking, and Pavements :
i. For the same wheel load FRC slabs could be about one half the thickness
of plain concrete slab.
ii. FRC pavements offer good resistance even in severe and mild
environments.
iii. It can be used in runways, taxiways, aprons, seawalls, dock areas, parking
and loading ramps.
2. Tunnel Lining and Slope Stabilization :
i. Steel fiber reinforced concrete is used to line underground openings
and rock slope stabilization.
ii. It eliminates the need for mesh reinforcement and scaffolding.
3. Dams and Hydraulic Structure : FRC is being used for the
construction and repair of dams and other hydraulic structures to provide
resistance to cavitation and severe erosion caused by the impact of large
debris.
4. Thin Shell, Walls, Pipes, and Manholes :
i. Fibrous concrete permits the use of thinner flat and curved structural
elements.
ii. Steel fibrous shotcrete is used in the construction of hemispherical
domes.
5. Agriculture: It is used in animal storage structures, walls, silos, paving,
etc.
6. Precast Concrete and Products : It is used in architectural panels,
tilt-up construction, walls, fencing, septic tanks, grease trap structures,
vaults and sculptures.
7. Commercial : It is used for exterior and interior floors, slabs and parking
areas, roadways, etc.
8. Warehouse / Industrial : It is used in light to heavy duty loaded floors.
9. Residential : It includes application in driveways, sidewalks, pool
construction, basements, colored concrete, foundations, drainage, etc.
Specific Concretes 5–14 D (CE-Sem-5)

Que 5.13. Define ferro cement. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of ferro cement ?

Answer
Ferro Cement : It is a type of thin wall reinforced concrete commonly
constructed of hydraulic cement mortar reinforced with closely spaced
layers of continuous and relatively small size wire mesh.
Advantages of Ferro-Cement :
1. Low maintenance costs.
2. Good impermeability.
3. Good fire resistance.
4. Very appropriate for developing countries; labour intensive.
5. Flexibility in cutting, drilling and jointing.
6. Suitability for pre-casting.
7. 20 % savings on materials and cost.
8. It is highly versatile and can be formed into almost any shape for a wide
range of uses.
9. Thin elements and light structures, reduction in self weight and its
simple techniques require a minimum of skilled labor.
10. Reduction in expensive form work so economy and speed can be achieved.
11. Only a few simple hand tools are needed to build any structures.
12. Structures are highly waterproof and higher strength to weight ratio
than R.C.C.
Disadvantages of Ferro-Cement :
1. Tying rods and mesh together is especially tedious and time consuming.
2. Large number of labours required.
3. It is difficult to fasten to ferro cement with bolt, screw, welding and nail
etc.
4. Corrosion of the reinforcing material due to the incomplete coverage of
metal by mortar.
5. It can be punctured by collision with pointed objects.
6. Susceptibility to stress rupture failure.
7. Low ductility.
8. Low shear strength.

Que 5.14. Explain in detail the materials which are required to

make ferro cement concrete.
Concrete Technology 5–15 D (CE-Sem-5)

Answer
Following are the materials required for making ferro cement :
1. Cement Mortar Mix :
i. Its components are Portland cement, fine aggregates, water, and
admixtures.
ii. Material should satisfy all requisite standards similar to reinforced
concrete.
ii. Additives such as superplasticizers, silica fumes, and fly ash can also be
used.
2. Skeletal steel :
i. To from the skeleton of the structures, steel is often used in ferro-
cement in the form of welded wires or a simple gird of steel wires, rods,
or strands.
ii. Mesh layers are attached around this skeleton steel. The steel also acts
as a spacer, leading to savings is the mesh layer.
iii. It helps in resisting tensile and punching shear.
Number of mesh layers = 2

12.5 mm
Cover
(0.5 in.)

Typical details for 2 mesh layers

Fig. 5.14.1. Skeletal steel.
3. Steel Mesh Reinforcement :
i. Steel meshes are the primary reinforcement for ferro cement.
ii. The meshes can be square woven or welded, or chicken wire meshes of
hexagonal shape and sheet
iii. In most steel meshes, whether woven or welded, the properties in the
longitudinal and transverse directions are different. This is also applicable
for hexagonal and expanded meshes.

Chicken or hexagonal Expanded metal mesh

wire mesh (b)
(a)
Specific Concretes 5–16 D (CE-Sem-5)

Steel bar or strand Woven mesh

(c) (d)

Square mesh (e)

Fig. 5.14.2. Steel meshed used in ferro cement.
4. Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Meshes :
i. Steel reinforcement has poor durability and is susceptible to corrosion.
Fiber reinforced polymer is the best alternative to steel meshes.
ii. FRP reinforcements made from carbon, glass, aramid, or other high-
performance materials embedded in polymeric matrices in the form of
bars, tendons, and strands are being produced and used these days.

Que 5.15. Explain the various methods of manufacturing of ferro

cement with their merits and demerits.

Answer
Method of Ferro Cement : Following are the various construction
methods of ferro cement :
1. Skeletal Method :
i. In this method a framework of reinforcing bars (skeletal steel) is
constructed, to which a layer of meshes is applied Fig. 5.15.1.

Fig. 5.15.1. Skeletal armature method.

ii. Next, mortar is applied on one side and forced through the mesh until a
slight excess appears on the other side.
Advantages : Following are the advantages of the skeletal armature
method :
i. No elaborate form material required.
Concrete Technology 5–17 D (CE-Sem-5)

ii. Easy to patch up (repair) the whole area from both sides.
iii. Good penetration.
iv. Easy to repair when damaged.
Disadvantages : Following are the disadvantages of the skeletal
armature method:
i. Application of mortar from one side may be difficult for a thick mesh
system
ii. Galvanic corrosion may develop between the mesh and skeletal steel
iii. Embedment of skeletal reinforcement near the centre of the section
leads to reduced performance in bending
2. Closed Mould Method :
i. In this method, several mesh or mesh-and-rod combination are held
together in position against the surface of a mould (Fig. 5.15.2).
ii. Mortar is then applied from the open side. The mould either remains a
permanent part of the structure or can be removed and reused.
iii. In this method, a thin layer of mortar is placed first and allowed to settle,
over which the mesh is placed and the second layer of mortar poured.
This procedure is repeated until the required number of layer are placed.
Mortar from the side

Bond breaker
Impermable mould
at interface

Fig. 5.15.2. Closed mould method.

Advantages : Following are the advantages of the closed mould method :
i. Ideal for factory production since the reuse of moulds is permitted.
ii. Skeletal reinforcement not required.
iii. Suitable for patented lay-up method.
Disadvantages : Following are the disadvantages of the closed mould
method :
i. Difficult to avoid internal voids, especially below reinforcement mesh.
ii. Complete penetration of mortar from one side may not be possible.
3. Integral Mould Method :
Specific Concretes 5–18 D (CE-Sem-5)

i. This method involves a semi-rigid framework, Fig. 5.15.3. An integral

mould may be formed using foam material such as polystyrene or
polyurethane as the core.
ii. Mortar is poured from both sides of the mould. The mould is left inside
the ferro cement itself. This method is ideal for field operation.
Mortar

Mould to remain inside

Mortar
Fig. 5.15.3. Integral mould method.
Advantages : Following are the advantages of the integral mould
method :
i. Provides good rigidity.
ii. Provides good water-tightness.
iii. Provides thermal insulation.
Disadvantages : Following are the disadvantages of the integral mould
method :
i. Special detailing is required for adequate shear connections between
rigid ferro cement layers, especially across insulating cores.
ii. Both the sides need to be finished.
4. Open Mould Method :
i. The open mould method is a traditional method used for boat building.
ii. The open mould is made of lattice wood or some other suitable material
and stiffened by ribs.
iii. The mortar is applied through one side only.
iv. To facilitate mould removal, the mould is covered with a release agent
or entirely covered with polyethylene sheets. Fig. 5.15.4 illustrated the
open mould method.
Advantages : Following are the advantages of the open mould method :
i. No skeletal reinforcement is required.
ii. Better control of finishes than the closed mould method.
iii. Moulds can be reused.
Concrete Technology 5–19 D (CE-Sem-5)

Plaster or lay-up from this side'

Ferro-cement

Ribs bands
wood strips or Releasable
equivalent Framing system framework

Polythene sheet or equivalent

Fig. 5.15.4. Open mould method.

Disadvantages : Following are the disadvantages of the open mould

method :
i. Framing and shoring system is costly.
ii. Complete penetration from one side is not guaranteed.
iii. Amenable for any shape.

Que 5.16. Explain the behaviour of ferro cement under tension.

Answer
Behaviour of Ferro Cement in Tension :
1. The typical load elongation curve for reinforced concrete prism and
ferro cement prism is shown in Fig. 5.16.1 (a) and (b), respectively.
2. The behaviour is mainly divided into three main stages :
i. Stage I : Corresponds to the ascending linear elastic portion of the
curve (OA).
ii. Stage II : Corresponds to the unstable portion (AB) where cracking
starts and stabilizes.
iii. Stage III : Where is load elongation is almost linear elastic and the
crack width increase with an increase in applied load because of cracking.
This stage exists until the reinforcing steel yields. There will be only a
few wide cracks across the steel.
3. From Fig. 5.16.1, the main difference lies in unstable stage II (AB).
4. Slowly adapts to the increasing load by increasing its extensibility. Many
fine cracks form. When cracks form, the increase in crack width is small
compared to reinforced concrete.
5. Crack width in ferro cement can be one to two orders of magnitude
smaller than that of reinforced concrete. However, there are a number
of fine cracks.
Specific Concretes 5–20 D (CE-Sem-5)

100 Nearly horizontal

C
90
80 Slightly non-linear
70 Unstable
60 cracking
Load

50
40
30
20
10
0 °
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Elongation
(a) RCC
120 Nearly
C horizontal
100 Multiple cracking
80

60
40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Elongation
(b) Ferro cement
Fig. 5.16.1. Behaviour of (a) RCC compared with that of (b) ferro cement.

Que 5.17. Explain the various application of ferro cement.

Answer
Following are the various applications of ferro cement :
1. Marine Applications :
i. Ferro cement is used for making boats, fishing vessels, barges, cargo
tugs, flotation buoys.
ii. Key criteria for marine applications: light weight, impact resistance,
thickness and water tightness.
2. Water Supply and Sanitation : Water tanks, sedimentation tanks,
swimming pool linings, well casings, septic tanks etc.
3. Agricultural : Grain storage bins, silos, canal linings, pipes, shells for
fish and poultry farms.
4. Residential Buildings : Houses, community centers, precast housing
elements, corrugated roofing sheets, wall panels etc.
Concrete Technology 5–21 D (CE-Sem-5)

5. Rural Energy : Biogas digesters, biogas holders, incinerators, panels

for solar energy collectors etc.
6. Miscellaneous Uses : Silos and bins, Wind tunnel , Kiosks , Mobile
homes, Precast ferro cement structures, soil stabilization ,pedestrian
bridges , Bus shelters etc.

Que 5.18. What are the major differences between ferro cement
and reinforced concrete ?

Answer
Following are the properties of ferro cement over reinforced concrete :
1. Reinforcement distribution is uniform throughout.
2. Reinforcement is provided in both directions.
3. Thinner section compared to RCC.
4. Ferro cement can have homogeneous, isotropic properties in two
directions.
5. Ferro cement generally has high tensile strength and a high modulus of
rupture. Its tensile strength can be of the same order as its compressive
strength.
6. Ferro cement generally has a high reinforcement ratio in both tension
and compression and in both directions.
7. Ferro cement has a large specific surface of reinforcement, which is one
to two orders of magnitude that of reinforced concrete.
8. Extensibility of ferro cement is large in comparison of reinforced
concrete.
9. The crack widths are generally very small. It shows good durability
under various kinds of environmental exposure.
10. Ferro cement has better resistance towards punching shear as well as
resistance to impact compared to reinforced concrete.

PART-3
Study and Uses of Ready Mix Concrete, Recycled Aggregate Concrete
and Status in India.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-3

Ready Mixed Concrete (RMC) : It is a specialized material in which
cement, aggregate, and other ingredients are weigh batched at a plant
in a central or truck mixer before delivery to the construction site.
Specific Concretes 5–22 D (CE-Sem-5)

Recycled Aggregate Concrete : The reuse of broken concrete pieces

as coarse aggregate is a proven technology. Old concrete can be crushed
and used in fresh concrete as partial replacement for conventional
natural aggregates. The old concrete can be from demolition waste or
left over concrete at a construction site.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.19. Define ready mix concrete. What are the advantages
and disadvantages of using ready mixed concrete instead of site
mixed concrete ?

Answer
1. Ready Mix Concrete : Ready mixed concrete is defined as concrete
mixed in a stationary mixer in a central batching and mixing plant or in
a truck mixer and supplied in a fresh condition to the purchaser either
at site or into purchaser’s vehicle.
2. Advantages of RMC : Following are the advantages of ready mix
concrete :
i. Better quality concrete is produced.
ii. Elimination of storage space for basic materials at site.
iii. Elimination of hiring plant and machinery.
iv. Wastage of basic materials is avoided.
v. Labour associated with production of concrete is eliminated.
vi. Time required is greatly reduced.
vii. Noise and dust pollution at site is reduced.
viii. No wastage on site.
ix. Environment friendly.
2. Disadvantages of RMC : Following are the disadvantages of RMC :
i. Need huge initial investment.
ii. Not affordable for small projects (small quantity of concrete).
iii. Needs effective transportation system from RMC to project site.
iv. Traffic jam or failure of the vehicle creates a problem if the proper dose
of admixture is not given.
v. Concrete’s limited time span between mixing and going-off means that
ready-mix should be placed within 90 minutes of batching at the plant.
Concrete Technology 5–23 D (CE-Sem-5)

Que 5.20. Explain the components of RMC plant in brief.

