Extravehicular activity

Extravehicular activity (EVA) is any activity done by an

astronaut outside a spacecraft beyond the Earth's appreciable
atmosphere. Normally, the term applies to what has been termed a
spacewalk outside a craft that is orbiting Earth (such as the
International Space Station). However EVA also applies to lunar
surface exploration (commonly known as a moonwalk), as
performed by six pairs of American astronauts in the Apollo
program from 1969 to 1972. A Stand-up EVA (SEVA) is when an
astronaut does not fully leave a spacecraft, but is completely reliant Cosmonaut Sergey Volkov works
on the space suit for environmental support.[1] Its name derives outside the International Space
from the astronaut "standing up" in the open hatch, usually to Station on August 3, 2011
record or assist a spacewalking astronaut. The Soviet
Union/Russia, the United States, Canada, the European Space
Agency and China have all conducted EVAs.

On March 18, 1965, Alexei Leonov became the first human to

perform a spacewalk, exiting the capsule during the Voskhod 2
mission for 12 minutes and 9 seconds. On July 20, 1969, Neil
Armstrong became the first human to perform a moonwalk, outside his
lunar lander on Apollo 11 for 2 hours and 31 minutes. On the last three
Moon missions astronauts also performed deep-space EVAs on the
return to Earth, to retrieve film canisters from the outside of the
spacecraft. American Astronauts Pete Conrad, Joseph Kerwin, and
Paul Weitz also used EVA in 1973 to repair launch damage to Skylab,
the United States' first space station.

EVAs may be either tethered (the astronaut is connected to the

spacecraft; oxygen and electrical power can be supplied through an
umbilical cable; no propulsion is needed to return to the spacecraft), or
untethered. Untethered spacewalks were only performed on three Stephen Robinson riding the
missions in 1984 using the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU), and Canadarm2 during STS-114 on
on a flight test in 1994 of the Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue August 3, 2005. The first in-flight
(SAFER), a safety device worn on tethered U.S. EVAs. repair of the Space Shuttle. The
landmass in the backdrop is the
Bari region of Somalia.

Contents
Development history
First spacewalk
Project Gemini
First EVA crew transfer
Apollo lunar EVA
Post-Apollo EVAs
Chinese EVA
Milestones
Capability milestones
Personal cumulative duration records
National, ethnic and gender firsts
Commemoration
Designations
Camp-out procedure
See also
References
External links

Development history
NASA planners invented the term extravehicular activity (abbreviated with the acronym EVA) in the early
1960s for the Apollo program to land men on the Moon, because the astronauts would leave the spacecraft
to collect lunar material samples and deploy scientific experiments. To support this, and other Apollo
objectives, the Gemini program was spun off to develop the capability for astronauts to work outside a two-
man Earth orbiting spacecraft. However, the Soviet Union was fiercely competitive in holding the early
lead it had gained in crewed spaceflight, so the Soviet Communist Party, led by Nikita Khrushchev,
ordered the conversion of its single-pilot Vostok capsule into a two- or three-person craft named Voskhod,
in order to compete with Gemini and Apollo.[2] The Soviets were able to launch two Voskhod capsules
before U.S. was able to launch its first crewed Gemini.

The Voskhod's avionics required cooling by cabin air to prevent overheating, therefore an airlock was
required for the spacewalking cosmonaut to exit and re-enter the cabin while it remained pressurized. By
contrast, the Gemini avionics did not require air cooling, allowing the spacewalking astronaut to exit and
re-enter the depressurized cabin through an open hatch. Because of this, the American and Soviet space
programs developed different definitions for the duration of an EVA. The Soviet (now Russian) definition
begins when the outer airlock hatch is open and the cosmonaut is in vacuum. An American EVA began
when the astronaut had at least his head outside the spacecraft.[3] The USA has changed its EVA definition
since.

