ME 307

CONVECTION, BOILING,
CONDENSATION & MASS TRANSFER
Chapter 8
Internal Forced Convection
 INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION

• Liquid or gas flow through pipes or ducts is commonly used in heating and cooling applications and fluid
distribution networks.
• The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow by a fan or pump through a flow section.
• The terms pipe, duct, and tube are usually used interchangeably for flow sections. In general, flow sections of
circular cross section are referred to as pipes (especially when the fluid is a liquid), and flow sections of
noncircular cross section as ducts (especially when the fluid is a gas). Small-diameter
pipes are usually referred to as tubes.
• Most fluids, especially liquids, are transported in circular pipes. This is because pipes with a circular cross section
can withstand large pressure differences between the inside and the outside without undergoing significant
distortion.
• For a fixed surface area, the circular tube gives the most heat transfer for the least pressure drop, which explains
the overwhelming popularity of circular tubes in heat transfer equipment.
 INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION

• Although the theory of fluid flow is reasonably well understood, theoretical solutions are obtained only for a few
simple cases such as fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe. Therefore, we must rely on experimental
results and empirical relations for most fluid flow problems rather than closed-form analytical solutions.
• The fluid velocity in a pipe changes from zero at the wall because of the no-slip condition to a maximum at the
pipe center.
• In fluid flow, it is convenient to work with an average velocity Vavg, which remains constant in incompressible
flow when the cross-sectional area of the pipe is constant (Fig. 8–2).
 AVERAGE VELOCITY AND TEMPERATURE

• In external flow, the free-stream velocity served as a convenient reference velocity for use in the evaluation of
the Reynolds number and the friction coefficient. In internal flow, there is no free stream and thus we need an
alternative.
• The fluid velocity in a tube changes from zero at the surface because of the no-slip condition, to a maximum at
the tube center. Therefore, it is convenient to work with an average velocity Vavg, which remains constant for
incompressible flow when the cross sectional area of the tube is constant.
• The value of the average velocity Vavg at some streamwise cross section is determined from the requirement
that the conservation of mass principle be satisfied (Fig. 8–2).That is,

• Then, the average velocity for incompressible flow in a circular pipe of radius R is expressed as
 AVERAGE VELOCITY AND TEMPERATURE

• When a fluid is heated or cooled as it flows through a tube, the

temperature of the fluid at any cross section changes from Ts at the
surface of the wall to some maximum (or minimum in case of
heating) at the tube center.
• It is convenient to work with an mean temperature Tm, which
remains constant at a cross section.
• Unlike the mean velocity, the mean temperature Tm changes in the
flow direction whenever the fluid is heated or cooled.
• The fluid properties in internal flow are usually evaluated at the
bulk mean fluid temperature, which is the arithmetic average of the
mean temperatures at the inlet and the exit.That is, Tb = (Ti + Te)/2
 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW IN TUBES

• Most pipe flows encountered in practice are turbulent. Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous fluids
such as oils flow in small diameter tubes or narrow passages.
• For flow in a circular tube, the Reynolds number is defined as

• For flow through noncircular tubes, the Reynolds number as well as the Nusselt number, and the friction factor
are based on the hydraulic diameter Dh defined as

• where Ac is the cross sectional area of the tube and p is its

wetted perimeter
• Under most practical conditions, the flow in a pipe is
laminar for Re < 2300, fully turbulent for Re > 10,000, and
transitional in between.
 THE ENTRANCE REGION

• Velocity boundary layer (boundary layer): The region of the flow in which the effects of the viscous
shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt.
• Boundary layer region: The viscous effects and the velocity changes are significant.
• Irrotational (core) flow region: The frictional effects are negligible and the velocity remains essentially
constant in the radial direction.
• Hydrodynamic entrance region: The region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the velocity profile is
fully developed.
• Hydrodynamic entry length Lh: The length of this region.
• Hydrodynamically developing flow: Flow in the entrance region since this is the region where the velocity
profile develops.
• Hydrodynamically fully developed region: The region beyond the entrance region in which the velocity
profile is fully developed and remains unchanged.
THE ENTRANCE REGION
 THE ENTRANCE REGION

• Thermal entrance region: The region of flow over which the thermal boundary layer develops and reaches
the tube center.
• Thermal entry length Lt: The length of this region.
• Thermally developing flow: Flow in the thermal entrance region. This is the region where the temperature
profile develops.
• Thermally fully developed region: The region beyond the thermal entrance region in which the
dimensionless temperature profile (Ts - T)/(Ts - Tm) remains unchanged.
• Fully developed flow: The region in which the flow is both hydrodynamically and thermally developed.
 THE ENTRANCE REGION