Answer
Components of RMC Plant : Following are the components of RMC
plants :
1. Batching Plant:
i. Inline Bins : Raw materials like fine and coarse aggregates are stored
in bins known as “Inlines bins” where the trucks carrying fine and
coarse aggregate can dump the material easily.
ii. Silos : Cement and fly ash are stored in an airtight container called as
“silos”. The required quantity of cement and fly ash is extracted by the
silos.
iii. Screw Conveyer Belt :
i. Cement and fly ash are fed to holding hopper with the help of a screw
conveyer.
ii. A heavy duty cement screw conveyor is fixed in an inclined position to
convey the cement from manual feeding hopper to cement hopper.
2. Transit Mixers :
i. Transit mixers are made to transport and mix concrete up to the
construction site.
ii. The discharge of concrete is done from rear side of the transit mixer.
3. Concrete Pumps : A concrete pump is a machine used for transferring
liquid concrete by pumping.
4. Vibrator : A vibrator is a mechanical device to generate vibrations to
remove the air voids in concrete and for proper compaction of concrete.

Que 5.21. What are the applications of ready mixed concrete ?

Answer
Following are the applications of RMC :
1. Ready mix concrete is a modern technique of production of concrete in
large quantities away from the actual site of placing.
2. RMC is very useful in cities where demand of concrete is very high and
construction sites are in congested areas, where mixing on site is not
possible.
3. The supervisory and labour costs associated with production of RMC is
less, and the quality of concrete is high.
4. RMC is suitable for huge industrial and residential projects where time
plays a vital role.
Specific Concretes 5–24 D (CE-Sem-5)

5. RMC is used for civil engineering works and structures such as bridge,
tunnel covered trenches, concrete for retainment, shotcrete, etc.
6. RMC is used for building projects such as walls, piles, columns, girders
etc.
7. RMC is used for road and systems development such as extruded
concrete, concrete trenches, exposed aggregate concrete, linked sintered
concrete.

Que 5.22. Describe the comparison of ready mix concrete and

normal site mixing concrete.

Answer
Comparison between Ready Mix Concrete & Site Mix Concrete :
S. No. Ready Mix Concrete Site Mix Concrete
1. Quality is consistent because Quality is inconsistent because
concrete is made in high tech concrete is hand mixed.
batching plants in a
computerized environment.
2. Construction in double quick Manual mixing is time consuming.
time. Projects take longer time to finish.
3. There’s no worry about to stock Risk of stealing of raw materials
materials and watch o ver is high.
them.
4. Large quantities of concrete It more time, due to large manual
can be ordered in less time. works.
5. No wastage of raw materials High wastage of raw materials due
at site. to manual mixing.
6. No hassle of managing labour Management of labour means
on site. more time, efforts and money.
7. Safe wo rk practices - no Unskille d and untraine d
disruption in the schedule. labourers may work carelessly
resulting in dangerous working
condition

Que 5.23. Explain recycled aggregate concrete. Describe the

various properties of recycled aggregate concrete.
Concrete Technology 5–25 D (CE-Sem-5)

Answer
Recycled Aggregate Concrete :
1. Recycled aggregate concrete is simply the old aggregate concrete that
has been removed from buildings foundations pavements and others
structures, and crushed to the specified size.
2. The reuse of broken concrete pieces as coarse aggregate is a proven
technology. Old concrete can be crushed and used in fresh concrete as
partial replacement for conventional natural aggregates.
3. The old concrete can be from demolition waste (recycled concrete
aggregate) or leftover concrete at a construction site (leftover concrete
aggregate).
4. The fresh concrete leftover at a site can also be washed free of cement
paste and the aggregates recovered to be used subsequently (recovered
concrete aggregate).
5. Waste materials from other industries (e.g. broken glass pieces) can be
used as secondary aggregates.
Properties of Recycled Aggregate Concrete :
1. The concrete produced with recycled aggregate losses its workability
more rapidly than the conventional concrete.
2. If both fine and coarse aggregates are recycled aggregates, around
15 per cent more free water is required.
3. An air entraining and water reducing admixture shall be incorporated
into fresh recycled aggregate concrete mix.
4. The air content of recycled aggregate concrete may be slightly higher
than that of conventional aggregate concretes, it shall be between 3 and
6 per cent.
5. The slump of recycled coarse aggregate concrete shall not exceed
200 mm.
6. Water-cement ratio shall not exceed 0.65. Cement content shall not be
less than 260 kg/m3.
7. To achieve comparable strength, recycled aggregate concretes requires
approximately 8 to 15 per cent higher cement contents.
8. The compressive strength of recycled segregate concrete is in the range
of about 75 per cent, and the modulus of elasticity about 65 per cent of
conventional concrete with natural aggregates.
9. The tensile and flexural strengths are approximately 10 per cent lower.
10. The damping capacity, expressed in terms of logarithmic decrement,
has been reported to be between 15 to 20 per cent higher.
11. The creep and drying shrinkage are 30 to 60 per cent higher.
12. The abrasion resistance for concrete has been found to reduce as
compared to original concrete.
Specific Concretes 5–26 D (CE-Sem-5)

Que 5.24. What are the advantages and disadvantages of recycled

aggregate concrete ?

Answer
Advantages of Recycled Aggregate Concrete :
1. Using recycled concrete as the base material for roadways reduces the
pollution involved in trucking material.
2. Using recycled material as gravel reduces the need for gravel mining.
3. Keeping concrete debris out of landfills saves landfill space.
4. Produce specification sized recycled aggregates at own location.
5. Avoid haul-off costs and landfill disposal fees.
6. Eliminate the expense of aggregate material imports and exports.
7. Increase project efficiency and improve job cost - recycled concrete
aggregates yield more volume by weight (up to 15 %).
Disadvantages of Recycled Aggregate Concrete :
1. Decrease in strength and elastic modulus.
2. Lower bulk specific gravity.
3. Reduced workability due to higher water absorption capacity.
4. Higher absorption capacity range from 3 % - 9 %.
5. Greater moisture shrinkage potential.

Que 5.25. How recycled aggregate produced ? Also give its

applications.

Answer
Production of Recycled Aggregate :
1. The basic method of the recycling is one of crushing the debris to
produce a granular product of given particle size and then reprocessing
and screening, the degree of which depends on the level of contamination
and the application of which recycled aggregate is produced.
2. Recycled aggregates normally have more angular shape and more
coarser surface and exhibit more or less similar particle size distribution
as that for natural aggregate.
Applications of Recycled Aggregate : The applications of recycled
aggregate in construction areas are as follows :
1. Aggregate Base Course, or the untreated aggregates used as foundation
for roadway pavement, is the underlying layer which forms a structural
foundation for paving.
2. It is used for residential slab and foundation; walk and curb residential
street; commercial slab and foundation and concrete paving per aggregate
approval.
Concrete Technology 5–27 D (CE-Sem-5)

3. Pipe Bedding : Recycled concrete can serve as a stable bed or firm

foundation in which to lay underground utilities.
4. Paving Blocks : Recycled aggregate have been used as paving blocks
in some countries.
5. Building Blocks : Recycled aggregate has been used as building blocks.
6. Landscape Materials : Recycled concrete can be used in various
landscape settings. Sized concrete rubble can serve as landscape feature.
7. Recycled aggregate has been used as boulder/stacked rock walls,
underpass abutment structures, erosion structures, water features,
retaining walls.
8. It can be used for constructing gutters, pavements etc.
9. Large pieces of crushed aggregate can be used for building revetments
which in turn is very useful in controlling soil erosion.
10. Recycled concrete rubbles can be used as coarse aggregate in concrete.
11. Production of recycled aggregate also results in generation of many by-
products having many uses such as a ground improvement material, a
concrete addition, an asphalt filler etc.

Que 5.26. Write shorts notes on status of recycled aggregate

concrete in India.

Answer
Recycled Aggregate Use in India :
1. Currently India has a severe shortage of infrastructural facilities.
Nonetheless India is constructing its foundation at a very fast rate.
2. In this process of construction and reconstruction it has become the
second largest producer of cement in the world only after China.
3. Though it is not even in top ten when it comes to production of recycled
aggregate concrete.
4. Now as the government is gearing up for development of new cities,
buildings, roads etc., the gates are wide open for production of more
recycled aggregate.
5. Not only the problem of hundreds of thousands of tons of construction
debris can be solved by recycling and reusing the building wastes, but
also the issue of shortage of natural aggregates can be addressed.
6. Recycled aggregate concrete have several reliable applications. However,
countries like India need to take some serious urgent measures to
unleash the scope of recycled aggregate and if done so, concrete recycling
will become one of the most important elements for construction
sustainability.


Concrete Technology SQ–1 D (CE-Sem-5)

1 Cement Production
and Aggregates
(2 Marks Questions)

1.1. What do you understand by cement ?

Ans. Cement is an extremely ground material having adhesive and
cohesive properties, which provide a binding medium for the
discrete ingredients.
1.2. Give the chemical composition of ordinary portland
cement.
Ans.
Oxide Percentage Average
Lime, CaO 60–65 63
Silica, SiO2 17–25 20
Alumina, Al2O3 3.5–9 6.3
Iron oxide, FeO3 0.5–6 3.3
Magnesia, MgO 0.5–4 2.4
Sulphur trioxide, SO3 1–2 1.5
Alkalis, i.e., soda or potash, Na2O, K2O 0.5–1.3 1.0

1.3. Enlist the Bogue’s composition of cement.

Ans. The composition of portland cement is basically consist of four main
compounds :
i. Tricalcium silicate C3S 3 CaO . SiO2 (Alite)
ii. Dicalcium silicate C2S 2CaO . SiO2 (Belite)
iii. Tricalcium aluminate C3A 3 CaO . Al2O3 (Aluminate)
iv. Tetracalcium alumino ferrite C4AF  4CaO . Al2O3 . Fe2O3 (Ferrite)
1.4. What do you mean by hydration of cement ?
Ans. The chemical reactions that take place between cement and water
is referred as hydration of cement.
1.5. Define heat of hydration.
Ans. When reaction takes place between cement and water, the reaction
liberate a considerable quantity of heat. This liberation of heat is
called heat of hydration.
1.6. Give the various types of cement.
Ans. Following are the various types of cement :
2 Marks Questions SQ–2 D (CE-Sem-5)

i. Ordinary Portland cement. ii. Rapid hardening cement.

iii. Sulphate resisting cement. iv. Quick setting cement.
v. Low heat cement. vi. High alumina cement.
vii. Air entraining cement.
1.7. Where are rapid hardening cement used ?
Ans. Rapid hardening cement is recommended in the following situation :
i. In pre-fabricated concrete construction.
ii. Road repair works.
iii. In cold weather concrete construction.
1.8. Under what situations, we use sulphate resisting cement.
Ans. Following are the conditions in which sulphate resisting cement
used :
i. Concrete to be used in marine condition.
ii. Concrete to be used in foundation and basement, where soil is
infested with sulphates.
iii. Concrete to be used in the construction of sewage treatment works.
1.9. What are the advantages of Portland slag cement ?
Ans. Following are the advantages of Portland slag cement :
i. It reduces heat of hydration.
ii. It refines the porous structure.
iii. It reduces permeability.
iv. It increases resistance to chemical attack.
1.10. Give the use of Portland pozzolana cement.
Ans. Following are the uses of Portland pozzolana cement :
i. For hydraulic structure.
ii. For mass concrete structure like dam, bridge pier and raft
foundations.
iii. For marine structure.
iv. For sewers and sewage disposal work, etc.
1.11. What are the pozzolanic materials ?
Ans. Pozzolanic materials are siliceous or siliceous and aluminous
materials, which in themselves possess little or no cementitious
value, but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture,
chemically react with calcium hydroxide liberated on hydration, at
ordinary temperature, to form compounds, possessing cementitious
properties.
1.12. Enlist the various types of pozzolanic materials.
Ans. Following are the various types of pozzolanic materials :
1. Natural Pozzolanas :
i. Clay and shales. ii. Diatomaceous earth.
iii. Volcanic tuffs and Pumicites.
2. Artificial Pozzolanas :
i. Fly ash. ii. Blast furnace slag. iii. Silica fume.
iv. Rice husk ash. v. Metakaolin. vi. Surkhi.
1.13. Define fly ash.
Concrete Technology SQ–3 D (CE-Sem-5)

