NAME - HIMANSHU RANA

ROLL NO - T21295
SUBJECT - GROUND MODIFICATION
ASSIGNMENT - 2
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Write at least 500 words on following:

1. Concept of soil confinement and applicable measures:

To understand the concept of confinement, consider a wall which is built with the sandbags,
and it can make up an extremely useful building element which can have remarkable
compressive strength. Confinement of not only soil but any particulate materials like coffee
beans, mobilize the internal friction and the structure thus formed is highly stable. Thus,
concept of confinement is not limited to soil only but it can be used for any particulate material
and confined material then can exhibit good compressive strength.
Soil confinement can be done by various ways either by the use of formwork (internal or
external), using supports or abutments and the confined soil can then have increased shear
strength (as per Mohr'-Coulomb theory) because of either due to increase in angle of internal
friction (𝝓) or due to increase in cohesion (𝒄).
𝝉 = 𝒄 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝝓)
The concept of soil confinement in mostly used in gravity structures and these gravity
structures are formed by interlocking of the particles of the soil due to soil confinement. Such
gravity structures are crib walls, gabions, and bin walls. Also, with the recent development in
geosynthetic materials, this concept of soil confinement is used in making fabrimats, sandbags,
etc., which have various applications in controlling soil erosion, prevention of bridge
abutments, military applications like barrier walls.

§ Crib walls :-
These are a type of gravity retaining structures which are formed by using surrounding infill
materials which are confined using the formwork made of arranging simple beam like elements
in a lattice type structure (Fig. 1). In this type of wall, longitudinal and transverse beam
elements are so arranged that they form a rectangular cell type of structure which are then filled
with the soil. These walls are very flexible and highly permeable thus no development of excess
pore water pressure. Also, these walls are very cheap to construct and do not require much
skilled labour to construct them.
§ Bin walls :-
Bin walls are mostly made up of using steel sheets and are called as steel bin walls (Fig. 2).
Steel bin walls are made from non-corrosive steel sheets and these steel sheets are then joined
together to form as box like structure which is closed from all the sides except from the top and
bottom and these are connected using bolts and then they are filled with infill soil (highly
permeable) Its application include prevention of bank erosion, holding encroaching slopes, etc.
Like crib walls they are also very flexible thus they can easily adapt the unforeseen ground
settlements.

§ Gabions :-
Gabions are one of the cheapest type of gravity retaining structure which is formed using the
concept of soil confinement (Fig. 3). Gabions are nothing but a basket made up of wires which
then filled with the rock. Rocks used to fill the gabions must be of the size greater than the
mesh size of the gabions. Gabion basket are typically 2-4 m long, 1 m high and 1 m wide.
These baskets are then combined together to form a large structure. The wire used to form
gabions usually have 2-3 mm diameter with openings of 60-100 mm. To prevent the wire
material from the corrosion they are galvanised using Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC).

Figure 1: Wooden crib wall Figure 2: Bin Walls

Figure 3: Gabions
2. Soil anchors, bolts and nails

§ Soil anchors :-
Soil anchors are also called as tiebacks, these are pre-stressed steel tendons which are grouted
into the soil and are used to transfer the tensile forces applied in the steel tendons to the ground.
These soil anchors are fixed with the grout which is filled in the hole created in the soil. Soil
anchor consists of three parts (Fig. 4) which are (i) drill hole created in the soil and the
supporting structure (anchorage), (ii) unbonded length of the anchorage in which steel tendon
is stressed freely in tension and (iii) bonded length where steel tendon is fixed with the grout
filled in the soil. The anchorage system consists of the head of the anchor where steel tendon
is fixed on the structure, bearing plate to safely transfer the stresses of the prestressed steel
tendon without damaging the supporting structure and a trumpet which transfer the load from
the prestressed steel to the ground or to the supporting structure. The unbonded length is that
portion of the soil anchors which offers the steel bar to expand freely and elastically, it transfer
the forces from the bonded length of the anchorage to the supported structure. And, the bonded
length is that part of the system which is used to transmit the prestressed steel forces to the
ground either by friction or compression. This bonded length should be located behind that
portion of the soil which is susceptible to the failure so that to avoid anchorage slip and the
bond between grout and the soil.
Soil anchors thus can be used for slope stability, prevention from the structure collapse and to
support the sidewalls and pits of a trenchless structure project.