First spacewalk

The first EVA was performed on March 18, 1965, by Soviet

cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, who spent 12 minutes and 9 seconds
outside the Voskhod 2 spacecraft. Carrying a white metal backpack
containing 45 minutes' worth of breathing and pressurization
oxygen, Leonov had no means to control his motion other than
pulling on his 15.35 m (50.4 ft) tether. After the flight, he claimed
this was easy, but his space suit ballooned from its internal pressure
against the vacuum of space, stiffening so much that he could not
activate the shutter on his chest-mounted camera.[4] Alexei Leonov performs the first
spacewalk during Voskhod 2
At the end of his space walk, the suit stiffening caused a more
serious problem: Leonov had to re-enter the capsule through the
inflatable cloth airlock, 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) in diameter and 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) long. He improperly entered the
airlock head-first and got stuck sideways. He could not get back in without reducing the pressure in his suit,
risking "the bends". This added another 12 minutes to his time in vacuum, and he was overheated by
1.8 °C (3.2 °F) from the exertion. It would be almost four years before the Soviets tried another EVA. They
misrepresented to the press how difficult Leonov found it to work in weightlessness and concealed the
problems encountered until after the end of the Cold War.[4][5]

Project Gemini

The first American spacewalk was performed on June 3, 1965, by

Ed White from the second crewed Gemini flight, Gemini IV, for 21
minutes. White was tethered to the spacecraft, and his oxygen was
supplied through a 25-foot (7.6  m) umbilical, which also carried
communications and biomedical instrumentation. He was the first
to control his motion in space with a Hand-Held Maneuvering
Unit, which worked well but only carried enough propellant for 20
seconds. White found his tether useful for limiting his distance from
the spacecraft but difficult to use for moving around, contrary to
Leonov's claim.[4] However, a defect in the capsule's hatch latching
mechanism caused difficulties opening and closing the hatch,
which delayed the start of the EVA and put White and his
Ed White performs the first American
crewmate at risk of not getting back to Earth alive.[6]
spacewalk during Gemini IV
No EVAs were planned on the next three Gemini flights. The next
EVA was planned to be made by David Scott on Gemini VIII, but
that mission had to be aborted due to a critical spacecraft malfunction before the EVA could be conducted.
Astronauts on the next three Gemini flights (Eugene Cernan, Michael Collins, and Richard Gordon),
performed several EVAs, but none was able to successfully work for long periods outside the spacecraft
without tiring and overheating. Cernan attempted but failed to test an Air Force Astronaut Maneuvering
Unit which included a self-contained oxygen system.

On November 13, 1966, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin became the first to successfully work in space without tiring
during Gemini XII, the last Gemini mission. Aldrin worked outside the spacecraft for 2 hours and 6
minutes, in addition to two stand-up EVAs in the spacecraft hatch for an additional 3 hours and 24 minutes.
Aldrin's interest in scuba diving inspired the use of underwater EVA training to simulate weightlessness,
which has been used ever since to allow astronauts to practice techniques of avoiding wasted muscle
energy.

First EVA crew transfer

On January 16, 1969, Soviet cosmonauts Aleksei Yeliseyev and Yevgeny Khurnov transferred from Soyuz
5 to Soyuz 4, which were docked together. This was the second Soviet EVA, and it would be almost
another nine years before the Soviets performed their third.[4]

Apollo lunar EVA

American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin performed the first EVA on the lunar surface on July
21, 1969 (UTC), after landing their Apollo 11 Lunar Module spacecraft. This first Moon walk, using self-
contained portable life support systems, lasted 2 hours and 36 minutes. A total of fifteen Moon walks were
performed among six Apollo crews, including Charles "Pete" Conrad, Alan Bean, Alan Shepard, Edgar
Mitchell, David Scott, James Irwin, John Young, Charles Duke,
Eugene Cernan, and Harrison "Jack" Schmitt. Cernan was the last
Apollo astronaut to step off the surface of the Moon.[4]

Apollo 15 command module pilot Al Worden made an EVA on

August 5, 1971, on the return trip from the Moon, to retrieve a film
and data recording canister from the service module. He was
assisted by Lunar Module Pilot James Irwin standing up in the
Command Module hatch. This procedure was repeated by Ken
Mattingly and Charles Duke on Apollo 16, and by Ronald Evans
and Harrison Schmitt on Apollo 17.[4]

Buzz Aldrin walks on the Moon

Post-Apollo EVAs during the pioneering Apollo 11
mission in 1969
The first EVA repairs of a spacecraft were made by Charles "Pete"
Conrad, Joseph Kerwin, and Paul J. Weitz on May 26, June 7, and
June 19, 1973, on the Skylab 2 mission. They rescued the
functionality of the launch-damaged Skylab space station by
freeing a stuck solar panel, deploying a solar heating shield, and
freeing a stuck circuit breaker relay. The Skylab 2 crew made three
EVAs, and a total of ten EVAs were made by the three Skylab
crews.[4] They found that activities in weightlessness required
about 21 ⁄2 times longer than on Earth because many astronauts
suffered spacesickness early in their flights.[7]