Ans. It is finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of

powdered coal and transported by the flue gases and collected by
electrostatic precipitator.
1.14. Discuss silica fume.
Ans. Silica fume is very fine pozzolanic material composed of ultrafine,
amorphous glassy sphere of silicon dioxide produced during the
manufacturing of silica or ferro-silicon by electric arc furnace at
temperature of over 2000 °C.
1.15. What do you understand by surkhi ?
Ans. Surkhi is an artificial pozzolana made by powdering bricks or burnt
clay balls.
1.16. What are the properties of aggregate that affects the
concrete properties ?
Ans. Following are the important properties of aggregate which affect
the properties of concrete :
i. Particle shape. ii. Surface texture.
iii. Specific gravity. iv. Bulk density.
v. Bulking of sand. vi. Soundness of aggregate.
vii. Alkali aggregate reaction etc.
1.17. What are the deleterious substances in aggregates ?
Ans. Following are the deleterious substances in aggregates :
i. Organic impurities, which interfere the hydration of concrete.
ii. Salt when aggregate is obtained from sea-shore.
iii. Weak or unsound particles.
1.18. Discuss alkali-aggregate reaction between aggregate and
cement.
Ans. When active silica constituents of aggregate react with the alkalies
in cement, alkali-silicate gel is formed. This reaction is known as
alkali-aggregate reaction.
1.19. What are the effects of alkali-aggregate reaction on
concrete ?
Ans. Due to this reaction, alkali-silicate gel is formed which swells and
exerts internal pressure leading to expansion, cracking and
disruption of cement paste.
1.20. Enumerate the controlling measure of alkali-aggregate
reaction.
Ans. Following are the controlling measures of alkali-aggregate
reaction :
i. Selection of non-reactive aggregate.
ii. By the use of low alkali cement.
iii. By controlling moisture, void space and temperature of concrete.
iv. By the addition of reactive silica in finely powdered form.
1.21. What do you understand by term ‘all in aggregate’ ?
Ans. Sometimes combined aggregates are available in nature
comprising different fractions of fine and coarse aggregates which
are known as all-in-aggregates.
2 Marks Questions SQ–4 D (CE-Sem-5)

1.22. What do you mean by single size aggregates ?

Ans. Aggregates comprising particles falling essentially within a narrow
limit of size fractions are called single-size aggregates.
1.23. Describe the soundness of aggregate.
Ans. The soundness indicates the ability of the aggregate to resist
excessive changes in the volume due to change in environment
conditions. E.g., freezing and thawing, thermal changes and
alternating wetting and drying.
1.24. Enlist the thermal properties of aggregates.
Ans. Following are the thermal properties of aggregate :
i. Coefficient of thermal expansion.
ii. Specific heat.
iii. Thermal conductivity.
1.25. Explain the gap grading of aggregates.
Ans. Gap grading is defined as a grading in which one or more
intermediate size fractions are absent.
1.26. Give the features of gap graded aggregates.
Ans. Following are the features of gap graded aggregates :
i. Gap-graded aggregate does not affect compressive or tensile
strength.
ii. Gap-graded aggregate requires lesser cement and lower water-
cement ratio.
iii. The drying shrinkage is reduced in the concrete using gap graded
aggregate.
iv. Specific surface area of gap graded aggregate is lower because of
higher percentage of coarse aggregate.
1.27. Enlist the various tests which are performed on the
aggregate.
Ans. Following are the various test performed on the aggregates :
i. Aggregate crushing value test.
ii. Aggregate impact value test.
iii. Aggregate abrasion value test.
iv. Bulk density test, etc.
1.28. What are the effects of impurities in water on properties of
concrete ?
Ans. Following are the effects of impurities in water on properties of
concrete.
1. The strength and durability of concrete is reduced due to the
presence of impurities in the mixing water.
2. Water containing large quantities of chlorides tends to cause
persistent dampness, surface efflorescence and increases the
corrosion of the reinforcing steel.


Concrete Technology SQ–5 D (CE-Sem-5)

2 Chemical and
Mineral Admixtures
(2 Marks Questions)

2.1. Classify the admixtures used in concrete production.

Ans. Following are the different types of admixtures :
i. Plasticizers.
ii. Superplasticizers.
iii. Retarders.
iv. Accelerators.
v. Air entraining admixtures.
vi. Pozzolanic or mineral admixtures.
vii. Water proofing admixtures, etc.

2.2. What are accelerators ?

Ans. These are substance which when added to concrete, mortar or
grout, increase the rate of hydration of a hydraulic cement, shorten
the time of set or increase the rate of hardening or strength
development.

2.3. Give the examples of accelerating admixtures.

Ans. Calcium chloride, soluble carbonates, silicates, fluosilicates, etc.

2.4. Describe the application of accelerator in concrete.

Ans. Accelerators are used in cold weather and under water construction.

2.5. Discuss retarders.

Ans. These are the substances which retard the setting rate of concrete.

2.6. Enlist the some retarding admixtures.

Ans. Sugar, carbohydrates derivatives, soluble zinc salt, etc., are used as
retarders.

2.7. Where are retarding admixtures used ?

Ans. These are particularly used in hot weather or for ready mixed
concrete where it is required to delay the setting of cement.

2.8. Define plasticizers.

2 Marks Questions SQ–6 D (CE-Sem-5)

Ans. These are the substance which when added to concrete, increase
workability without increasing the water content i.e., the concrete
made using these admixtures is a flowing concrete.

2.9. In what situation, plasticizers are used in concrete.

Ans. Following are the situation where plasticizers used :
i. It is particularly useful for very heavily reinforced sections or
where rapid placing of concrete is desired.
ii. It is used for reducing water cement ratio in extremely high
strength concrete.

2.10. Enumerate the new generation superplasticizers.

Ans. Following are the new generation superplasticizers :
i. Acrylic polymer based.
ii. Copolymer of carboxylic acrylic ester.
iii. Cross linked acrylic polymer.
iv. Polycarboxylate ester.
v. Multicarboxylate ethers, etc.

2.11. Write down the advantages of accelerators.

Ans. Following are the advantages of accelerators :
i. Permit earlier removal of form work.
ii. Reduce the required period of curing.
iii. Advance the time that a structure can be placed in concrete.
iv. In the emergency repair work.

2.12. What do you understand by air-entraining agents ?

Ans. These are the admixtures which cause air to be incorporated in the
form of minute bubbles in concrete during mixing to increase the
workability and resistance to freezing and thawing and disruptive
action of de-icing salts.

2.13. Enlist the air entrainment agents used in concrete

production.
Ans. Visol resin, natural wood resin, animal/vegetable fats etc, are the
substance to be used as an air entraining agents.

2.14. Write down the effect of air entrainment on the properties

of concrete.
Ans. Following are the effect of air entrainment on properties of concrete :
1. Increased resistance to freezing and thawing.
2. Improvement in workability.
3. Reduction in strength.
4. Reduces the alkali aggregate reaction.
5. Permits reduction in water content.

2.15. Write down the application of pozzolonas.

Concrete Technology SQ–7 D (CE-Sem-5)

Ans.
i. Pozzolona used for reduction in the heat of hydration.
ii. It is used for improvement in the workability.

2.16. Give the advantages and disadvantages of air-entraining

admixtures.
Ans. Advantages :
i. Increase resistance of concrete towards thawing and freezing.
ii. Increase workability of concrete.
iii. Reduce bleeding and segregation of concrete mixtures.
Disadvantages :
i. Reduce strength in high cement content concretes.

2.17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of water

reducing admixtures ?
Ans. Advantages :
i. Increase workability of concrete.
ii. High strength can be obtained with the same cement content.
iii. Save up cement upto 10 %
Disadvantages :
i. Aggravate the rate of slump loss with time.

2.18. Describe the merits and demerits of plasticizers.

Ans. Merits :
i. Enhance concrete early strength.
ii. Produce flowing concrete to use in heavy reinforced structure
with inaccessible areas.
Demerits :
i. Loss of workability as a result of rapid slump loss.
ii. Incompatibility of cement and plasticizers.
2.19. Enumerate the advantages and dis advantages of
accelerating admixtures.
Ans. Advantages :
i. Shorten the setting time of cement.
ii. Reduce segregation and increase density and compressive
strength.
iii. Reduce water requirements.
Disadvantages :
i. Might cause discoloration.
ii. Potential corrosion of reinforcement.
iii. Increase in drying shrinkage.


2 Marks Questions SQ–8 D (CE-Sem-5)

3 Mix Design and

Rheology of Concrete
(2 Marks Questions)

3.1. What do you understand by the term ‘proportioning of

mix’ ?
Ans. Proportioning a concrete mix for a given purpose is thus the art of
obtaining a suitable ratio of the various ingredients of concrete
with the required properties at the lowest cost.

3.2. Discuss the principles of mix proportioning.

Ans. Following are the data required for proportioning a concrete mix :
i. The environmental exposure conditions.
ii. Grades of concrete.
iii. Types of cement.
iv. Types and size of aggregates.
v. Maximum and minimum cement content.
vi. The maximum free water-cement ratio.
vii. Degree of workability.
viii. Type of admixture used.
ix. Density of concrete.
x. Type of mixing and curing.

3.3. Write down the environment exposer conditions for

concrete.
Ans. Following are the environment exposers conditions :
i. Mild.
ii. Modulate.
iii. Sever.
iv. Very sever.
v. Extreme.

3.4. What are the properties of concrete related to mix design ?

Ans. Following are the properties of concrete related to mix design :
i. Durability.
ii. Workability.
iii. Strength.
Concrete Technology SQ–9 D (CE-Sem-5)

3.5. Define harshness of mix.

Ans. It is defined as the inability of concrete to have a smooth finish even
after trowelling. This happens when the cement mortar is
insufficient to fill all the voids and when too many particles are
large or have the same size.

3.6. What the various methods of proportioning concrete mixes.

Ans. Following are the various methods of proportioning concrete mixes :
i. Trial mixes.
ii. Nominal mixes.
iii. America concrete institute method.
iv. BIS method.
v. Minimum voids method.
vi. Maximum density method.

3.7. Write down the factors that affects the workability.

Ans. Following are the factors affecting the workability of concrete :
i. Types of aggregate rounded, angular, flaky, etc
ii. Grading of fine and coarse aggregates i.e., poorly and well graded.
iii. Quantity of cement paste in the mix.
iv. Consistency of the paste.

3.8. Write down the compressive strength formula according

to Abram’s law.
Ans. Compressive strength is expressed as :
A
F = 1x
B1
log F = log A1 – x log B1
where, F = Compressive strength.
A1 and B1 = Constants.
x = Water-cement ratio.

3.9. What is mean strength ?

Ans. This is the average strength x obtained by dividing the sum of
individual strength (x) of all the cubes by the number of cubes (n).
x
Mean strength, x =
n

3.10. Define variance.

Ans. This is the measure of variability of difference between any single
observed data from the mean strength.

3.11. Define characteristic strength of concrete.

Ans. It is defined as that value below which not more than 5 % of the test
results are expected to fall.
2 Marks Questions SQ–10 D (CE-Sem-5)

3.12. Give the statement of Abram’s law.

Ans. According to Abram’s law, “the strength of fully compacted hardened
concrete is approximately inversely proportional to the water
content per cubic metre of cement i.e., water-cement ratio”.

3.13. What is rheology and rheological models of concrete ?

Ans. Rheology is the science of flow of material. Rhelogical models of
fresh concrete give us information about the ability of fresh
concrete mix to flow under its own weight and fill the moulds
without voids.

3.14. Write down the rheological characteristics of fresh concrete.

Ans. Following are the characteristic of fresh concrete :
i. Workability.
ii. Compactability.
iii. Flowability.
iv. Pumpability.
v. Flow under its own weight.
vi. Fillability.
vii. Stability.
viii. Finishability.

3.15. Classify the flow of fresh concrete.

Ans.
i. Confined Flow : Concrete flow under its own weight through an
orifice.
ii. Free Flow : Concrete flows freely under its own weight or is poked
and inserted by rod or a plunger by only gravitational force.
iii. Vibration Flow : Concrete flows under the influence of vibrations.

3.16. What are the factors which affects the rheological

properties of concrete ?
Ans. Following are the factors affecting the rheological properties of
concrete :
i. Mixing of concrete.
ii. Effect of cohesion.
iii. Effect of water and super plasticizers.
iv. Heat of hydration and air entrained.


Concrete Technology SQ–11 D (CE-Sem-5)

4 Concrete Production,
Properties and Testing
(2 Marks Questions)

4.1. What are the step in concreting process ?

Ans. The concreting process involves the following five steps :
i. Batching or measurement of materials.
ii. Mixing of concrete.
iii. Transportation.
iv. Placing, compacting and finishing of concrete.
v. Curing.

4.2. Write down the factors affecting the batching process.

Ans. Following are the affecting factor of batching process :
i. Size of job.
ii. Required production rate, and
iii. Required standard of batching performance.

4.3. Classify the batching process of concrete.

Ans. Following are the batching process of concrete :
i. Manual batching.
ii. Semi automated batching.
iii. Automated batching.

4.4. Classify the mixers, which are used in mixing of concrete.

Ans. Following are the various types of mixer commonly employed :
1. Horizontal or inclined (B drum) mixer :
i. Tilting drum.
ii. Non-tilting drum.
iii. Reversing drum.
2. Vertical (Pan) mixer.

4.5. Enumerate the various equipments which are used for

transporting of concrete.
Ans. Following equipments are used for transporting concrete :
i. Barrows.
ii. Dumpers and trucks.
iii. Elevating tower and hoists.
2 Marks Questions SQ–12 D (CE-Sem-5)

iv. Cranes and cableways.

v. Belt conveyor.