Figure 4: Various component of a soil anchor

§ Soil bolts :-
Soil bolts are used for the rock type of soils. Rock bolts are generally used in the construction
of tunnels and for underground mines to prevent the excavated surface from the soil over it. In
this, steel rod is inserted into the rocks to support the cavity formed during underground
constructions (Fig. 5). This method of rock bolting is a very fast and quick method and can be
used to support the cavity of any shape and size. The method is also very economical. Based
on the requirement of the strengthening the cavity, rock bolts can be of varying length and
varying spacing among two adjacent rock bolts.
There are three methods of rock bolting:
(i) Grouted
(ii) Mechanical
(iii) Friction
Mechanical method is the most used method, in which expansion shell is used for rock bolting.
The most typical kind of mechanically anchored rock screw utilizes a development shell. A
wedge attached to the screw shank is drawn right into a cone-shaped growth shell as the screw
is turned. This requires the shell to broaden against the wall of the borehole. The mechanisms
through which the anchoring is done versus the borehole wall are interlocking and friction. A
preload can be related to the rock surface by tensioning the bolt with a connected wall mount
or faceplate, which is developed to disperse the load evenly onto the bordering rock.

Figure 5: Rock bolting in a tunnel

§ Soil nails :-
Soil nailing is a cost-effective strategy utilized to maintain existing inclines and to build
retaining wall surfaces from the top down. This soil reinforcement procedure uses steel bars
which are pierced and also grouted right into the soil to develop a composite mass comparable
to a gravity wall surface. A Shotcrete layer is then applied on it, though lots of architectural
alternatives such as precast panels or "eco-friendly" vegetated cells are readily available for
long-term wall facings.
The process is really flexible. It is easy to shore along uneven contours and surfaces and setup
methods can be changed according to constricted access. For shoring wall surfaces more than
around 10 feet, soil nailing is much more practical as well as more cost-effective than driven
piles. It is additionally quieter than driving piles. When area for shoring is restricted,
particularly for high retaining structures (Fig. 6), soil nailing creates a much smaller
sized footprint than laying back a slope.

Figure 6: Soil nailing for slope stability

3. Thermal Modification

§ Heat treatment :-
Heat treatment is usually done for clayey soils. Heat treatment of clayey soil at temperature
levels surpassing the state 400°C leads to noticeable permanent changes in its properties. This
remains in contrast to the synthetic soil freezing process, which needs to be preserved in order
to continue to be efficient; after thawing, the soil may actually be weak than before. Heating
soil takes in a great amount of energy. For example 50 to 100 L of fuel oil may be needed to
stabilize 1 m2 of soil. In an age of increasing energy costs and also worries concerning air
contamination, large warmth treatment is not likely to have much of a future, except in
extremely unique conditions; special situation might arise where the soil currently contains
some fuel, either normally or in the form of waste products. Heat treatment might likewise
draw in new passion in the production of bricklike building components with not so high
temperature (500 to 700°C) firing, potentially in combination with chemical stabilizing.
Method of heating in situ soil
1) Ground surface heating
A pioneering initiative in heat treatment of soil for roadmaking was made by Irvine (1930) in
Australia. He created and built a wood-fired furnace (Fig. 7) which moved at a rate of 2 to 10
m/h on a previously prepared soil, generating a 50 to 200 mm thick baked layer of firm non-
plastic product out of a really moisture sensitive clay. After placing the bitumen and finished
the road surface, the rad thus formed was highly durable and strong.

Figure 7: Irvine Heat Treatment Machine Figure 8: Thermal stabilization of an embankment

2) Heating through boreholes

Heat treatment by means of boreholes has actually been reported in the USSR (1959), in
Rumania (1958), and in Japan (1971). An unique version of an open-type system was made
use of to support an embankment at Kanazawa, Japan (Fig. 8). Around 1200 L of fuel was
burned at each borehole to raise the soil temperature more than 300°C and this temperature
was maintained up to 300 mm radius of the bore hole. After the treatment they found that the
soil had a strength of 10 to 20 times the untreated soil.

§ Ground freezing :-
Changing ground with soil freezing has excellent potential for fixing challenging foundation
troubles Because it assures an extremely high increment in strength and is also effective in
controlling seepage problems in a few numbers of days or hours after starting the procedure.
Typical applications are Retaining structures for open excavations Lateral sustains for sinking
mine shafts Ground assistance and infiltration control throughout tunnelling. Unlike a lot of
various other techniques of ground alteration, ground freezing is suitable for a wide variety of
soil or rock kinds. As a matter of fact it is appropriate for any kind of formation where pore
water freezing creates a bond between particulate materials as well as where the freezing
procedure is not affected significantly by the water flow. A lot more especially, the
effectiveness of ground freezing will certainly depend on factors such as
1. The sort of ground.
2. Pore water composition and the ice created.
3. The temperature of the water and rate of infiltration.
4. The temperature at which freezing occurs and the speed of freezing.
Method of freezing in situ soil
1) Circulating brine freezing systems
In this method, a coolant typically Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) is used to freeze the soil. A
connected boreholes pipe system is arranged in the soil to be treated and then the coolant is
passed through these pipes and as the coolant moves in the soil it keeps on freezing the soil
(Fig. 9). The typical lowest temperature of Calcium Chloride that can be achieved in site is -
55°C. Type of soil and the amount of water in the soil dictates the amount of time needs to
freeze the soil.
2) Expendable gas freezing system
Much less conventional is the usage of fluid gases, a lot of commonly fluid nitrogen (LN2).
Liquid nitrogen can achieve the lowest temperature of -196°C, through the connected pipelines
in the soil Liquid Nitrogen is travelled into the soil and then released into the ambiance (Fig.
10), or, if the treatment soil is enough porous, it can be directed right into the ground. To
maximize the freezing result, nitrogen supply should be controlled and regulated properly. In
this method, Ground freezing is accomplished very swiftly, within hours as opposed to days
because of the low-temperature level of fluid nitrogen. It is advantageous in building and
construction emergencies, especially where infiltration is experienced.

Figure 9: Circulating brine freezing system Figure 10: Ground freezing with liquid nitrogen
4. Shotcreting and Guniting technique

§ Shotcreting :-
Shotcrete is a technique in which concrete is applied on an overhanging surface or vertical
surface by projecting the concrete at high speed on such surfaces. Due to the application of
concrete at high speed, the concrete gets consolidated on the applied surfaces. Although the
properties of hardened shotcrete resemble those of standard cast-in-situ concrete but the
method with which shotcrete placement process leads to an outstanding bond with a lot of
substrates, and also instant or fast abilities, specifically on complicated kinds of shapes. The
shotcrete procedure needs less formwork and also can be much more affordable than
traditionally positioned concrete. Shotcrete is used utilizing a wet mix procedure. The wet mix
shotcrete procedure blends all ingredients, including water, prior to intro into the delivery tube.
The wet mix process entails the mixing of all active ingredients to create concrete or mortar
with the needed water content. In this method, the shotcrete mix is prepared prior to position
in the shotcreting device. The method entails the device hose delivering the wetted mix to the
nozzles using highly pressurized air. After this, the wet mix is ejected at a high rate on the
shotcrete surface.
Advantages of shotcreting
1. The shotcrete procedure forms a consistent and also strong concrete layer on the
treatment surface.
2. The shotcrete procedure is a lot more cost-effective than traditional concrete because
of no need for formwork.
3. Shotcreting can be utilized in the building and construction where the formwork cannot
be set up.
4. The necessary products can be easily obtainable in many areas.
5. Specialized admixtures can be contributed to the concrete to accomplish a lot more
performance.
6. No added demand for water while using.