After Skylab, no more EVAs were made by the United States until Charles Duke with a hammer on the
the advent of the Space Shuttle program in the early 1980s. In this lunar surface
period, the Soviets resumed EVAs, making four from the Salyut 6
and Salyut 7 space stations between December 20, 1977, and July
30, 1982.[4]

When the United States resumed EVAs on April 7, 1983, astronauts started using an Extravehicular
Mobility Unit (EMU) for self-contained life support independent of the spacecraft. STS-6 was the first
Space Shuttle mission during which a spacewalk was conducted. Also, for the first time, American
astronauts used an airlock to enter and exit the spacecraft like the Soviets. Accordingly, the American
definition of EVA start time was redefined to when the astronaut switches the EMU to battery power.

Numerous EVAs were conducted during the assembly of the ISS, often using the Quest Joint Airlock,
designed to support both US EMUs, and Russian Orlan space suits.

Chinese EVA

China became the third country to independently carry out an EVA on September 27, 2008 during the
Shenzhou 7 mission. Chinese astronaut Zhai Zhigang completed a spacewalk wearing the Chinese-
developed Feitian space suit, with astronaut Liu Boming wearing the Russian-derived Orlan space suit to
help him. Zhai completely exited the craft, while Liu stood by at the airlock, straddling the portal.

Milestones
Capability milestones
The first untethered spacewalk was made by American Bruce McCandless II on February
7, 1984, during the Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41-B, using the Manned
Maneuvering Unit. He was subsequently joined by Robert L. Stewart during the 5-hour, 55-
minute spacewalk. A self-contained spacewalk was first attempted by Eugene Cernan in
1966 on Gemini 9A, but Cernan could not reach the maneuvering unit without tiring.
The first metalwork in open space, consisting of welding, brazing and metal spraying, was
conducted by Soviet cosmonauts Svetlana Savitskaya and Vladimir Dzhanibekov on July
25, 1984. A specially designed multipurpose tool was used to perform these activities during
a 3-hour, 30-minute EVA outside the Salyut 7 space station.[8][9][10]
The first three-person EVA was performed on May 13, 1992, as the third EVA of STS-49,
the maiden flight of Endeavour.[11] Pierre Thuot, Richard Hieb, and Thomas Akers
conducted the EVA to hand-capture and repair a non-functional Intelsat VI-F3 satellite. As of
2021 it was the only three-person EVA.[12]
The first EVA to perform an in-flight repair of the Space Shuttle was by American Steve
Robinson on August 3, 2005, during "Return to Flight" mission STS-114. Robinson was sent
to remove two protruding gap fillers from Discovery's heat shield, after engineers determined
there was a small chance they could affect the shuttle upon re-entry. Robinson successfully
removed the loose material while Discovery was docked to the International Space Station.
The longest EVA performed as of January 2022, was 8 hours and 56 minutes, performed
by Susan Helms and James S. Voss on March 11, 2001.[13]

Personal cumulative duration records

Russian Anatoly Solovyev holds both the record for
most EVAs and for the greatest cumulative duration
spent in EVA (16 EVAs; 82 hr and 22 min).
Michael Lopez-Alegria holds the American record (10
EVAs; 67 hr and 40 min).
Thomas Pesquet holds the European (and non-
US/Russian) record (6 EVAs; 39 hr and 54 min).[14]
Peggy Whitson holds the record for most EVAs and most
cumulative duration spent for a woman (10 EVAs, 60 hr Untethered U.S. astronaut Bruce
and 21 min). McCandless uses a manned
maneuvering unit. Photo taken by
Robert "Hoot" Gibson
National, ethnic and gender firsts
The first woman to perform an EVA was Soviet
Svetlana Savitskaya on July 25, 1984, while aboard the Salyut 7 space station. Her EVA
lasted 3 hours and 35 minutes.
The first American woman to perform an EVA was Kathryn D. Sullivan on October 11,
1984.
The first two women to perform an EVA together and the first all-female EVA team
were Christina Koch and Jessica Meir on October 18, 2019, during Expedition 61 on the
International Space Station.[15][16][17]
The first female Asian and Chinese woman to perform an EVA was Wang Yaping on 8
November 2021, outside the Chinese Tiangong space station.
The first EVA by a non-Soviet, non-American was made on December 9, 1988, by Jean-
Loup Chrétien of France during a three-week stay on the Mir space station.
 The first EVA by a black African-American was on
February 9, 1995, by Bernard A. Harris Jr.
The first EVA by a Japanese astronaut was made on
November 25, 1997, by Takao Doi during STS-87.
The first EVA by a Swiss astronaut was made on
December 23, 1999, by Claude Nicollier during STS-
103.
The first EVA by an Australian-born person was on
March 13, 2001, by Andy Thomas (although he is a
naturalized US citizen).
The first EVA by a Canadian astronaut was made on
April 22, 2001, by Chris Hadfield along with NASA
astronaut Scott Parazynski during mission STS-100 to Capture of Intelsat VI in 1992 on
install Canadarm2 on the International Space Station.[18] STS-49. This hand-capture of a
satellite is the only EVA to date to be
The first EVA by a Scandinavian astronaut was made
on December 12, 2006, by Christer Fuglesang. performed by three astronauts.