4.6. Define curing of concrete.

Ans. Curing refers to maintaining satisfactory moisture content and
temperature in fresh concrete in order to achieve the desired
strength and hardness.

4.7. What are the advantages of curing in concrete ?

Ans. Following are the advantages of curing in concrete :
i. Favorably cured concrete has better strength.
ii. Drying shrinkage and cracking are reduced.
iii. Concrete of better durability.

4.8. What are the different methods of curing ?

Ans. Following are the various methods of curing :
i. Covering concrete surface with hessian or gunny bags.
ii. Sprinkling of water.
iii. Ponding method.
iv. Membrane curing.
v. Steam curing.
vi. Electrical curing.

4.9. What are the limitations of slump cone test of concrete ?

Ans. Slump cone test does not give good results in case of stiff or harsh
concrete.

4.10. Define compacting factor.

Ans. Compacting factor is a ratio of weight of partially compacted concrete
to weight of fully compacted concrete.

4.11. In which conditions compacting factor test is not suitable.

Ans. It is not suitable for concrete of very low workability of 0.7 or below.

4.12. Discuss Abram’s law.

Ans. “For plastic mixtures using neat and clean aggregate the strength
of concrete under specified conditions is governed by the net quantity
of water mixed per bag of cement”.

4.13. What is gel space ratio ?

Ans. Gel-space ratio is defined as the ratio of volume of hydrates cement
paste to the sum of the volume of the hydrated cement and that of
the capillary pores.
S = 240 x3

4.14. Write the factor affecting the strength of concrete ?

Concrete Technology SQ–13 D (CE-Sem-5)

Ans. Following are the factors affecting the strength of concrete :

i. Size of test specimen.
ii. Size of specimen relative to maximum size of aggregate.
iii. Moisture condition of specimen.
iv. Air voids.
v. Rate of loading.
vi. Age and types of cement, etc.

4.15. What is maturity of concrete and how it is calculated ?

Ans. It is defined as the summation of product of time and temperature.
Maturity = (Time × Temperature)

4.16. What is creep ?

Ans. It may be defined as increase of strain in concrete with time
sustained load. This is also known as plastic flow or time field.

4.17. What do you mean by shrinkage ? How is it determine ?

Ans. Contraction of concrete in the absence of load is known as
shrinkage.
Shrinkage can be estimated by,
Es = 0.00125(0.90 – h)
where, h = Relative humidity.

4.18. Define plastic shrinkage.

Ans. Shrinkage of concrete due to absorption of water by aggregate,
rapid evaporation of water and bleeding.

4.19. Describe drying shrinkage.

Ans. The shrinkage taking place due to capillary water, absorbed water,
or interlayer water after the concrete has set and hardened.

4.20. Give the remedial measures to overcome the effect of creep.

Ans. The effect of creep can be reduced by,
i. Using high strength concrete.
ii. Delaying the application of finishes, partition wall, etc
iii. Adding reinforcement.
iv. Steam curing under pressure.

4.21. Write down the various types of test performed for

determining the compressive and flexural strength.
Ans. Following are the various test performed for determining the
compressive and flexural strength of concrete :
A. Destructive Test :
i. Cube test.
ii. Tensile strength test :
a. Split tensile test.
b. Flexure test.
2 Marks Questions SQ–14 D (CE-Sem-5)

iii. Concrete core test.

B. Non-Destructive Test :
i. Rebound hammer test.
ii. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test.
iii. Pull out test.
iv. Penetration resistance test.

4.22. What is creep coefficient ?

Ans. It is the ratio of the ultimate creep strain to the elastic strain at the
age of loading.
Age of Loading Creep Coefficient
7 days 2.2
28 days 1.6
1 year 1.1

4.23. Define initial tangent modulus of concrete.

Ans. It is a slope of the curve from origin.

4.24. What are the advantages of ultrasonic pulse velocity test ?

Ans. Advantages :
i. High penetrating power.
ii. High sensitivity.
iii. Greater accuracy.
iv. Some capability in estimating the size, shape, nature of the flows.
v. Portability.

4.25. Give the disadvantages of ultrasonic pulse velocity test.

Ans. Disadvantages :
i. Skilled person are required.
ii. Difficulty in inspecting the parts which are irregular.
iii. Requirement of the couplants.
iv. Test objects should be water resistant.

4.26. What is the relation between cohesiveness and segregation ?

Ans.
1. Cohesive means bonding force and segregation means separation,
when boding is increased between ingredients of concrete then
segregation will be less.
2. Hence cohesiveness and segregation are inversely related.


Concrete Technology SQ–15 D (CE-Sem-5)

5 Specific Concretes
(2 Marks Questions)

5.1. What is the self compacting concrete ?

Ans. Self compacting concrete is a concrete that can be compacted into
every corner of a formwork purely by means of its own weight,
without using any external vibrators.
5.2. Discuss the material required for self compacting concrete.
Ans. Following are the material required for self compacting concrete :
i. Cement. ii. Fine aggregate.
iii. Coarse aggregate. iv. Water.
v. Chemical admixture such as superplasticizers, viscosity modifying
agents, air-entraining agents.
vi. Mineral admixtures such as fly ash, GBFS, silica fume.
5.3. What are the advantages of self compacting concrete ?
Ans. Following are the advantages of self compacting concrete :
i. Improves the quality, durability and reliability of concrete structures
due to better compaction and homogeneity of concrete.
ii. Reduced permeability.
iii. Ease of placement result in cost savings.

5.4. What do you understand by fiber reinforced concrete ?

Ans. Fiber Reinforced Concrete : Concrete containing cement, water,
aggregate, and discontinuous, uniformly dispersed or discrete fibers
is called fiber reinforced concrete.

5.5. What are the affecting factors of properties of fiber

reinforced concrete ?
Ans. Following are the factors affecting properties of fiber reinforced
concrete :
i. Mixing.
ii. Workability and compaction of concrete.
iii. Size of coarse aggregate.
iv. Orientation of fibres.
v. Aspect ratio of fibres.
vi. Volume of fibres.
2 Marks Questions SQ–16 D (CE-Sem-5)

5.6. Give the advantages of fiber reinforced concrete.

Ans. Advantages of Fiber Reinforced Concrete :
i. Lower permeability of concrete.
ii. Better toughness.
iii. Enhancement of fatigue strength and endurance limit.
iv. Improvement in bond strength.
v. Reduction in shrinkage and cracking.
5.7. Discuss the application of fiber reinforced concrete.
Ans. Application of Fiber Reinforced Concrete :
i. Repairs and rehabilitation works.
ii. Wearing surface to exiting bridges/ culverts.
iii. Precast products.
iv. Blast resistance structures.
v. Water retaining structures.
vi. Pavements and floors.
5.8. Write down the comparison of FRC and NRC.
Ans.
S. No. FRC NRC
(Fiber Reinforced Concrete) (Normal Reinforced Concrete)
1. High durability. Lower durability.
2. Protect steel from corrosion. Steel potential to corrosion.
3. Lighter materials. Heavier material.
4. More expensive. Economical.
5. With the same volume, the With the same vo lume , the
strength is greater. strength is less.
6. Less workability. High workability as compared to
FRC.
5.9. What is ferro-cement ?
Ans. It is a type of thinwall reinforced cement commonly constructed of
hydraulic cement mortar reinforced with closely spaced layers of
continuous and relatively small size wire mesh.
5.10. What are the constituents of ferro-cement ?
Ans. Following are the constituents of ferro-cement :
i. Cement mortar mix.
ii. Skeleton steel.
iii. Steel mesh reinforcement or fibre reinforcement polymeric meshes.
5.11. Enumerate the manufacturing techniques of ferro-cement.
Ans. Following are the manufacturing techniques of ferro-cement :
i. Hand plastering.
ii. Semi-mechanized process.
iii. Centrifuging and guniting.
Concrete Technology SQ–17 D (CE-Sem-5)

5.12. Describe properties of ferro-cement.

Ans. Following are the properties of ferro-cement :
i. It is very durable, cheap and versatile material.
ii. High tensile strength and stiffness.
iii. Better impact and punching shear resistance.

5.13. Enumerate the mechanical properties of ferro-cement.

Ans. Mechanical Properties of Ferro-cement :
i. Compressive strength – 27.5 to 60 N/mm².
ii. Allowable tensile strength – 10.0 N/mm².
iii. Ultimate tensile strength – 34.5 N/mm².
iv. Steel cover – 1.5 mm to 5 mm.
v. Steel percentage – 5 to 8 %.
vi. Thickness – 10 mm to 60 mm.

5.14. Describe the various application of ferro-cement.

Ans.
1. Marine Application : It is used for constructing boats, fishing
vessels, barrages, docks, floating buyos. etc.
2. Rural Energy Application : Biogas digester, biogas holder,
incinerator etc.

5.15. Compare recycled aggregate and natural aggregate.

Ans.
S. No. Recycled Aggregate Natural Aggregate
1. It has rough textured angular It has smo o th and ro unde d
elongated particles. compacted particles.
2. It is well graded. It is not well graded.
3. It has more water absorption. It has less water absorption.
4. It has lower dry density. It has more dry density.

5.16. Write down the applications of recycled aggregate.

Ans. Following are the applications of recycled aggregate :
i. Embankment Fill Materials : The embankment site is on the
wet subgrade areas. Recycled aggregate can stabilize the base and
provide an improved working surface.
ii. Backfill Materials : Recycled aggregate can be used as backfill
materials in the pipe zone along trenches after having testing in
laboratory.


Concrete Technology SP–1 D (CE-Sem-5)

B.Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2018-19
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 70

Note : Attempt all sections. If any missing data required, then choose
suitably.

Section – A

1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)

a. What is bulking of sand ?

b. What are the thermal properties of aggregate ?

c. Define Plastic concrete.

d. What is the impact of W/C ratio on durability ?

e. Write the concept of mix design.

f. Define standard deviation.

g. What is the Rheological representation of creep ?

Section-B

2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)

a. What are the roles of various ingredients of cement ? What
are the harmful compounds likely to be present in cements ?

b. Describe the mechanism of action of plasticizers with neat

sketch. Mention any three super plasticizers.

c. Design a concrete mix of M 30 grade. Take standard deviation

5 MPa. The specific gravities of coarse aggregate and fine
aggregate are 2.75 and 2.62 respectively. The bulk density of
coarse aggregate is 1610 kg/m3 and fineness modulus of
aggregate is 2.70. A slump of 60 mm is necessary. The water
absorption of coarse aggregate is 1 % and free moisture in
fine aggregate is 2 %. Design the concrete mix using IS code
method. Assume any missing data.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–2 D (CE-Sem-5)

d. What is the relation between creep and time ? What is the

effect of creep on concrete ?

e. Explain the following :

A. Light weight aggregate concrete.
B. SIFCON.
C. Types of polymer concrete.

Section-C

3. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. What are the sources of aggregate ? And also classify the
particles on the basis of aggregate in tabular form.

b. How is water used in making concrete and what is its role

in the foundation and properties of concrete ?

4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Describe gas forming agents ? Give an example of a material
in powder form used as a gas forming agent.

b. Write a note on workability agents. Give examples.

5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Explain how you would determine the various elastic
moduli for concrete.

b. What do you understand by carbonation of concrete ? How

is it tested ?

6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Write a brief note on flexure strength of concrete.

b. Discuss the influence of mix proportions of concrete on

shrinkage.

7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. What is the need to study fiber reinforced concrete and
explain briefly the factors effecting properties of fiber
reinforced concrete ?

b. Difference between high performance concrete and high

density concrete.


Concrete Technology SP–3 D (CE-Sem-5)

SOLUTION OF PAPER (2018-19)

Note : Attempt all sections. If any missing data required, then choose
suitably.

Section – A

1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)

a. What is bulking of sand ?
Ans. Bulking of Fine Aggregate :
1. The increase in the volume of a given mass of fine aggregate
caused by the presence of water is known as bulking.
2. The bulking of fine aggregate is caused by the films of water
which push the particles apart.
3. The extent of bulking depends upon the percentage of moisture
present in the sand and its fineness.
4. It is seen that bulking increases gradually with moisture content
up to a certain point and then begins to decrease with further
addition of water due to the merging of films, until when the sand
is inundated.
5. With ordinary sands the bulking usually varies between 15-30 %.
6. In extremely fine sand the bulking may be of the order of 40 % at
a moisture content of 10 % but such sand is unsuitable for concrete.

b. What are the thermal properties of aggregate ?

Ans. Following are the thermal properties of aggregate :
i. Coefficient of thermal expansion.
ii. Specific heat.
iii. Thermal conductivity.

c. Define Plastic concrete.

Ans. If recycled waste plastic were mixed with cement concrete, then it
is called as plastic concrete.

d. What is the impact of W/C ratio on durability ?

Ans. Cement Content and w/c Ratio of Concrete : Volume change
result in cracks and cracks are responsible for disintegration of
concrete.

e. Write the concept of mix design.

Ans. Principles of Mix Proportions : According to IS 456 : 2000 and
IS 1343 – 1980 the design of concrete mix should be based on
following principles :
i. Grade designation.
ii. Type and grade of cement.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–4 D (CE-Sem-5)

iii. Minimum nominal size of aggregate.

iv. Grading of combined aggregate.
v. Water cement ratio.
vi. Workability.
vii. Durability.
viii. Quality control.

f. Define standard deviation.