• Noting that the velocity profile remains unchanged

in the hydrodynamically fully developed region, the wall
shear stress also remains constant in that region.
• In the thermally fully developed region of a tube, the
local convection coefficient is constant (does not vary
with x).
• Therefore, both the friction (which is related to wall
shear stress) and convection coefficients remain
constant in the fully developed region of a tube.
• Note that the temperature profile in the thermally fully
developed region may vary with x in the flow direction.
That is, unlike the velocity profile, the temperature
profile can be different at different cross sections of the
tube in the developed region, and it usually is.
 GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS

• Rate of heat transfer

• Surface heat flux is expressed as 𝑞ሶ s = hx(Ts - Tm). Note that the mean fluid temperature Tm of a fluid flowing in a
tube must change during heating or cooling. Therefore, when hx = h = constant, the surface temperature Ts must
change when 𝑞ሶ s = constant, and the surface heat flux 𝑞ሶ s must change when Ts = constant.
• We may have either Ts = constant or 𝑞ሶ s =constant at the surface of a tube, but not both.
• The thermal conditions at the surface can usually be approximated with reasonable accuracy to be
1. constant surface temperature (Ts = constant) or
2. constant surface heat flux ( 𝑞ሶ s = constant)
• The constant surface temperature condition is realized when a phase change process such as boiling or
condensation occurs at the outer surface of a tube.
• The constant surface heat flux condition is realized when the tube is subjected to radiation or electric
resistance heating uniformly from all directions.
 GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
1 . C o n s t a n t s u r f a c e h e a t f l u x ( 𝑞ሶ s = c o n s t a n t )

• Rate of heat transfer

• Mean fluid temperature at the tube exit:

• Note that the mean fluid temperature increases linearly in the flow
direction in the case of constant surface heat flux, since the surface area
increases linearly in the flow direction (As is equal to the perimeter, which
is constant, times the tube length).
• Surface temperature in the case of constant surface heat flux 𝑞ሶ s can be
determined from

• In the fully developed region, the surface temperature Ts will also increase
linearly in the flow direction since h is constant and thus Ts - Tm =
constant (Fig. 8–11).
 GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
1 . C o n s t a n t s u r f a c e h e a t f l u x ( 𝑞ሶ s = c o n s t a n t )

• The slope of the mean fluid temperature Tm on a T-x diagram can be determined
by applying the steady-flow energy balance to a tube slice of thickness dx shown in
Fig. 8–12. It gives

where p is the perimeter of the tube.

• Noting that both 𝑞ሶ s and h are constants, the differentiation of
with respect to x gives

• Also, the dimensionless temperature profile remains unchanged in the fully

developed region gives

Combining Equations we get

 GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
1 . C o n s t a n t s u r f a c e h e a t f l u x ( 𝑞ሶ s = c o n s t a n t )

• Integrating Eq. 8–22 from x = 0 (tube inlet where Tm = Ti) to x = x we obtain an expression for the variation of
mean temperature along the tube

• From the above equation we can conclude again that the mean temperature varies linearly with x along the tube
for the case of constant heat flux.
• For a circular tube, p = 2πR and 𝑚ሶ = ρVavgAc = ρVavg(πR2).Then Eq. 8–22 becomes
 GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
2 . C o n s t a n t S u r f a c e Te m p e r a t u re ( Ts = c o n s t a n t )

• From Newton’s law of cooling, the rate of heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing in a tube can be expressed as

• Two suitable ways of expressing Tavg

• Arithmetic mean temperature difference, Tam
• Logarithmic mean temperature difference, Tlm
• Arithmetic mean temperature difference, Tam can be expressed by

where Tb = (Ti + Te)/2 is the bulk mean fluid temperature

 GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
2 . C o n s t a n t S u r f a c e Te m p e r a t u re ( Ts = c o n s t a n t )

• By using arithmetic mean temperature difference, we assume that the mean fluid temperature varies linearly
along the tube, which is hardly ever the case when Ts = constant.
• This simple approximation often gives acceptable results, but not always. Therefore, we need a better way to
evaluate Tavg
 GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
2 . C o n s t a n t S u r f a c e Te m p e r a t u re ( Ts = c o n s t a n t )

• The energy balance on a differential control volume shown in Fig. 8–12 gives

• Noting that the differential surface area is dAs = pdx, where p is the perimeter of
the tube, and that dTm = d(Ts  Tm), since Ts is constant, the relation above can
be rearranged as

• Integrating from x=0 (tube inlet;Tm = Ti) to x = L (tube exit;Tm =Te) gives

where As = pL is the surface area of the tube

• Taking the exponential of both sides and solving for Te gives

 GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
2 . C o n s t a n t S u r f a c e Te m p e r a t u re ( Ts = c o n s t a n t )

• The temperature difference between the fluid and the surface decays exponentially in the flow direction, and the
rate of decay depends on the magnitude of the exponent hAs/𝒎c
ሶ p, as shown in Fig. 8–14.
• This dimensionless parameter is called the number of transfer units, denoted by NTU, and is a measure of the
effectiveness of the heat transfer systems.
• For NTU>5, the exit temperature of the fluid becomes almost equal to the surface temperature, Te  Ts (Fig. 8–15)
 GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
2 . C o n s t a n t S u r f a c e Te m p e r a t u re ( Ts = c o n s t a n t )

• Solving Eq. 8–29 for 𝑚c

ሶ p gives

• Substituting this into we obtain

where is the log mean temperature difference.