The first EVA by a Chinese astronaut was made on

September 27, 2008, by Zhai Zhigang during Shenzhou
7 mission. The spacewalk, using a Feitian space suit, made China the third country to
independently carry out an EVA.
The first EVA by an Italian astronaut was made on July 9, 2013, by Luca Parmitano along
with NASA Astronaut Chris Cassidy during Expedition 36 on the International Space
Station.
The first EVA by a British astronaut was on January 15, 2016, by Tim Peake.[19]
Although British-American Michael Foale carried out an EVA on February 9, 1995, he
flew as an American astronaut in NASA's program.[19]

Commemoration
The first spacewalk, made by Soviet cosmonaut Alexei Leonov,
was commemorated in 1965 with several Eastern Bloc stamps (see
Alexei Leonov#Stamps). Since the Soviet Union did not publish
details of the Voskhod spacecraft at the time, the spaceship
depiction in the stamps was purely fictional.
International Space Station
The U.S. Post Office issued a postage stamp in 1967 assembly EVA made during the
STS-116 mission. Robert Curbeam
commemorating Ed White's first American spacewalk. The
(with red stripes) together with
engraved image has an accurate depiction of the Gemini IV
Christer Fuglesang over Cook Strait,
spacecraft and White's space suit.[20]
New Zealand.

Alexei Leonov, Voskhod 2, First Spacewalk Accomplishments in Space

U.S.S.R. commemorative issue of 1965 U.S. Commemorative Issue of 1967
Designations
NASA "spacewalkers" during the Space Shuttle program
were designated as EV-1, EV-2, EV-3 and EV-4 (assigned to
mission specialists for each mission, if applicable).[21][22]

Camp-out procedure
For EVAs from the International Space Station, NASA Anatoly Solovyev holds the record for
employed a camp-out procedure to reduce the risk of time spent during spacewalks: 82+ hours
decompression sickness. [23] This was first tested by the over 16 separate outings, seen here
Expedition 12 crew. During a camp out, astronauts sleep performing an EVA outside Mir space
overnight in the airlock prior to an EVA, lowering the air station in 1997
pressure to 10.2 psi (70 kPa), compared to the normal station
pressure of 14.7  psi (101  kPa).[23] Spending a night at the
lower air pressure helps flush nitrogen from the body, thereby preventing "the bends".[24][25] More recently
astronauts have been using the In-Suit Light Exercise protocol rather than camp-out to prevent
decompression sickness.[26][27]

See also
List of cumulative spacewalk records
List of International Space Station spacewalks
List of Mir spacewalks
List of spacewalkers
List of spacewalks since 2015
List of spacewalks 2000–2014
List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999
Omega Speedmaster
Suitport
The Age of Pioneers, 2017 film about the first spacewalk