Ans. Standard Deviation :
i. This is the root mean square deviation of all the results, is denoted
by s or . Numerically it can be explained as,

 ( x  x )2
=
n1
where,  = Standard deviation.
n = Number of observations.
x = Particular value of observations.
x = Arithmetic mean.
ii. Standard deviation increases with increasing variability.
iii. The characteristics of the normal distribution curve are fixed by
the average value and the standard deviation.

g. What is the Rheological representation of creep ?

Ans. Rheological representation of creep is rheological models consisting
of springs and dashpots that represent the time-dependent
behaviour of materials like concrete and masonry.

Section-B

2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)

a. What are the roles of various ingredients of cement ? What
are the harmful compounds likely to be present in cements ?
Ans.
A. Roles of Various Ingredients of Cement : Following are the
roles of various ingredients of cement :
1. Lime (CaO) :
i. Lime forms nearly two-third (2/3) of the cement.
ii. Sufficient quantity of lime forms di-calcium silicate (C2Si O2) and
tri-calcium silicate in the manufacturing of cement.
iii. Lime in excess, causes the cement to expand and disintegrate.
2. Silica (SiO2) :
i. The quantity of silica should be enough to form di-calcium silicate
(C2SiO2) and tri-calcium silicate in the manufacturing of cement.
ii. Silica gives strength to the cement.
iii. Silica in excess causes the cement to set slowly.
3. Alumina (Al2O3) :
Concrete Technology SP–5 D (CE-Sem-5)

i.
Alumina supports to set quickly to the cement.
ii.
It also lowers the clinkering temperature.
iii.
Alumina in excess reduces the strength of the cement.
4.Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) : Iron oxide gives colour to the cement.
5.Magnesia (MgO) :
i.
It also helps in giving colour to the cement.
ii.
Magnesium in excess makes the cement unsound.
6.Calcium Sulphate (or) Gypsum (CaSO4) : At the final stage of
manufacturing, gypsum is added to increase the setting of cement.
B. Harmful Compounds :The presence of the following two oxides
adversely affects the quality of cement :
1. Alkali oxides K2O and Na2O.
2. Magnesium oxide MgO.

b. Describe the mechanism of action of plasticizers with neat

sketch. Mention any three super plasticizers.
Ans.
A. Mechanism of Action of Plasticizers : The action of plasticizers
is mainly to fluidify the mix and improve the workability of concrete,
mortar or grout. The mechanisms involved are :
1. Dispersion :
i. Portland cement being in fine state will have a tendency to flocculate
in wet concrete, these flocculation entraps certain amount of water
used in the mix.
ii. When plasticizers are used, they get adsorbed on the cement
particles, creates particle to particle repulsive forces which overcome
the attractive forces.
iii. This repulsive force is called Zeta Potential, which depends on the
base, solid content, quantity of plasticizer used.
iv. When cement particles are deflocculated, the water trapped inside
the flocs gets released and is now available to fluidify the mix.
2. Lubricating : The agents are organic by nature, thus they lubricate
the mix reducing the friction and increasing the workability.
3. Retarding Effect :
i. Plasticizers get adsorbed on the surface of the cement particles and
form a thin sheath.
ii. This sheath inhibits the surface hydration reaction between water
and cement as long as sufficient plasticizers molecules are available.
iii. Quantity of plasticizers will decrease as the polymers become
entrapped in hydration products.
The following mechanisms may take place simultaneously :
a. Reduction in the surface tension of water.
b. Induced electrostatic repulsion between particles of cement.
c. Lubricating film between cement particles.
d. Dispersion of cement grains, releasing water trapped within
cement flocs.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–6 D (CE-Sem-5)

e. Inhibition of the surface hydration reaction of the hydration

cement particles, leaving more water to fluidify the mix.

Flocculated Dispersed
Schematic representation of Inter particle
flocculation of cement grain in repulsion
plain concrete and effect of
plasticizer for dispersion
All surface of cement particles
not available for hyderation
Cement grain

Entrapped Cement grains Released water

water floc
Cement particle
Cement particles flocculate in the
absence of a dispersing agent

Fig. 1. Mechanism of action of plasticizers.

B. Super Plasticizers :
Types of Superplasticizers : Different types of superplasticizers
are as follows :
1. Lignosulphonates : These are derived from neutralization,
precipitation, and fermentation processes of the waste liquor
obtained during production of paper-making pulp from wood
2. Sulphonated Melamine Formaldehyde (SMF) : It is
manufacture d by no rmal resinificatio n o f me lamine -
formaldehyde.
3. Sulphonated Napthalene Formaldehyde (SNF) : Produced
from naphthalene by oleum or SO3 sulphonation; subsequent
reaction with formaldehyde leads to polymerization and the
sulphonic acid is neutralized with sodium hydroxide or lime.

c. Design a concrete mix of M 30 grade. Take standard deviation

5 MPa. The specific gravities of coarse aggregate and fine
aggregate are 2.75 and 2.62 respectively. The bulk density of
coarse aggregate is 1610 kg/m3 and fineness modulus of
aggregate is 2.70. A slump of 60 mm is necessary. The water
absorption of coarse aggregate is 1 % and free moisture in
Concrete Technology SP–7 D (CE-Sem-5)

fine aggregate is 2 %. Design the concrete mix using IS code

method. Assume any missing data.
Ans.
Given : Standard deviation,  = 5 MPa, Specific gravity of CA
= 2.75, Specific gravity of FA = 2.62, Bulk density of CA = 1610 kg/
m3 , Fineness modulus of aggregate = 2.70, Slump value
= 60 mm, Water absorption of CA = 1 %, Free moisture in
FA = 2 %.
To Find : Design mix M30 grade concrete.
1. Assuming 5 percent of results are allowed to fall below specified
design strength. The mean strength,
fm = fmin + k
= 30 + 1.64 × 5 = 38.2 MPa
2. Assume estimated w/c ratio is 0.47.
i. This w/c ratio from strength point of view is to be checked against
maximum w/c ratio given for special exposure condition given in
IS 456 : 2000 and minimum of the two is to be adopted.
ii. From IS 456 : 2000 the maximum w/c ratio is 0.60.
Therefore, adopt w/c ratio of 0.47.
3. From IS 456 : 2000, for a slump of 60 mm, 20 mm maximum size of
aggregate, for non-air-entrained concrete, the mixing water
content is 185 kg/m3 of concrete. Also the approximate entrapped
air content is 2 %.
The required cement content = 185 / 0.47  394 kg/m3
4. From IS 456 : 2000, for 20 mm coarse aggregate, for fineness
modulus of 2.60, the dry rodded bulk volume of coarse aggregate
is 0.62 per unit volume of concrete.
5. Therefore the weight of coarse aggregate = 0.62 × 1610
= 998.2 kg/m3.
6. From IS code, the first estimate of density of fresh concrete for
20 mm maximum size of aggregate and for non-air-entrained
concrete = 2355 kg/m3.
7. The weight of all the known ingredient of concrete are :
Weight of water = 185 kg/m3
Weight of cement = 394 kg/m3
Weight of CA = 998.2 kg/m3
Weight of FA = 2355 – (185 + 394 + 998.2) = 777.8 kg/m3
8. Alternatively the weight of FA can also be found out by absolute
volume method which is more accurate, as follows :
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–8 D (CE-Sem-5)

Item Ingredients Weight Absolute Volume

Number kg/m3 cm 3
394
1. Cement 394 × 103 = 125 × 103
3.15
185
2. Water 185 × 103 = 185 × 103
1
998.2
3. Coarse aggregate 998.2 × 103  363 × 103
2.75
2
4. Air × 106 = 20 × 103
100
Total absolute volume = 693 × 103 cm3
Henceabsolute volume of FA = (1000 – 693) × 103 = 307 × 103 cm3
Weight of FA = 307 × 2.62  804.34 kg/m3
9. Estimated quantities of materials per cubic meter of concrete are :
Cement = 394 kg
FA = 804.34 kg
CA = 998.2 kg
Water = 185 kg
Density of fresh concrete = 2381.54 kg/m3.
10. Proportions :
Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate Water
394 804.34 998.2 185
1 2.04 2.52 0.47
Weight of materials for one bag mix in kg = 50 : 102 : 126.5 : 23.5
The above quantity is on the basis that both FA and CA are in
saturated and surface dry condition.
11. The proportions are required to be adjusted for the field conditions.
FA has moisture of 2 per cent.
i. Total free surface moisture in FA = (2/100) × 804.34 = 16.08 kg/m3
ii. Weight of FA in field condition
= 804.34 +16.08 = 820.42 kg/m3  821 kg/m3
iii. CA absorbs 1 % water
Quantity of water absorbed by CA = (1/100) × 998.2 = 9.981 kg/m3
iv. Weight of CA in field condition
= 998.2 – 9.982 = 989.2 kg/m3
v. With regard to water, 16.08 kg of water is contributed by FA and
9.982 kg of water is absorbed by CA.
Therefore 16.08 – 9.982 = 6.1 kg of extra water is contributed by
aggregates. This quantity of water is deducted from total water
185.00 – 6.1 = 178.9 kg/m3  179 kg/m3
Concrete Technology SP–9 D (CE-Sem-5)

12. Quantities of materials to be used in the field duly corrected for

free surface moisture in FA and absorption characteristic of CA
Cement = 394 kg/m3
FA = 821 kg/m3
CA = 989 kg/m3
Water = 179 kg/m3
Field density of fresh concrete = 2388 kg/m3

d. What is the relation between creep and time ? What is the

effect of creep on concrete ?
Ans.
A. Relation between Creep and Time :
1. The rate of creep decreases with time and the creep strains at five
years are taken as terminal values.
2. Creep increases rapidly with the stress, loading at an early age of
concrete, broken ballast, soft and porous aggregate, poorly graded
and improperly compacted concrete.
B. Effects of creep on concrete structures :
1. In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with
time and may be a critical consideration in design.
2. In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and
can lead to buckling.
3. Loss of prestress due to creep of concrete in prestressed concrete
structure.
4. Creep property of concrete will be useful in all concrete structures
to reduce the internal stresses due to non-uniform load or restrained
shrinkage.
5. In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential
temperature conditions at the interior and surface, creep is harmful
and by itself may be a cause of cracking in the interior of dams.

e. Explain the following :

A. Light weight aggregate concrete.
B. SIFCON.
C. Types of polymer concrete.
Ans.
A. Light Weight Aggregate Concrete : Concrete of substantially
lower density than that made using aggregates of normal density;
consists entirely of light weight aggregate or a combination of light
weight aggregate and normal-density aggregate; its equilibrium
densities are generally between 1120 to 1920 kg/m3.
B. SIFCON :
1. SIFCON is the slurry infiltrated fiber concrete.
2. It is one such high performance material that possesses excellent
mechanical properties coupled with greater energy absorption
characteristics.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–10 D (CE-Sem-5)

3. It contains 6-20 % of fibres.

4. The coarse aggregate is omitted.
5. The strength of the concrete is high with the flexural strength and
is suitable for earthquake prone areas.
6. It possesses high flow ability and passing ability.
7. It is fabricated by infiltrating a bed of pre-placed fibres with cement
slurry.
8. It is unsuitable and uneconomical for hydraulic structures.
C. Types of Polymer Concrete : Following are the various types of
polymer concrete :
1. Polymer impregnated concrete (PIC).
2. Polymer cement concrete (PCC).
3. Partially impregnated and surface coated polymer concrete.
4. Polymer concrete (PC).

Section-C

3. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. What are the sources of aggregate ? And also classify the
particles on the basis of aggregate in tabular form.
Ans.
A. Source of Aggregate : Following are the sources of aggregate :
1. Natural Aggregate :
i. Almost all natural aggregate materials originate from bed rocks.
ii. There are three kinds of rocks, namely, igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.
iii. The igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten magma or
lava at the surface of the crest (trap and basalt) or deep beneath the
crest (granite).
iv. The sedimentary rocks are formed originally below the sea bed and
subsequently lifted up.
v. Metamorphic rocks are originally either igneous or sedimentary
rocks which are subsequently metamorphosed due to extreme heat
and pressure.
2. Artificial Aggregates : They are obtained either as a by-product
or by a special manufacturing process such as heating. (e.g. blast
furnace slag, expanded perlite).
B. Classification of Particles on the basis of shape of the
Aggregate :
Concrete Technology SP–11 D (CE-Sem-5)

Classification Description Examples

Rounded Fully wate r wo rn o r Rive r or seashore
completely shaped by gravels ; desert, seashore
attrition and wind-blown sands
Irregular o r Naturally irregular or partly Pit sands and gravels ;
partly rounded shaped by attrition, having land or dug flints ; cuboid
rounded edges rock
Angular Po sse ssing we ll-de fined Crushed rocks o f all
edge s fo rmed at the types ; talus ; screes
inte rsection o f ro ughly
planar faces
Flaky Material, usually angular, of Laminated rocks
which the thickness is small
relative to the width and/or
length

b. How is water used in making concrete and what is its role

in the foundation and properties of concrete ?
Ans.
A. Water used in Making Concrete :
1. The water used for the mixing and curing of concrete should be
free from injurious amounts of deleterious materials.
2. The unwanted situations, leading to the distress of concrete, have
been found to be a result of, among others, the mixing and curing
water being of inappropriate quality.
3. Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing
concrete.
4. In the case of doubt about the suitability of water, particularly in
remote areas or where water is derived from sources not normally
utilized for domestic purposes, water should be tested.
Table gives the typical limits of impurities in water as per IS :
456-2000.

Solids Permissible limits, max. (mg/L)

Organic 200
Inorganic 3000
Sulphates (as SO3) 400
Chlorides (as Cl2) :
i. For plain concrete 2000
ii. For reinforced concrete 500
Suspended matter 2000
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–12 D (CE-Sem-5)

B. Role of Water :
1. Water is the most important and least expensive ingredient of
concrete.
2. It plays an important role in mixing, laying, compaction, setting and
hardening of concrete.
3. The strength of concrete depends on the quality and quantity of
water used in the mix.
4. The functions of water in the concrete mix are given below :
i. It acts as lubricant for the fine and coarse aggregate and makes
the mixture workable.
ii. It acts chemically with cement to form the binding paste.
iii. It is employed to damp the aggregate surface in order to prevent
them from absorbing water vitally necessary for chemical action.
iv. It facilitates the spreading of aggregate.
v. It helps to flux the cementing material over the surface of the
aggregate.
vi. It enables the concrete mix to flow into moulds.

4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Describe gas forming agents ? Give an example of a material
in powder form used as a gas forming agent.
Ans.
A. Gas Forming Agent :
1. These admixtures when added to mortar or concrete mixture react
chemically with hydroxides present in the cement and form minute
bubbles of hydrogen gas of size ranging from 0.1 to 1 mm throughout
the cement-water matrix.
2. This action, when properly controlled, causes a slight expansion in
plastic concrete or mortar and thus reduces or eliminates voids
caused by normal settlement that occur during the placement of
concrete.
3. Water films around the gas bubbles prevent bleeding.
4. The gas is beneficial in improving the effectiveness of grout for
filling joints, in improving the homogeneity of grouted concrete,
and in filling block outs and openings in concrete structures.
5. Larger amounts of powder increase the expansion appreciably
resulting in a gas-filled lightweight low strength concrete. These
are also called foamed concrete or aerated concrete or cellular
concrete.
B. Example : Aluminium powder, Hydrogen peroxide, Activated
carbon, etc.

b. Write a note on workability agents. Give examples.

Ans.
A. Workability Agents :
Concrete Technology SP–13 D (CE-Sem-5)

1. The workability of concrete is governed by the amount of aggregate

in the mix. Where reduction of aggregate (or increase in cement) is
impractical, workability is increased by adding a plasticizer.
2. Air-entraining agents, when used, are plasticizers. Other substances
include calcium chloride, lime, fly ash, and other pozzolans.
3. Lime increases the cementing properties of cement, as do pozzolans
combined with lime.
4. Fly ash is inexpensive compared to cement and is used as a partial
replacement (up to as much as 50 percent) of the cement.
5. It changes both the plastic and the hardened properties of concrete.
6. Fly ash improves workability and reduces segregation, bleeding,
and the heat of hydration.
B. Example : Bentonite clay, Diatomaceous earth, Fly ash, Finely
divided silica, Hydrated lime, etc.

5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Explain how you would determine the various elastic
moduli for concrete.
Ans. Following are the various elastic modulus for concrete :
A. Static Modulus of Elasticity :
1. Modulus of elasticity of concrete is a key factor for estimating the
deformation of structural elements, as well as a fundamental factor
for determining modular ratio, n, which is used for the design of
structural members subjected to flexure.
2. The modulus of elasticity of concrete is directly proportional to the
square root of characteristic compressive strength in the range of
normal concrete strength,
3. The IS 456 : 2000 gives the modulus of elasticity of concrete as :
Ec = 5000 f ck
where, E = Modulus of elasticity.
fck = Characteristic strength of concrete.
B. Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity :
1. In this method pulses of compression waves are generated by an
electro-acoustical transducer that is held in contact with one surface
of the prismatic or cylindrical concrete specimen.
2. After traversing through the concrete, the pulses are received and
converted into electrical energy by a second transducer located at a
distance L from the transmitting transducer.
3. The pulse velocity V = L/T is related to the physical properties of a
solid by the eq. (1)
Ed V 2
V 2 = (K ) or Ed = ...(1)
 K
where, L = Distance between transducers, m
T = Transit time, seconds
Ed = Dynamic modulus of elasticity, Pa (N/m2)
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–14 D (CE-Sem-5)

V = Pulse velocity, m/sec

 = Mass density, kg/m3
K = 1 (for a cylindrical specimen).
Transmitting Receiving
Transducer Transducer

Time
Display
unit

Time
Pulse Receiver
Measuring
Generator Amplifier
Circuit

Fig. 2. Schematic of pulse velocity circuit.

b. What do you understand by carbonation of concrete ? How

is it tested ?
Ans.
A. Carbonation of Concrete :
1. Carbonation occurs in concrete because the calcium bearing phases
present are attacked by carbon dioxide of the air and converted to
calcium carbonate.
2. Cement paste contains 25-50 % calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) by
weight, which mean that the pH of the fresh cement paste is at
least 12.5.
3. The pH of a fully carbonated paste is about 7.
4. The concrete will carbonate if CO2 from air or from water enters
the concrete according to:
Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 + H2O
5. When Ca(OH)2 is removed from the paste hydrated CSH will liberate
CaO which will also carbonate.
6. The rate of carbonation depends on porosity and moisture content
of the concrete.
7. The carbonation process requires the presence of water because
CO2 dissolves in water forming H2CO3.
8. If the concrete is too dry (RH < 40 %) CO2 cannot dissolve and no
carbonation occurs.
Concrete Technology SP–15 D (CE-Sem-5)

9. If on the other hand it is too wet (RH > 90 %) CO2 cannot enter the
concrete and the concrete will not carbonate. Optimal conditions
for carbonation occur at a RH of 50% (range 40-90 %).
B. Test of Carbonation of Concrete :
1. Carbonation may be recognized in the field by the presence of a
discoloured zone in the surface of the concrete.
2. The colour may vary from light gray and difficult to recognize to
strong orange and easy to recognize.
3. Carbonation can be visualized by using phenolphthalein.
4. In the optical microscope carbonation is recognized by the presence
of calcite crystals and the absence of calcium hydroxide, ettringite
and un-hydrated cement grains.

6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Write a brief note on flexure strength of concrete.
Ans. Flexure Strength of Concrete :
1. The determination of flexural tensile strength is essential to estimate
the load at which the concrete members may crack.
2. As it is difficult to determine the tensile strength of concrete by
conducting a direct tension test, it is computed by flexure testing.
3. The flexural tensile strength at failure or the modulus of rupture is
thus determined and used when necessary.
4. Its knowledge is useful in the design of pavement slabs and airfield
runway as flexural tension is critical in these cases.
5. The modulus of rupture is determined by testing standard test
specimens of 150 mm × 150 mm × 700 mm over a span of 600 mm
or 100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm over a span of 400 mm, under
symmetrical two-point loading.
6. The modulus of rupture is determined from the moment at failures
as fr = M/Z.

b. Discuss the influence of mix proportions of concrete on

shrinkage.
Ans. Following are the affecting factors of shrinkage :
1. Type of Coarse Aggregates : In general, concretes made with
high moduli of elasticity non-shrinking aggregates will have low
shrinkage.
2. Shape of Aggregates : The size and shape of coarse aggregate
influence the loss of moisture and it has therefore an indirect effect
on the shrinkage of concrete. In general, the smaller the aggregate
size, the more surface area, more water is absorbed as a result and,
therefore, more shrinkage.
3. Hardness of Aggregates : Harder aggregate with higher modulus
of elasticity like quartz shrinks much less than softer aggregates
such as sandstone.
4. Effect of Admixtures : Addition of calcium chloride increases the
shrinkage of concrete generally between 10 to 50 % .The plasticizers
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–16 D (CE-Sem-5)

which reduce the water-cement ratio of the concrete, their net

effect on shrinkage is negligible.
5. Chemical Composition of Cement : The chemical composition
of cement has been observed as not having any effect on the
shrinkage of concrete. However cement deficient in gypsum exhibits
a greatly increased shrinkage.
6. Effect of High Alumina Cement : The shrinkage of concrete
made with high alumina cement is of the same magnitude as that
of concrete made with Portland cement, but in case of high alumina
cement shrinkage takes place much more rapidly than when
Portland cement is used.
7. Water Content : The water content affects the water-cement
ratio hence higher the amount of water, greater the shrinkage as
higher the water-cement ratio.
8. Properties of Cement : The properties of cement have little effect
on the shrinkage of concrete. Fineness of cement has no influence
on the shrinkage of concrete. However it increases the shrinkage
of cement paste.
9. Quality of Cement Paste : The quality of cement paste influences
the magnitude of shrinkage. The quality of cement pate is dependent
on the water cement ratio. Higher the w/c ratio, greater the
shrinkage,

7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. What is the need to study fiber reinforced concrete and
explain briefly the factors effecting properties of fiber
reinforced concrete ?
Ans.
A. Necessity of Fiber Reinforced Concrete :
1. It increases the tensile strength of the concrete.
2. It reduces the air voids and water voids the inherent porosity of gel.
3. It increases the durability of the concrete.
4. Fibers such as graphite and glass have excellent resistance to creep,
while the same is not true for most resins.
5. The differential deformations of concrete and the reinforcement
are minimized.
6. It has been recognized that the addition of small, closely spaced and
uniformly dispersed fibers to concrete would act as crack arrestor
and would substantially improve its static and dynamic properties.
B. Factors Affecting the Properties of FRC : Following are the
factors affecting the properties of fibre reinforced concrete :
1. Volume of Fiber :
i. Low volume fraction (< 1%) : Used in slab and pavement that have
large exposed surface leading to high shrinkage cracking.
ii. Moderate volume fraction (between 1 and 2 %) : Used in construction
method such as shotcrete and in structures which requires improved
capacity against delamination, spalling and fatigue.
Concrete Technology SP–17 D (CE-Sem-5)

iii. High volume fraction (> 2 %) : Used in making high performance

fiber reinforced composites.
2. Aspect Ratio of Fiber :
i. It is defined as ratio of length of fiber to its diameter (L/d).
ii. Increase in the aspect ratio upto 75, there is increase in relative
strength and toughness.
iii. Beyond 75 of aspect ratio, there is decrease in strength and
toughness.
3. Orientation of Fibers : Fibers aligned parallel to applied load
offered more tensile strength and toughness than randomly
distributed or perpendicular fibers.
4. Relative Fiber Matrix :
i. Modulus of elasticity of matrix must be less than of fibers for efficient
stress transfer.
ii. Low modulus fibers like Nylons and Polypropylene imparts more
energy absorption while high modulus fibers (Steel, Glass, and
Carbon) imparts strength and stiffness.
5. Workability and Compaction of Concrete : Incorporation of
steel fiber decreases the workability considerably. This situation
adversely affects the consolidation of fresh mix. Even prolonged
external vibration fails to compact the concrete.
6. Size of Coarse Aggregate : Fibers also act as aggregate maximum
size of the coarse aggregate should be restricted to 10 mm, to avoid
appreciable reduction in strength of the composite.
7. Mixing : Mixing of fiber reinforced concrete needs careful conditions
to avoid balling of fibers, segregation and in general the difficulty of
mixing the materials uniformly.

b. Difference between high performance concrete and high

density concrete.
Ans.
A. High Performance Concrete :
1. High performance concrete is a concrete mixture, which possess
high durability and high strength when compared to conventional
concrete.
2. This concrete contains one or more of cementitious materials such
as fly ash, silica fume or ground granulated blast furnace slag and
usually a super plasticizer.
3. High performance concrete has high strength and low permeability.
4. High performance concrete is not a special type of concrete. It
comprises of the same materials as that of the conventional cement
concrete.
5. The use of some mineral and chemical admixtures like silica fume
and super plasticizer enhance the strength, durability and
workability qualities to a very high extent.
6. It is used in high rise building column, off shore platforms and
heavy-duty floors.
Solved Paper (2018-19) SP–18 D (CE-Sem-5)

B. High Density Concrete :

1. Concrete having unit weight of 30 kN/m3 to 64 kN/m3 is called high
density or heavy weight concrete.
2. Thus unit weight of high density concrete is more than about 25
percent higher than that of conventional concrete which is the
range of 24 kN/m3.
3. High density concrete can be produced by using different types of
heavy weight aggregates.
4. High density concrete is used for construction of nuclear radiation
shields walls, ballast blocks, counterweights, sea walls and other
applications where high density is important.


Concrete Technology SP–1 D (CE-Sem-5)

B.Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2019-20
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 70

Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.

Section-A

1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)

a. Write wet process of cement.

b. What are supplementary cementitious materials ?

c. Define creep of concrete ?

d. Write short note on cellular concrete.

e. What is durability of concrete ?

f. What are the statical methods of mix design ?

g. Define mix concrete.

Section-B

2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)

a. Write down the names of important compounds of cement
and explain the influence of each on the properties of
cement.

b. Differentiate between the controlled concrete and ordinary

concrete.

c. Write the factors to be considered for a mix design.

d. Why it is necessary to add gypsum in the manufacturing of

cement ?

e. Write the basic principle of ready mix concrete placement

methods.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–2 D (CE-Sem-5)

Section-C

3. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Classify the types of cement and explain air entraining
cement.

b. Describe the sieve analysis to determine the fineness

modulus of the aggregates.

4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Write the advantages of addition of pozzolana as
admixtures.

b. Describe characteris tic of metakaolin on concrete

properties.

5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. What data required for mix proportioning and explain target
mean strength.

b. What are the role of water in concrete ? Explain what are

the sources of aggregates ?

6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Describe in detail Vee-Bee consistometer test to determine
workability of concrete.

b. Define light weight concrete and explain in detail the

classification of light weight concrete.

7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Describe recycled aggregate concrete status in India.

b. What do you mean by fiber reinforced concrete and also

explain factors affecting the properties of FRC.


Concrete Technology SP–3 D (CE-Sem-5)

SOLUTION OF PAPER (2019-20)

Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.

Section-A

1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)

a. Write wet process of cement.
Ans. Wet Process :
i. In this process, the raw materials are changed to powdered form
in the presence of water.
ii. In this process, raw materials are pulverized by using a ball mill,
which is a rotary steel cylinder with hardened steel balls.
iii. When the mill rotates, steel balls pulverize the raw materials
which form slurry (liquid mixture).
iv. The slurry is then passed into storage tanks, where correct
proportioning is done.
v. Proper composition of raw materials can be ensured by using wet
process than dry process.
vi. This process is generally used when raw materials are soft because
complete mixing is not possible unless water is added.
vii. Corrected slurry is then fed into rotary kiln for burning.
The actual purpose of both processes is to change the raw materials
to fine powder.

b. What are supplementary cementitious materials ?

Ans. Supplementary Cementing Materials : Supplementary
cementing materials, also called mineral additives, contribute to
the properties of hardened concrete through hydraulic or pozzolanic
activity.Pozzolanic material can be divided into two groups :
1. Natural Pozzolana :
i. Clay and shales.
ii. Diatomaceous earth.
iii. Volcanic tuffs and pumicites.
2. Artificial Pozzolana :
i. Fly ash.
ii. Blast furnace slag.
iii. Silica fume.
iv. Rice husk ash.
v. Metakaoline.
vi. Surkhi.

c. Define creep of concrete ?

Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–4 D (CE-Sem-5)

Ans. It may be defined as increase of strain in concrete with time

sustained load. This is also known as plastic flow or time field.
d. Write short note on cellular concrete.
Ans. Cellular concrete is a lightweight cement-based material, containing
many gas bubbles evenly distributed in the volume, produced by
blending and maturing of a mixture of cement, filler, water, agent
generating cells.

e. What is durability of concrete ?

Ans. Durability :
1. The durability of concrete is defined as its ability to resist weathering
action, chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process of
deterioration.
2. Durable concrete will retain its original form, quality, and
serviceability when exposed to environment.

f. What are the statical methods of mix design ?

Ans. Concrete Mix Design : Mix Design is the science of determining
the relative proportions of the ingredients of concrete to achieve
the desired properties in the most economical way.
Methods of Mix Design : Following are the methods of mix
design :
1. Nominal mixes.
2. Standard mixes.
3. Design mixes.
g. Define mix concrete.
Ans. Concrete Mix Design : It is a process of selecting suitable
ingredients for concrete and determining their proportions which
would produce, as economically as possible, i.e., concrete having a
certain minimum compressive strength, workability and durability.

Section-B

2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)

a. Write down the names of important compounds of cement
and explain the influence of each on the properties of
cement.
Ans.
A. Bogue’s Compound of Cement : Following are the various
Bogue’s compound of cement :
1. Alite or 3CaO.SiO2 or C3S :
i. It is responsible for early strength.
ii. First 7 days strength is due to C3S.
iii. It produces more heat of hydration.
iv. A cement with more C3 S content is better for cold weather
concreting.
Concrete Technology SP–5 D (CE-Sem-5)

2. Belite or 2CaO.SiO2 or C2S :

i. The hydration of C2S starts after 7 days. Hence it gives strength
after 7 days.
ii. C2S hydrates and hardens slowly and provides much of the ultimate
strength.
iii. It is responsible for the later strength of the concrete.
iv. It produces less heat of hydration.
3. Celite or 3CaO.Al2O3 or C3A :
i. The reaction of C3A with water is very fast.
ii. It may lead to an immediate stiffening of paste, and it is called
flash set.
iii. To prevent this flash set, 2-3 % gypsum is added at a time of
grinding cement clinker.
iv. The hydrated C3A do not contribute to the strength of the concrete.
v. Low C3A for sulfate resistance Cement.
4. Ferrite or 4CaO.Al2O3 .Fe2O3 or C4AF :
i. C4AF hydrates rapidly.
ii. It does not contribute to strength of the concrete.
iii. Controls the color of cement.

b. Differentiate between the controlled concrete and ordinary

concrete.
Ans.
S. No. Controlled Concrete Ordinary Concrete
1. A concrete with ingredient Ordinary concrete is one where
proportions fixed by nominal mixes are adopted.
designing the concrete
mixes with preliminary test
are called controlled
concrete.
2. For making controlled No pro visio n abo ut ordinary
concrete guideline are concrete in IS 456 : 2000.
provided in IS 456 : 2000.
3. Controlled concretes have It is less durable and has less
more durability and strength as compared to controlled
strength. concrete.
4. It includes quality control. There is no quality control.
5. It includes more than M15 It includes the M5 and M7.5 grade
grades concrete. concrete.
6. It is used in RCC works and It is used for lean concrete bases,
specific purpose. simple foundation and temporary
construction works.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–6 D (CE-Sem-5)

c. Write the factors to be considered for a mix design.

Ans. Factors : Following are the factors to be considered for a mix
design :
1. Grade of Concrete :
i. The grade of concrete gives characteristic compressive strength
of concrete.
ii. The grade M20 denotes characteristic compressive strength fck of
20 N/mm2.
iii. Depending upon the degree of control available at site, the
concrete mix is to be designed for a target mean compressive
strength (fck) applying suitable standard deviation.
2. Type of Cement :
i. The higher the strength of cement used in concrete, lesser will be
the cement content.
ii. The use of 43 grade and 53 grade of cement, gives saving in cement
consumption as much as 15 % and 25 % respectively, as compared
to 33 grade of cement.
3. Maximum Nominal Size of Aggregates :
i. It is designated by the sieve size higher than larger size on which
15 % or more of the aggregate is retained.
ii. The maximum nominal size of aggregate should not be more than
one-fourth of minimum thickness of the member.
iii. For heavily reinforced concrete members as in the case of ribs of
main beams, the nominal maximum size of the aggregate should
usually be restricted to sum less than the minimum clear distance
between the main bars or 5 mm less the minimum cover to the
reinforcement, whoever is smaller.
4. Grading of Combined Aggregates :
i. The relative proportions of the fine and coarse aggregate in a
concrete mix is one of the important factors affecting the strength
of concrete.
ii. For dense concrete, it is essential that the fine and coarse aggregate
be well graded.
5. Maximum Water/Cement Ratio : The lower the water/cement
ratio, the greater is the compressive strength.
6. Workability : Workability of fresh concrete determines the case
with which a concrete mixture can be mixed, transported, placed,
compacted and finished without harmful segregation and bleeding.
7. Durability :
i. Durability require low water/cement ratio.
ii. It is usually achieved not by increasing the cement content, but by
lowering the water demands at given cement content.
iii. Water demand can be lowered by through control of the aggregate
grading and by using water reducing admixtures.

d. Why it is necessary to add gypsum in the manufacturing of

cement ?
Concrete Technology SP–7 D (CE-Sem-5)

Ans. Role of Gypsum in Cement :

1. The main purpose of adding gypsum in the cement is to slow down
the hydration process of cement once it is mixed with water.
2. The process involved in hydration of cement is that, when the
water is added into cement, it starts reacting with the C3A and
hardens. The time taken in this process is very less, which does not
allow time for transporting, mixing and placing.
3. When gypsum is added into the cement and water is added to it,
reaction with C3A particles takes place to form ettringite.
4. This ettringite is initially formed as very fine-grained crystals, which
form a coating on the surface of the C3A particles .These crystals
are too small to bridge the gaps between the particles of cement.
The cement mix therefore remains plastic and workable.
5. The time allowed for mixing, transporting and placing plays an
important role in strength, composition and workability of concrete.
As gypsum retards the process of hydration, it is termed as retarding
agent of cement.

e. Write the basic principle of ready mix concrete placement

methods.
Ans. Following are the basic principle of ready mix concrete placement
methods :
1. When arriving to the site, the concrete transport certificate must
be checked for desired characteristics of ordered concrete (quantity,
class, maximum aggregate size, slump, temperature, type of cement
etc.) and time duration of transport.
2. Concrete shall be delivered to the site and discharged from the
truck completely and in the forms ready for vibration within 1-1/2
hours after batching
3. Concrete shall be placed in maximum 15 minutes after its arrival to
the site, and the finishing of placement will take place before the
cement starts setting.
4. Concrete shall be stored / deposited as near as (physically and
economically) possible to its final position, in crane hoisted buckets,
concrete pumps, chutes etc.
5. The receptacles used for the transport and deposition of concrete
shall be cleaned and washed out at the end of each day’s work and
whenever concreting is interrupted for more than 30 minutes.
6. If the concrete, due to transport, is segregated. It should be mixed
again on clean platforms, without adding water.
7. As placing begins the consistency of the delivered concrete should
be checked with a slump cone for conformance with specifications
and the required number of samples must be taken (1 sample = 3
specimens) according to the volume of concrete placed.
8. Concrete shall be placed to prevent segregation. The concrete shall
not be permitted to strike against forms and ricochet on bars and
form faces. The free fall of concrete should in no case exceed 1.5 m.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–8 D (CE-Sem-5)

For greater heights, as in walls or columns, metal or rubber hoppers,

chutes or flexible hoses must be lowered into the formwork to
control the rate of fall of the concrete, if not the concrete will flow
rapidly entering the forms invariably resulting separation and
honeycombing.
9. When concrete is dumped from a cart or wheelbarrow, there is a
tendency for the heavier particles to separate from the mass. To
prevent this, the concrete should be discharged against a striking
(baffle) board.

Section-C

3. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Classify the types of cement and explain air entraining
cement.
Ans.
A. Types of Cement : Following are the various types of cements :
1. Sulphate Resisting Cement :
i. In this cement, the percentage of tricalcium aluminate C3A is kept
below 5 % and it results in the increase in resisting power against
sulphates.
2. Rapid Hardening Cement :
i. The initial and final setting times of this cement are same as those
of ordinary cement. But it attains high strength in early days.
ii. It contains high percentage of tricalcium silicate C3S to the extent
of about 56 %.
3. White Cement :
i. White cement is prepared from such raw materials which are
practically free from colouring oxides of iron, manganese or
chromium.
ii. It is white in colour and is used for floor finish, plaster work,
ornament work, etc.
4. Coloured Cement :
i. The cement of desired colour may be obtained by intimately mixing
mineral pigments with ordinary cement.
ii. The amount of coloring material may vary from 5 to 10 %.
iii. These types of coloured cement are widely used for finishing of
floors, external surfaces, artificial marble, window sill slabs,
textured panel faces, stair treads, etc.
S.No. Pigment Colour
1. Chromium Oxide Green
2. Cobalt Imparts Blue
3. Iron Oxide in different proportion Brown, Red, Yellow
4. Manganese Dioxide Black or Brown
Concrete Technology SP–9 D (CE-Sem-5)

5. Pozzolana Cement :
i. Pozzolana is a volcanic powder.
ii. This type of cement is used to prepare mass concrete of lean mix
and for marine structures.
iii. It is also used in sewage works and for laying concrete under
water.
6. Hydrophobic Cement :
i. It is manufactured by grinding ordinary portland cement clinker
with 0.1 to 0.4 % of oleic acid, stearic acid or pentachlorophenol.
ii. This addition forms water repellent film around each particle by
the moisture content of atmosphere.
iii. When concrete is prepared using this cement, the water repellent
film breaks out which improves the workability of concrete.
7. Quick Setting Cement :
i. When concrete is to be laid under water, quick setting cement is
to be used.
ii. This cement is manufactured by adding small percentage of
aluminum sulphate (Al2SO4) which accelerates the setting action.
iii. The setting action of such cement starts with in 05 minutes after
addition of water and it becomes stone hard in less than half an
hour.
8. Low Heat Cement :
i. In this cement the heat of hydration is reduced by tricalcium
aluminate (C3A) content.
ii. It contains less percentage of lime than ordinary portland cement.
iii. It is used for mass concrete works such as dams etc.
9. High Alumina Cement :
i. This cement contains high aluminate percentage usually between
35-55 %.
ii. It gains strength very rapidly within 24 hours. It is also used for
construction of dams and other heavy structures.
iii. It has resistance to sulphates and action of frost also.
B. Air Entraining Cement :
1. Air entraining cement is produced by grinding minute air
entraining materials with clinker or the materials are also added
separately while making concrete.
2. Entrainment of air also improves workability and durability. It is
found that entrainment of air or gas bubbles while applying cement,
increases resistance to frost action.
3. It is recommended that air contents should be 03-04 % by volume.
Natural resins, fats, oils are used as air entraining agents.

b. Describe the sieve analysis to determine the fineness

modulus of the aggregates.
Ans. Sieve Analysis :
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–10 D (CE-Sem-5)

1. This is the name given to the operation of dividing a sample of

aggregate into various fractions each consisting of particles of the
same size.
2. The sieve analysis is conducted to determine the particle size
distribution in a sample of aggregate, which we call gradation.
3. The aggregates used for making concrete are normally of the
maximum size 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm,
600 micron, 300 micron and 150 micron. The aggregate fraction
from 80 mm to 4.75 mm is termed as coarse aggregate and the
fraction from 4.75 mm to 150 micron is termed as fine aggregate.
4. The FM is an index of the fineness of the aggregate. The higher
the FM the coarser the aggregate. FM of fine aggregate is useful
in estimating proportions of fine and coarse aggregate in concrete
mixtures.
5. The fineness modulus (FM) for both fine and coarse aggregates is
obtained by adding the cumulative percentages by mass retained
on each of a specified series of sieves and dividing the sum by 100.
 (Cumulative % retained on specified seive)
FM =
100
Sand Fineness Modulus
Fine 2.2 – 2.6
Medium 2.6 – 2.9
Coarse 2.9 – 3.2

4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Write the advantages of addition of pozzolana as
admixtures.
Ans. Advantages of Pozzolanic Materials : Following are the
advantages of pozzolanic materials :
1. Lower the heat of hydration and thermal shrinkage.
2. Increase the water-tightness.
3. Reduce the alkali-aggregate reaction.
4. Improve resistance to attack by sulphate soils and sea water.
5. Improve extensibility.
6. Lower susceptibility to dissolution and leaching.
7. Improve workability.
8. Lower costs.

b. Describe characteris tic of metakaolin on concrete

properties.
Ans. Characteristic of Metakaolin on Concrete Properties :
Following are the effect of metakaolin on concrete properties :
1. Physical Properties of Cementititous Materials : Specific
gravity of cement is 3.09, whereas specific gravity of metakaolin is
2.50.
Concrete Technology SP–11 D (CE-Sem-5)

2. Setting Times of Concrete : Setting time of concrete mixture

without metakaolin is 5 hrs 12 min and with 10 % metakaolin is
4 hrs 24 min.
3. Mechanical Properties of Concrete :
i. Compressive strength of concrete mixture without metakaolin is
20.9 MPa on 1st day and with 10 % metakaolin is 25.0 MPa on
1st day.
ii. Splitting tensile without metakaolin after 28 days is 2.7 MPa and
splitting tensile with 10 and metakaolin after 28 days is 3.1 MPa.
iii. Flexural without metakaolin after 28 days is 6.3 MPa and flexural
with 10 % metakaolin after 28 days is 7.4 MPa.
4. Resistance to Chloride Ion Penetration (RCIP) : RCIP
without metakaolin after 28 days is 3175 coulombs and RCIP with
10 % metakaolin after 28 days is 390 coulombs.
5. Resistance to Freezing and Thawing Cycles :
i. Air content of concrete mixture without metakaolin is 6.6% and
with 10 % metakaolin is 4.9 %.
ii. Durability factor without metakaolin is 98.3% and with 10 and
metakaolin is 100.3 %.
iii. Residual flexural strength without metakaolin is 85 % and with
10 % metakaolin is 89 %.
6. Thus we can see that metakaolin improves most mechanical and
durability properties of concrete.
5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. What data required for mix proportioning and explain target
mean strength.
Ans.
1. Required Data : Following are the data required for mix
proportioning :
i. Grade of concrete.
ii. Maximum size of aggregate.
iii. Minimum cement content.
iv. Maximum w/c ratio.
v. Workability in terms of slump.
vi. Exposure conditions.
vii. Maximum temperature at the pouring point.
viii. Early age strength (if required).
ix. Grading zone of the aggregate.
x. Type of aggregate.
xi. Maximum cement content.
xii. What kind of admixture is used – Brand name.
xiii. Specific gravity of all the materials used and dosage etc.
2. Target Mean Strength of Concrete : Target mean strength is
denoted by ft which is obtained by characteristic compressive strength
of concrete at 28 days (fck) and value of standard deviation ()
ft = fck + 1.65 × 
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–12 D (CE-Sem-5)

Standard deviation can be taken from below table 2.

Table 2.
Grade of Concrete Standard Deviation (N/mm2)
M10 3.5
M15 3.5
M20 4.0
M25 4.0
M30 ...... so on 5.0

b. What are the role of water in concrete ? Explain what are

the sources of aggregates ?
Ans.
A. Role of Water in Concrete :
1. Water is the key ingredient, which when mixed with cement, forms
a paste that binds the aggregate together.
2. The water causes the hardening of concrete through a process
called hydration. Hydration is a chemical reaction in which the
major compounds in cement form chemical bonds with water
molecules and become hydrates or hydration products.
3. The role of water is important because the water to cement ratio is
the most critical factor in the production of “perfect” concrete. Too
much water reduces concrete strength, while too little will make
the concrete unworkable.
4. Concrete needs to be workable so that it may be consolidated and
shaped into different forms (i.e., walls, domes, etc.). Because
concrete must be both strong and workable, a careful balance of
the cement to water ratio is required when making concrete.
B. Source of Aggregate :
1. Almost all natural aggregate materials from bed rocks.
2. There are three kinds of rocks, namely, igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.
3. The igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten magma or
lava at the surface of the crest (trap and basalt) or deep beneath the
crest (granite).
4. The sedimentary rocks are formed originally below the sea bed and
subsequently lifted up.
5. Metamorphic rocks are originally either igneous or sedimentary
rocks which are subsequently metamorphosed due to extreme heat
and pressure.
Aggregates from Igneous Rocks :
i. Most igneous rocks make highly satisfactory concrete aggregates
because they are normally hard, tough and dense.
ii. The igneous rocks have massive structure, entirely crystalline or
wholly glassy or in combination in between, depending upon the
rate at which they where cooled during formation.
Concrete Technology SP–13 D (CE-Sem-5)

iii. They may be acidic or basic depending upon the percentage of silica
content. They may occur light coloured or dark coloured.
iv. The igneous rocks as a class are the most chemically active concrete
aggregate and show a tendency to react with the alkaline in cement.
v. As the igneous rock is one of the widely occurring type of rocks on
the face of the earth, bulk of the concrete aggregates, that are
derived, are of igneous origin.
Aggregates from Sedimentary Rocks :
i. Igneous rocks or metamorphic rocks are subjected to weathering
agencies such as sun, rain and wind.
ii. These weathering agencies decompose, fragmentise, transport and
deposit the particles of rock, deep beneath the ocean bed where
they are cemented together by some of the cementing materials.
iii. The cementing materials could be carbonaceous, siliceous or
argillaceous in nature. At the same time the deposited and cemented
material gets subjected to static pressure of water and becomes
compact sedimentary rock layer.
Aggregates from Metamorphic Rocks :
i. Both igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks may be subjected to
high temperature and pressure which causes metamorphism which
changes the structure and texture of rocks.
ii. The thickness of this foliation may vary from a few centimetres to
many metres.
iii. If the thickness of this foliation is less, then individual aggregate
may exhibit foliation which is not a desirable characteristic in
aggregate.
iv. However, many metamorphic rocks particularly quartzite and gneiss
have been used for production of good concrete aggregates.

6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Describe in detail Vee-Bee consistometer test to determine
workability of concrete.
Ans. Vee-Bee Consistometer Test :
1. The test is suitable for stiff concrete mixes having low or very low
workability.
2. Compared to the slump and compacting factor tests, the Vee-Bee
test has the advantage that the concrete in the test receives a
treatment similar to what it would in actual practice.
3. The test consists of moulding a fresh concrete cone in a cylindrical
container mounted on a vibrating table (Fig. 1).
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–14 D (CE-Sem-5)

Glass plate
rider

Fig. 1. Vee-Bee apparatus.

4. When the concrete cone is subjected to vibration using a standard
vibrator, it starts to occupy the cylindrical container by way of
getting remoulded.
5. The remoulding is considered complete when the concrete surface
becomes horizontal.
6. The time (in seconds) required for the complete remoulding is
considered as a measure of workability and is expressed as the
number of Vee-Bee seconds.
7. The end point of the test, when the concrete surface becomes
horizontal, has to be ascertained visually.
b. Define light weight concrete and explain in detail the
classification of light weight concrete.
Ans.
A. Light Weight Concrete :
1. Light weight concrete mixture is made with a light weight coarse
aggregate and sometimes a portion or entire fine aggregates may
be light weight instead of normal aggregates.
2. Structural light weight concrete has an in-place density (unit
weight) on the order of 1440 to 1840 kg/m³.
3. Normal weight concrete a density in the range of 2240 to
2400 kg/m³.
4. Light weight aggregates used in structural light weight concrete
are typically expanded shale, clay or slate materials that have been
fired in a rotary kiln to develop a porous structure. Other products
such as air-cooled blast furnace slag are also used.
5. There are other classes of non-structural LWC with lower density
made with other aggregate materials and higher air voids in the
cement paste matrix, such as in cellular concrete.
B. Classification of Light weight concrete : There are three broad
classifications of light weight concrete based on the method
employed for production.
Concrete Technology SP–15 D (CE-Sem-5)

1. Light weight Aggregate Concrete : In this method a porous

light weight aggregate of low specific gravity instead of normal
aggregate of specific gravity 2.6 is used.
2. Aerated, Cellular, Foamed or Gas Concrete : Large voids
(Gas bubbles) are introduced into the concrete or mortar to produce
a cellular mass.
3. No-Fines Concrete : In this method the fine aggregates are not
used and only coarse aggregates are used in concrete as a result
large voids are left reducing the density of concrete and hence the
weight.

7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Describe recycled aggregate concrete status in India.
Ans. Indian Status :
1. There is severe shortage of infrastructural facilities like houses,
hospitals, roads etc. in India and large quantities of construction
materials for creating these facilities are needed.
2. The planning commission allocated approximately 50 % of capital
outlay for infrastructure development in successive 10th and 11th
five year plans.
3. Rapid infrastructural development such as highways, airports etc.
and growing demand for housing has led to scarcity and rise in cost
of construction materials.
4. Most of waste materials produced by demolished structures disposed
off by dumping them as landfill. Dumping of wastes on land is
causing shortage of dumping place in urban areas. Therefore, it is
necessary to start recycling and reuse of demolition concrete waste
to save environment, cost and energy.
5. Central Pollution Control Board has estimated current quantum of
solid waste generation in India to the tune of 48 million tons per
annum out of which, waste from construction industry only accounts
for more than 25 %. Management of such high quantum of waste
puts enormous pressure on solid waste management system.
6. In view of significant role of recycled construction material and
technology in the development of urban infrastructure.
7. The total quantum of waste from construction industry is estimated
to be 12 to 14.7 million tons per annum out of which 7-8 million tons
are concrete and brick waste.
8. According to findings of survey, 70 % of the respondent have given
the reason for not adopting recycling of waste from construction
industry is “Not aware of the recycling techniques” while remaining
30 % have indicated that they are not even aware of recycling
possibilities.
9. Further, the user agencies/ industries pointed out that presently,
the BIS and other codal provisions do not provide the specifications
for use of recycled product in the construction activities.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–16 D (CE-Sem-5)

b. What do you mean by fiber reinforced concrete and also

explain factors affecting the properties of FRC.
Ans.
A. Fiber Reinforced Concrete : Concrete containing cement, water,
aggregate, and discontinuous, uniformly dispersed or discrete fibers
is called fiber reinforced concrete.
B. Factors Affecting the Properties of FRC : Following are the
factors affecting the properties of fibre reinforced concrete :
1. Volume of Fiber :
i. Low volume fraction (< 1%) : Used in slab and pavement that have
large exposed surface leading to high shrinkage cracking.
ii. Moderate volume fraction (between 1 and 2 %) : Used in construction
method such as shotcrete and in structures which requires improved
capacity against delamination, spalling and fatigue.
iii. High volume fraction (> 2 %) : Used in making high performance
fiber reinforced composites.
2. Aspect Ratio of Fiber :
i. It is defined as ratio of length of fiber to its diameter (L/d).
ii. Increase in the aspect ratio upto 75, there is increase in relative
strength and toughness.
iii. Beyond 75 of aspect ratio, there is decrease in strength and
toughness.
3. Orientation of Fibers : Fibers aligned parallel to applied load
offered more tensile strength and toughness than randomly
distributed or perpendicular fibers.
4. Relative Fiber Matrix :
i. Modulus of elasticity of matrix must be less than of fibers for efficient
stress transfer.
ii. Low modulus fibers like Nylons and Polypropylene imparts more
energy absorption while high modulus fibers (Steel, Glass, and
Carbon) imparts strength and stiffness.
5. Workability and Compaction of Concrete : Incorporation of
steel fiber decreases the workability considerably. This situation
adversely affects the consolidation of fresh mix. Even prolonged
external vibration fails to compact the concrete.
6. Size of Coarse Aggregate : Fibers also act as aggregate maximum
size of the coarse aggregate should be restricted to 10 mm, to avoid
appreciable reduction in strength of the composite.
7. Mixing : Mixing of fiber reinforced concrete needs careful conditions
to avoid balling of fibers, segregation and in general the difficulty of
mixing the materials uniformly.

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