§ Guniting :-
Gunite is a blend made from cement, sand, as well as water. Gunite is as that like concrete, yet
the standard pouring approach is not embraced here; instead, it is splashed in several layers
using gun-mounted equipment. For this reason, it is called gunite. During the mix preparation,
water is included in the dry mix at the opening of the nozzle of the equipment. Normally,
concrete is made airborne before it hits the surface of the target. The completely dry mix
procedure involves the blending of concrete and wet aggregates at the needed proportion prior
to their supply to the device. Then, the mixed components are placed on the equipment hopper.
During the procedure, the mix is extracted to the nozzle from the hopper with the help of the
hose of the device using compressed air. Once the completely dry mix arrives at the nozzle,
high-pressure water is splashed on the mix via a perforated ring connected to the device. While
splashing, the water moistens the completely dry mix. Thus, the needed mortar or concrete is
jetted at a greater speed on the shotcrete surface.
Advantages of Guniting
1. Guniting is extremely durable and also provides the adaptability to create any shape
and size of the structure.
2. Gunite provides a much more range of coatings. Plaster coatings come in a variety of
shades from which we can select, depending on the need of the residents.
3. The preparation of a completely dry mix is speedily contrasted to a wet mix.
4. The concrete splashed on the surfaces has very high compressive strength.
5. Gunite likewise makes it simple to design.
6. The Guniting process is cheaper than shotcrete.

Figure 11: Wet mix shotcreting Figure 12: Dry mix Guniting
5. Rock Mass Grouting in the Loren Tunnel: Case Study

§ Introduction :-
Tunnelling in metropolitan locations entails numerous difficulties. One of the most significant
challenges is the danger of lowering the groundwater table, which may damage structures as
well as the atmosphere. Urban passages typically have strict water access limitations and
organized pre-grouting of the rock mass is typically explained. In these instances, the rock mass
grouting is an important part of the construction procedure and have to be offered fantastic
interest in the preparation as well as execution stages in order to acquire an acceptable result.
The tunnel has a 915 m long rock part and has three lanes in two tubes and also break down
lanes, thus having face locations area of 105 to 135 m2. Drilling and blast techniques are used
for the excavation of the tunnel with continuous use of grouting. Excavation of tube B is done
30 m far from tube A.

§ Grouting :-
Grout is typically a combination of cement, water, and also sand or chemical made use of to
fill voids. They are useful in the fixing of cracks in the concrete, filling gaps in tiles of the floor,
sealing and also filling voids for damp proofing and for stabilizing the soil. It is also useful for
increasing the strength of the foundation of a structure. Grouts are made use of in a range of
applications like crack repair, stopping water immersion in the underwater structures e.g.
Tunnels, canals, etc.

Figure 13 : Grouting in progress Figure 14 : Typical drill plans for grout curtains

§ Grouting procedure :-
Cement has actually been utilized for all organized grouting, usually with a w/c proportion of
0.5 to 1. The sequence of grouting at the bottom openings has two lines in the centre. The lines
were then relocated from this placement to both sides and this procedure was done till the
crown was met. At the face openings, the third line was used or this third line can be used
combined with the first two lines so that two holes are grout with each other. The option of
grout concrete type was primarily based on overburden assessment and also access limitations.
Rapid concrete has the most affordable cost as well as was, for that reason, the recommended
option. Micro-cement is thought to have far good penetration as compared to rapid cement and
also was utilized when the soil overburden pressure was low as well as high stress may trigger
the grout to get to the surface as well as in cases when rapid concrete did not offer a sufficiently
limited passage. When the dimensions of the grain of the cement (d95) are greater than 20 mm
then it is called rapid cement.

§ Results and discussion :-

The frequency of grout volume used for all the holes is shown in the figure 14. The histogram
emphasizes that a lot of openings possessed a grout usage of fewer than one hundred litres. For
the majority of the grouting treatments, the maximum grout amount for a hole was actually
1000 l. Holes having grout consumption of more than 1000 l, it was difficult to maintain the
end pressure. Gaps along with a cement consumption of over 1,250 to 1,500 litres might happen
because of receding into the tunnel by means of cracks.
The grouting injection that has been actually executed in the Loren tunnel has provided a water
ingress that is less than the pre-defined incredibly meticulous limitations, and, for that reason,
appears to have prospered. The reservation, having said that, needs to be actually taken that
this tunnel job is actually not quite accomplished, and also there is actually a probability that
the water ingress might enhance when the groundwater level comes back to typical.

Figure 15 : Grout volume frequencies for all holes

6. Case study on usage of geosynthetics in Construction of Kandaleru Earthen
Bund Reservoir, Chennai

§ Introduction :-
Geotextile is a porous geosynthetic consisting of fabrics. Geotextiles are actually made use of
with groundworks, ground, rock, or some other relevant component as an indispensable portion
of important construction projects, and designs. Making use of natural/organic fabric in the
development field most likely happened decades ago when some impressive person along with
the concept of enhancing the material strength, made a decision to install it with the soil. The
principle of installing branches and straw in clay-based can be looked at to fall within this
classification. Geosynthetics, which make up an assortment of products, greatly arranged under
geocomposites, geotextiles, geomembranes, and geogrids have been located to become of
immense make use in the various structure ventures.

§ Problem and cause :-

Kandaleru Earthen Bund Reservoir (Fig. 16) was eroding because of very high current forces
coming from the reservoir at the dam chainage of 7.4 km to 8.1 km. The height of the dam is
45 m.

Figure 16 : View of the Kendaleru dam

§ Methodology adopted :-
The drainage layer is installed and laid at the eroded area by using Polypropylene and not using
the traditional filter materials. Firstly, geotextile is filled with 450 mm thick riprap layer and
then the gabions are used to tie the riprap.
§ Rectification works :-
Firstly, all the loose materials including boulders and vegetation are removed from the surface
to be rectified and after that compaction of the surface is done using light compaction
techniques. A trench of 1.0 m wide as well as 0.5 m deep at 1.0 to 1.5 m at the higher side of
the deteriorated section to hold the filter product was provided. Similar trenches are made at
the toe area of deteriorated portion for the anchorage objective. After this, a thin layer of sand
around 100mm thick on the cleaned-up surface was provided and after this, a layer of
Polypropylene filter membrane was laid in addition to the sand bed (Fig. 17). The filter
membrane layer was then secured at the trenches on both upper as well as toe areas of the worn
down part and the filter membrane was then folded by utilizing smashed riverian material.

Figure 17 : Laying of Geotextile Layer

Then, a layer of crushed stone material about 160 mm thick was laid over the filter membrane
layer. Gabion is put at foot level. Dumped riprap is actually offered over this crushed stone
coating so that its slope was the same as the slope of the routine reservoir along with gabion
wall structures provided at the intermediate levels as shown in under Fig 18. Figure 19 shows
the use of geotextile as a filtering together with positioning of gabions in the course of building.

Figure 18 : Rip Rap Tied with Gabions Figure 19 : Rock and Wire Revetment Mattress Installation
§ Conclusion :-
From the study of the Kendaleru dam, it has been found out that the Polypropylene is one of
the best filter materials which can be used for the drainage purposes. The dam was monitored
from the last two years after the rectification of erosion problem and there have been no
problems faced with the Kandaleru reservoir dam related to the dam erosion due to water
currents. So, the authors proposed to use Polypropylene as a filter material for tackling such
kinds of problems in our country.
References
1. Raju, N. Ramakrishna. (2010) Case Studies on the Usage of Geosynthetics in Earthen
Dams and Embankments. Indian Geotechnical Conference, IIT Bombay.
2. Koerner, R.M. (2004) Construction and Geotechnical Engineering Using Synthetic
fabrics.
3. Are Havard Hoien, Bjorn Nilsen. (2014) Rock Mass Grouting in the Loren Tunnel:
Case Study with the Main Focus on the Groutability and Feasibility of Drill Parameter
Interpretation. Rock Mech Rock Eng.
4. Axelsson M, Gustafson G, Fransson A. (2009) Stop mechanism for cementitious grouts
at different water-to-cement ratios. Tunn Undergr Space Technology.
5. Hausmann, M. (1990) Engineering principles of Ground modification. McGraw-Hill
Publications.
6. Madhu Sudan Acharya. (2017) Analytical Approach to Design Vegetative Crib Walls.
Geotech Geol Eng.
7. M. Molenda, M. D. Montross, S. A. Thompson. (2009) Asymmetry of Model Bin Wall
Loads and Lateral Pressure Induced from Two- and Three-Dimensional Obstructions
Attached to the Wall.