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4. Portree, David S. F.; Treviño, Robert C. (October 1997). "Walking to Olympus: An EVA
Chronology" (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/walking/EVAChron.pdf) (PDF). Monographs in
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5. Rincon, Paul; Lachmann, Michael (October 13, 2014). "The First Spacewalk How the first
human to take steps in outer space nearly didn't return to Earth" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20160216020616/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/2014/newsspec_9035/index.html).
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 6. Oral History Transcript / James A. McDivitt (http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/Mc
DivittJA/mcdivittja.pdf) / Interviewed by Doug Ward / Elk Lake, Michigan – June 29, 1999.
7. Skylab Reuse Study (https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19790075817_1
979075817.pdf), p. 3-53. Martin Marietta and Bendix for NASA, September 1978.
8. Mark Wade. "Encyclopedia Astronautica Salyut 7 EP-4" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111
111213510/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/salt7ep4.htm). Astronautix.com. Archived from
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9. "A pictorial history of welding as seen through the pages of the Welding Journal" (http://ww
w.aws.org/about/time_by5.html). American Welding Society. Retrieved November 18, 2011.
10. "Space welding anniversary" (http://ruspace.blogspot.com/2009/07/space-welding-annivers
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11. NASA (2001). "STS-49" (http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-49/mission-sts-49.
html). NASA. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
12. Facts about spacesuits and spacewalks (NASA.gov) (http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreduc
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13. William Harwood (2007). "ISS EVA Statistics" (http://www.cbsnews.com/network/news/spac
e/evastats.html). CBS News. Retrieved November 8, 2007.
14. "Thomas Pesquet - EVA experience" (http://www.spacefacts.de/eva/international/english/pe
squet_thomas.htm). www.spacefacts.de. Retrieved January 17, 2022.
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ww.youtube.com/watch?v=Iji5hTQ3CUo). NASA. October 18, 2019. Archived (https://ghostar
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16. "Voor het eerst maakt vrouwelijk duo ruimtewandeling bij ISS" (https://www.nu.nl/buitenland/
6004873/voor-het-eerst-maakt-vrouwelijk-duo-ruimtewandeling-bij-iss.html) [For the first
time a female duo is taking a space walk at ISS]. nu.nl (in Dutch). October 18, 2019.
17. Garcia, Mark (October 18, 2019). "NASA TV is Live Now Broadcasting First All-Woman
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19. Rincon, Paul (January 5, 2016). "Tim Peake on historic spacewalk" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/n
ews/science-environment-35273912). BBC News. Retrieved September 10, 2016.
20. Scotts Specialized Catalogue of United States Postage Stamps
21. "Extravehicular Activity Radiation Monitoring (EVARM)" (http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marsh
all/news/background/facts/evarm.html_prt.htm). NASA. October 1, 2001.
22. "Extravehicular Activity Radiation Monitoring (EVARM)" (http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marsh
all/news/background/facts/evarm.html). Marshall Space Flight Center. October 1, 2001.
23. NASA (2006). "Preflight Interview: Joe Tanner" (http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/
shuttlemissions/sts115/interview_tanner.html). NASA. Retrieved February 8, 2008.
24. NASA. "International Space Station Status Report #06-7" (https://web.archive.org/web/2006
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25. NASA. "Pass the S'mores Please! Station Crew 'Camps Out' " (http://www.nasa.gov/mission
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27. Brady, Timothy K. and Polk, James D. (February 2011). "In-Suit Light Exercise (ISLE)
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R=20110007150). NASA. Retrieved April 27, 2018.

External links
NASA JSC Oral History Project Walking to Olympus: An EVA Chronology PDF document.
(http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/walking/EVAChron.pdf)
Astronaut space walk picture (https://web.archive.org/web/20150501064914/http://www.tabp
imps.com/result/wallpaper/spacewalk/)
NASDA Online Space Notes (https://web.archive.org/web/20030204093245/http://spaceboy.
nasda.go.jp/note/yujin/e/yuj101_eva_e.html)
Apollo Extravehicular mobility unit. Volume 1: System description – 1971 (PDF document) (h
ttps://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19730064704_1973064704.pdf)
Apollo Extravehicular mobility unit. Volume 2: Operational procedures – 1971 (PDF
document) (https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19730064705_197306470
5.pdf)
Skylab Extravehicular Activity Development Report – 1974 (PDF document) (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20050416080320/http://trs.nis.nasa.gov/archive/00000173/01/tmx64855.pdf)
Analysis of the Space Shuttle Extravehicular Mobility Unit – 1986 (PDF document) (https://nt
rs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19900001621_1990001621.pdf)
NASA Space Shuttle EVA tools and equipment reference book – 1993 (PDF document) (htt
ps://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19940017339_1994017339.pdf)
Preparing for an American EVA on the ISS – 2006 (http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/celsius/
infokit/english/05_EVASupportInfo.pdf)

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