• Note that Ti = Ts - Ti and Te = Ts - Te are the temperature differences between the surface and the fluid at the
inlet and the exit of the tube, respectively. This Tlm relation appears to be prone to misuse, but it is practically fail-
safe, since using Ti in place of Te and vice versa in the numerator and/or the denominator will, at most, affect the
sign, not the magnitude. Also, it can be used for both heating (Ts > Ti and Te) and cooling (Ts < Ti and Te) of a fluid in
a tube.
 GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS

Example 8-1:
Water enters a 2.5-cm-internal-diameter thin copper tube of a heat exchanger at 15°C at a rate of 0.3 kg/s, and is
heated by steam condensing outside at 120°C. If the average heat transfer coefficient is 800 W/m2K, determine the
length of the tube required in order to heat the water to 115°C of the oil in the pipe.

Solution
GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
OTHER REQUIRED FORMULAS
 OTHER REQUIRED FORMULAS

• For fully developed laminar flow in a circular tube

• For developing laminar flow in a circular tube

OTHER REQUIRED FORMULAS
 INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION

Example 8-3:
Consider the flow of oil at 20°C in a 30-cm-diameter pipeline at an average velocity of 2 m/s. A 200-m-long section
of the horizontal pipeline passes through icy waters of a lake at 0°C. Measurements indicate that the surface
temperature of the pipe is very nearly 0°C. Disregarding the thermal resistance of the pipe material, determine (a)
the temperature of the oil when the pipe leaves the lake, (b) the rate of heat transfer from the oil, and (c) the
pumping power required to overcome the pressure losses and to maintain the flow of the oil in the pipe.

Solution
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
 INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION

Question-1

Cooling water available at 10°C is used to condense steam at 30°C in the condenser of a power plant at a rate
of 0.15 kg/s by circulating the cooling water through a bank of 5-m-long 1.2-cm-internal-diameter thin copper
tubes. Water enters the tubes at a mean velocity of 4 m/s and leaves at a temperature of 24°C. The tubes are
nearly isothermal at 30°C. Determine the average heat transfer coefficient between the water, the tubes, and
the number of tubes needed to achieve the indicated heat transfer rate in the condenser.

Solution
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
 INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION

Question-2

Water at 10°C ( = 999.7 kg/m3 and  = 1.307  10-3 kg/m.s) is flowing in a 0.20-cm-diameter 15-m-long pipe
steadily at an average velocity of 1.2 m/s. Determine (a) the pressure drop and (b) the pumping power
requirement to overcome this pressure drop. Assume flow is fully developed.

Solution
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
 INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION

Question-3

Water is to be heated from 10°C to 80°C as it flows through a 2-cm-internal-diameter, 13-m-long tube. The
tube is equipped with an electric resistance heater, which provides uniform heating throughout the surface of
the tube. The outer surface of the heater is well insulated, so that in steady operation all the heat generated in
the heater is transferred to the water in the tube. If the system is to provide hot water at a rate of 5 L/min,
determine the power rating of the resistance heater. Also, estimate the inner surface temperature of the pipe at
the exit.
Solution
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
 INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION

Question-4
Air enters a 7 m long section of a rectangular duct of cross section 15 cm  20 cm at 50°C at an average
velocity of 7 m/s. If the walls of the duct are maintained at 10°C, determine
a) the outlet temperature of the air,
b) the rate of heat transfer from the air, and
c) the fan power needed to overcome the pressure losses in this section of the duct

Solution
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
 INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION

Question-5
The components of an electronic system dissipating 180 W are located in a 1-m-long circular horizontal duct of
15-cm diameter. The components in the duct are cooled by forced air, which enters at 27°C at a rate of 0.65
m3/min. Assuming 85 percent of the heat generated inside is transferred to air flowing through the duct and the
remaining 15 percent is lost through the outer surfaces of the duct, determine (a) the exit temperature of air
and (b) the highest component surface temperature in the duct. As a first approximation assume flow is fully
developed in the channel. Evaluate properties of air at a bulk mean temperature of 35°C.
Solution
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION