Proceedings of the 54th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences | 2021

Examining Game-based Approaches in Human Resources Recruitment and

Selection: A Literature Review and Research Agenda

Saman Bina Jeffrey K. Mullins Stacie Petter

Baylor University University of Arkansas Baylor University
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract United States Army, Marriott Hotels) [28]. Other

Human resources departments have embraced the organizations use competitive business simulation
use of technology to incorporate game-based games to identify talent [e.g., 6] or adapt existing
approaches (GBA) to encourage potential applicants to assessment methods with game-like affordances to
apply for open positions and to select employees among improve applicant engagement [19]. Enabled by
qualified candidates. We examine the academic technology, a nascent industry is emerging to provide
literature on the use of serious games, game-inspired organizations with game-like assessment capabilities
design, game-like simulations, gamification, and other (e.g., Arctic Shores, KnackApp, pymetrics) [23].
GBA used to support recruitment and selection For decades, practitioners have used GBA for HR
activities. Based on our review of 35 articles, we recruitment and selection. However, the academic
describe the state of research related to GBA for literature has not kept pace with the rapid changes
recruitment and selection, including theoretical occurring in practice. To assess the state of research, we
foundations, targeted outcomes, and game design conducted a systematic review of GBA in the academic
elements examined or discussed within this literature. literature related to HR recruitment and selection. Our
Based on our systematic review of the literature, we research objectives are: (1) to examine the current state
identify opportunities for future research related to GBA of GBA research in HR recruitment and selection, and
in recruitment and selection of employees. (2) to develop an agenda for future research.

1. Introduction 2. Background

Organizations compete in the “war for talent” [40, 2.1. Game-based approaches
62] and increasingly rely on information technology to
encourage the right people to apply for open positions GBA are inclusive of finer-grained concepts such
(i.e., recruitment) and to identify which individuals have as gamification and serious games. Gamification is
the needed skills for the position (i.e., selection). broadly defined as the incorporation of game design
Traditional recruitment and selection methods, such as elements into non-game contexts [14]. A non-game
job postings, interviews, self-report questionnaires, and context can refer to any context that involves activities
cognitive tests, are being augmented or replaced with not typically associated with games such as education,
technology-driven solutions [62]. One emerging healthcare, marketing, and HR management. Game
technological trend in HR is the use of game-based design elements are the building blocks of games,
approaches (GBA) to enhance the recruitment and including characteristics such as points, badges,
selection process [37]. GBA include, but are not limited rewards, leaderboards, and narratives to promote
to, serious games, gamification, game-inspired designs, psychological or behavioral reactions in the user. By
and simulations. Organizations use GBA to increase comparison, serious games are full-fledged games
their attractiveness as an organization [20], to improve designed with an instrumental purpose [39]. Whereas
their applicant pool [12], and to identify applicants and serious games can embody instrumental goals without
employees with needed digital competencies [48]. For disrupting a target activity, gamification requires
applicants, GBA informs individuals about potential restructuring aspects of a target activity to make it more
careers [32] and offers a means to assess skills for a engaging [13]. Such distinctions among GBA are still
position in an engaging way [33]. developing in this emerging domain [52], and further
Some organizations have created branded games to conceptual clarity and differentiation are needed to
attract candidates to apply for open positions (e.g., advance the state of knowledge [27, 51].

URI: https://hdl.handle.net/10125/70773
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2.2. Human resources experiences during recruitment and selection can set the
tone for future engagement with the organization as an
HR departments are responsible for activities that employee [42]. Third, given the expense required to
span the lifecycle of an employee’s involvement with an attract qualified candidates, select the best candidates,
organization. HR is often responsible for posting job and train new employees, organizations want to hire the
advertisements, encouraging potential applicants to right people for a position [40].
apply, screening and interviewing applicants, and
working with the hiring manager to select the applicant 3. Methodology
with the best fit for the organization. After hiring an
employee, HR provides orientation, training, and other 3.1. Identifying and selecting articles
onboarding activities. Furthermore, HR coordinates
benefits, encourages employee retention, supports the We identified articles examining the role of GBA
performance evaluation process, and oversees the (gamification and serious games) in the context of HR
exiting process for retired or terminated employees. by performing searches in Scopus and Business Source
In the recruitment process, HR departments seek to Complete. Scopus offers a broad range of journals and
generate a talent pool of highly qualified applicants that has been used for other literature reviews on
have a potential fit with the organization. Many HR gamification [e.g., 21, 30]. Due to the business-oriented
departments nowadays apply GBA in their recruitment nature of the topic, we also searched for articles within
process. Some organizations use GBA to help applicants Business Source Complete.
visualize themselves as a member of the organization We used broad search terms related to GBA in
[23]. Other organizations use GBA to improve addition to terms related to HR activities, such as
candidate engagement during the job search process to recruitment and selection to identify articles for this
heighten the applicant’s commitment to the organization literature review. The portion of the search query for
[41]. Scholars have suggested that GBA create a more topics was (“gami*” OR "serious gam*”) AND (recruit*
diverse and more engaged talent pool [41] as compared OR hiring* OR hire* OR select* OR assess* OR retent*
with traditional means such as job advertisements. OR retain* OR talent* OR "human res*"). Given the
In the selection process, HR departments screen large number of search terms and the focus on GBA, we
resumes or applications to identify which applicants fit limited our search to English language articles,
the needs of an open position. After narrowing the published in journals, but we did not restrict articles
applicant pool, organizations use interviews and/or based on publication year. Within Business Source
psychometric testing to select among the candidates. Complete, we restricted our search to peer-reviewed
Psychometric testing can measure a candidate’s journal articles (consistent with [55]). For Scopus, to
quantitative and verbal skills, logical reasoning ability, focus the search on the domain of HR, we limited
and personality traits, among other attributes. Some articles to journals classified in the subject area of
forms of psychometric testing ask applicants to apply business or computing to identify articles focused on
their knowledge to scenarios or role play. Increasingly, GBA targeting HR management topics. This initial
organizations apply GBA to psychometric testing to search of Scopus and Business Source Complete
reduce testing anxiety [12] or to create a sense of fun or resulted in 2,142 articles (Step 1).
challenge [16] in the selection process. In other cases, Duplicate articles (Step 2) and articles outside of
organizations use GBA to capture psychometric and the scope of this study (Step 3) were removed. Some of
behavioral measures through direct observation of the articles removed in Step 3 focused on casino gaming
applicant actions. In tandem with enabling direct (203 articles), education and training (856 articles), or
observation (rather than self-reporting) of applicant other unrelated phenomena such as gaming addiction,
behavior, GBA help to create an environment in which economics experiments (e.g., game theory), or games
it is more difficult to falsify information or misrepresent for other purposes beyond recruitment and selection.
oneself to “game the system” in pursuit of a job [4]. In Step 4, the references for the remaining articles
Although HR performs additional activities beyond were examined for potential journal articles or book
recruitment and selection, we focus on these activities chapters to include (i.e., backwards search). For these
for three reasons. First, the HR recruitment and selection articles, a forward citation search was also performed to
processes are externally facing (i.e., non-employees), include recently published journal articles and book
and the application of GBA to these processes is quite chapters. Any new article identified in this process also
different from GBA applications of HR processes for was subjected to a reference list search and forward
current employees. Second, the processes of recruitment citation search until no new articles were identified.
and selection are the first interactions that most In Step 5, two co-authors not involved in the initial
applicants have with an organization. Positive screening process reviewed the remaining articles for

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potential inclusion in the literature review. Initial discrepancies and reconciled differences to reach 100%
interrater agreement was low (Cohen’s kappa of 0.326). agreement for each category.
Articles for which there was agreement by the two co-
authors to remove the articles were dropped, leaving 55 4. Results
potentially relevant articles in the list. In a final review
(Step 6), all co-authors reviewed each article for the 4.1. Descriptive categories
following criteria: (a) the article was in the context of
recruitment and/or selection (or activities that are part of Of the 35 articles, 13 articles (37%) are literature
these processes) and (b) the article discusses the reviews, 7 articles (20%) are conceptual, and 15 articles
application or use of GBA with information technology. (43%) are empirical. Among the empirical articles, 4 use
After discussion of each of the articles, we reached full qualitative methods, 2 use descriptive analysis, and 9
agreement on the final 35 articles to include in the use quantitative methods to test hypotheses. No articles
literature review. Table 1 summarizes the number of used multiple methods to test hypotheses.
articles remaining after completing each step of the We identified the focus of each article as to whether
literature review process. the article considered GBA for recruitment or selection
from the organization’s or the applicant’s perspective.
Table 1. Literature review process Empirical articles are balanced in that 8 articles focus on
Step Description Articles organizations, and 7 articles focus on applicants.
remaining However, of the non-empirical articles (conceptual or
1 Initial database search 2,142 literature reviews), 18 of the 20 articles consider the
2 Check for duplicates 1,888 organizational perspective.
3 Additional screening of full 51 Among the articles, 9 articles (26%) consider GBA
article for recruitment, 13 articles (37%) consider GBA in the
4 Examine references and 69 selection process, and 13 articles (37%) discuss GBA
forward citation search for recruitment and selection. The literature is more
5 Full screening of article 55 focused on gamification (22 articles, 63%) than serious
6 Finalizing criteria 35 games (4 articles, 11%) overall, with the remaining (9
articles, 26%) discussing GBA more broadly.
3.2. Data analysis Of the 35 reviewed articles, 29 articles define
gamification, (Table 6 in the appendix). Of these, 23
We coded and analyzed the final set of 35 articles (79%) define gamification consistently with Deterding
using a concept-centric approach [60]. We classified et al. [14] as the use of game design elements in a non-
each article into descriptive categories based on the game context. Of 13 articles defining serious games, 6
methodology, article focus (i.e., organizational versus cite Michael and Chen [39], and other definitions are
applicant), type of HR process, type of GBA considered, generally consistent with this definition. Multiple
definitions of GBA terms, and demographics of interest. articles position serious games as interchangeable with
To determine the type of GBA, we read each article to gamification [e.g., 6, 62] or as a subset or superset of
identify whether the article discussed GBA,1 serious gamification [e.g., 17]. As a broader concept, the game-
games, or gamification. The appendix provides the thinking term, which we consider to be synonymous
descriptive attributes of each article. with GBA, appears in 3 articles. We also note the
We also examined the theoretical lenses used and recurring concept of “gamified assessment” in 5 articles,
the extent to which theory was applied in each article. a specific use case of gamification that is common to
Some articles briefly mentioned theory, while others selection within the HR context.
applied theory more thoughtfully. We coded the game Of the 15 empirical articles, 12 articles report that
design elements discussed or used in each article, noting younger people (generations Y and Z) are the targeted
that some articles “mentioned” game design elements demographic for their research related to GBA for
nominally while others “used” game design elements recruitment and selection. Three of the reviewed articles
more extensively. For empirical articles, we identified noted that targeting a specific demographic can result in
the targeted outcomes for the research study. age-based discrimination, one potential dark side of
We independently coded each of the above GBA for recruitment and selection.
categories and our interrater reliability for each concept
was 0.610 or higher. As co-authors, we discussed all

1
We classify an article as GBA if it discusses multiple related
concepts (e.g., both serious games and gamification).

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4.2. Theoretical lens in non-empirical articles and those “used” in empirical
articles. Of 15 theories mentioned in non-empirical
Most of the current academic research on GBA articles, only 3 theories were examined in empirical
related to HR recruitment and selection is atheoretical, articles: applicant reactions, organizational justice, and
with more than half of reviewed articles containing no self-determination.
substantive mention of theory. About half of the
empirical articles consider theory, while the remaining 4.3. Targeted outcomes
articles do not rely on theory as they describe GBA
within HR selection and recruitment. Conceptual We identified the targeted outcome(s) of GBA for
articles give more attention to theory, while literature recruitment and selection within each empirical article,
reviews either merely mention or (more often) ignore resulting in 42 distinct outcomes among the 15 articles.
theory altogether. The role of theory is more pronounced We classified each targeted outcome into five outcome
in applicant-focused articles in that 7 of 9 empirical categories identified by Hassan and Hamari [22]. In our
articles used theory. Fewer organization-focused coding, we realized two additional categories were
articles discuss theory; 17 of the 26 articles contain no needed for our context: organizational and measurement
theory, and only 3 articles incorporate theory more fully. outcomes. Organizational outcomes represent benefits
These findings suggest that empirical research with an to the organization of using GBA for recruitment and
organizational perspective is less informed by theory. selection. Given the importance of fairness in HR
Table 6 (appendix) presents the relevant details. assessments, measurement outcomes represent the
Table 2 identifies the theories discussed within the validity or similarity of psychometric assessments when
reviewed articles, distinguishing between those that GBA are used compared to traditional assessment
were “used” versus those that were merely “mentioned.” methods.

Table 2. Identified theories Table 3. Targeted outcomes

Article Type Theories Used Category Targeted Outcomes
Conceptual: Actor Network [53]; Affective Behavioral: GPA Prediction, Job Performance,
Events [32]; Rites of Passage [56] Intention to Recommend, Intention
Lit. Review: None to Use
Empirical: Applicant Reactions [12]; Emotional: Anxiety, Entertainment, Perceived
Gamification [33]; Organizational Attractiveness, Preferred Game
Citizenship Behavior [44]; Form, Satisfaction
Organizational Justice [18, 34]; Self- Cognitive: Accountability, Adaptability,
determination [6]; Signaling [19, 20]; Business Acumen, Conceptual
Technology Acceptance [6, 34] Thinking, Decisiveness, Digital
Article Type Theories Mentioned Literacy, Innovation, Job
Conceptual: Expectancy [8]; Goal-setting [4] ; Awareness, Organizing and
Operant Conditioning [8]; Person- Planning, Problem-Solving, Risk
environment Fit [58] Taking
Lit. Review: Affordances [11]; Applicant Measurement: Situational Judgment Test, Soft
Reactions [43]; Attraction-Selection- Skills
Attrition [4]; Brand Equity[11]; Flow Motivational: Attitude towards Test, Drive,
[16]; Goal-setting [16]; Invasion of Engagement, Motivation, Openness
Privacy [43]; Need Satisfaction [16] ; to Learning, Results Orientation
Operant Conditioning [16]; Organizational: Applicant Pool, Employer
Organizational Justice [4, 43], Branding, Expense, HR Efficiency,
Person-environment Fit [4, 11]; Self- Knowledge, Perceived
determination [11]; Social Validity Technological Sophistication, Use
[43]; Test-taking Motivation [43] Level
Empirical: None Social: Collaboration, Awareness of
Others, Communication,
No theory dominates this context, with 10 different Influencing Others, Perceived Test
established theories “used” across 13 articles. Only 3 Fairness, Global Mindset,
theories are used in more than one article: organizational Organizational Citizenship
justice, signaling, and technology acceptance. We also
note a misalignment between the “mentioned” theories

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 Most of the studies measure outcomes based on Table 4. Game design elements
applicants’ perceptions. Only 5 of the 15 empirical Category Elements N
articles measure the actual skill or competency level of Self- Avatars, Profile 10
a potential applicant. presentation:
The proposed relationships with targeted outcomes Social / Cooperation, Gifting, Interaction, 12
within the empirical articles are fully supported for interaction: Relationships, Social chart, Social
articles with behavioral (5 of 5) and cognitive (2 of 2) connection, Teamwork,
outcomes. However, none of the articles examining a Transactions
relationship between an antecedent and social (0 of 6) or Challenge – Achievement, Badges, Challenge, 97
organizational (0 of 1) outcome find full support. self: Collection, Error analysis,
Among the empirical articles, few articles examining
Feedback, Goals, Levels,
relationships between an antecedent and motivational (1 Missions, Points, Problem solving,
of 3) or emotional (2 of 5) targeted outcomes find full
Progress, Resource allocation,
support. Only one empirical article examining a Rewards, Time pressure, Tips
measurement outcome, in which the authors assess the
Challenge – Combat, Competition, Conflict, 28
validity and reliability of a measure of competencies
other: Leaderboards, Ranking, Winning
using GBA, finds full support (1 of 3).
Immersion / Emotions, Fantasy, Graphics, 29
engagement: Immersion, Interactivity, Sensory
4.4. Identified game elements stimuli, Sound, Virtual
environment
In reviewing the articles, we identified 55 distinct Choice: Branching, Control, Freedom of 18
game design elements. We categorize these elements action, Navigation, Repetition,
based on the affordance commonly associated with Role play, Virtual goods, Voting
each, acknowledging that any design element may offer Contingency: Chance, Mystery, Narrative, 22
different affordances depending on the context. Table 4 Rules, Suspense, Uncertainty,
presents the game design elements by category, and the Unlock content
frequency of each category.
Individual achievement (challenge – self)
dominates the game design elements mentioned. This 5. Discussion and research agenda
finding is similar to other gamification literature reviews
that highlight the prevalence of points and badges. Based on our review of this literature, we identify
Furthermore, given that recruitment and selection seek trends and propose directions for future research along
to identify individuals for positions within the the following themes: consideration of context,
organization based on their personal traits and abilities, clarification of concepts, and treatment of theory.
the focus on individual achievement is consistent with
the context. Achievement in relation to others 5.1. Consideration of context
(challenge – other) is also prevalent (fourth most
mentions), with leaderboards being common as the third Researchers interested in HR applications of GBA
component of the classic “points, badges, leaderboards” should consider the elements of HR practice and
(PBL) gamification trifecta. Other commonly occurring research that may affect the application of GBA in the
categories are immersion (29), contingency (22), and recruitment and selection of employees. Recruitment
choice (18), highlighting the importance of creating a and selection processes are unique from many other
game-like environment like those traditionally applications of GBA in organizational settings in that
associated with hedonic enjoyment. Relatively fewer most countries have legal requirements to ensure
articles mentioned elements based on social interaction fairness in the recruitment and selection process.
(12) and self-presentation (10). Alternative approaches for designing, developing, and
Table 6, in the appendix, presents the extent to assessing GBA in recruitment and selection are needed
which game design elements play a role in the reviewed to ensure the inclusion of GBA does not interfere with
articles. Empirical articles are roughly split between a legal regulations or diversity initiatives. In an HR
more thorough treatment of design elements (5), context, considering intersectionality (racial and ethnic
nominal discussion (6), or non-focus on specific identity, age, sexual orientation, ability/disability, class
elements (4). Conceptual articles tend to focus more on status, religion, veteran status and cognitive diversity)
the design elements in the gamification artifact (6 of 7), and game elements will ensure that the design attracts
while literature reviews tend to treat design elements diverse candidates and does not discriminate or deter
more nominally (9 of 13). protected classes in the recruitment and selection

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processes. Currently, most research examining GBA in appealingly simple and generalizable, it lacks
an HR recruitment and selection context focuses on specificity [35] and creates ambiguity in defining a
appealing to younger workers. Within our literature “non-game” context [25]. This definition makes
review, we found little research examining if the gamification indistinguishable from a serious game if
measurement validity of psychometric testing, often one considers a game simply as a combination of game
used in the HR selection process, changes when using design elements. Games are separable from ordinary life
GBA [19, 44, 54]. If certain demographics respond [24], whereas gamification exists in day-to-day
differently to psychometric assessments that are offered processes. The instrumentality of serious games inheres
using traditional (i.e., paper or computer-based) in the experience of gameplay [39], such as by using a
assessments versus GBA, then there will be a need to serious game for recruitment to increase organizational
examine if GBA increases or decreases the potential for attractiveness. Gamification, by comparison seeks to
discrimination among protected groups. Opportunities affix game-like experiences to existing instrumental
abound to examine how GBA in recruitment and tasks [35], such as by adding game elements to a
selection impacts groups or demographics, based on personality assessment to reduce testing anxiety. A few
age, race, national origin, gender, or other protected articles refer to the umbrella term of game-thinking, and
classes. Such work can inform research on GBA and several use but do not define relevant terms.
protected groups more broadly. This conceptual ambiguity threatens to hinder
The empirical studies conducted in this context find future research in HR and beyond, as such key concepts
less support for emotional, measurement, motivational, in a domain provide critical kernels for theory
organizational, and social outcomes, and find strong construction [27]. While we believe the HR literature’s
support for behavioral and cognitive outcomes. Thus, current focus on the practical application of
the effectiveness of GBA interventions in the HR gamification and serious games for recruitment and
context, as compared to non-GBA alternatives, remains selection is fruitful, future research should strive to more
an open question. Consistent with research on GBA in clearly identify the focal phenomenon and consider its
other contexts (e.g., civic engagement) [22], we also nature in theory and study design. We recommend the
note the need for additional research to explore the use of refined definitions and frameworks for
effects of GBA interventions and whether investments gamification in the HR recruitment and selection
in these interventions are profitable for organizations. process. For example, Huotari and Hamari [25] define
Future research should apply more rigorous multi- gamification as enhancing a service with game-like
method approaches to investigate the outcomes of GBA affordances to enhance overall value creation. This
in organizational contexts. definition addresses the goal of gamification (i.e.,
GBA research in recruitment and selection is enhancing value creation) and the presence of some
consistent with the larger body of GBA literature in its related system or service (i.e., existing irrespective of
emphasis on PBL; however, some research in this any game-like affordances) without assuming a
domain acknowledges the importance of creating potentially ambiguous “non-game” context. Similarly,
environments that offer immersion, discovery, and Liu et al. [35] offer a more detailed framework for
choice. Fewer articles mention self-presentation and gamification research that can undergird theories of
social interaction. In a context so focused on assessing gamification design and use.
individuals, self-presentation may be an understudied We also note a need to clarify concepts relating to
phenomenon with GBA in HR and other work contexts. the artifact in GBA, specifically around game design
Although individuals tend to be the focus of recruitment elements. While conceptual articles related to HR GBA
and selection, incorporating social interaction in GBA have a strong focus on design via game elements,
may help organizations identify employees who can empirical work lacks this focus. These articles
work effectively in teams. Examining the role of GBA investigate the effects of game elements on targeted
in supporting and enhancing self-presentation and social outcomes including intention to recommend,
interaction is worthy of deeper study. motivation, anxiety, and perceptions of attractiveness
and fairness. Future empirical work should be sensitive
5.2. Clarification of concepts to the artifact in GBA and should consider aspects of the
design that align with desired outcomes (e.g., individual
Consistent with the broader GBA literature, we note achievement, teamwork, self-presentation) while
that several of the reviewed articles conflate the maintaining a gameful experience via immersion,
concepts of gamification and serious games. This may contingency, and choice. Such work can help reconcile
relate to the prominent use of the broadest definition of the mixed results observed between outcome categories.
gamification (i.e., the use of game design elements in a
non-game context; [14]). While this definition is

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5.3. Treatment of theory While our findings align in some ways with prior
literature reviews (e.g., nascent use of theory,
Although nearly half of the articles reviewed are prevalence of PBL, frequent mixed results), they also
atheoretical, where theory is mentioned or used, we note reveal context-specific areas of misalignment (e.g.,
a good balance of native HR and management theories proposed vs. used theories, design focus in conceptual
(e.g., applicant reactions, person-environment fit) with but not empirical articles).
external theories common to the GBA context (e.g., Considering the limited empirical research
goal-setting, self-determination). The early atheoretical conducted on GBA in recruitment and selection, this
nature of research in this area is consistent with other area is ripe with opportunities to apply fresh theoretical
reviews of GBA research [30, 52], but emergent theories perspectives, conduct rigorous empirical studies, and
in the broader context show promise [33, 35]. As with explore new ways to attract and optimize talent. GBA
any emerging discipline, we acknowledge the natural can contribute to finding diverse and high-quality
progression from description and exploration to theory applicants, and to helping organizations and individuals
development. We encourage future research to actively find the right fit.
engage in theory development and evaluation.
More specifically in HR recruitment and selection, Table 5. Research agenda
we note a disconnect between the theories employed in Issues Recommendations
empirical articles and those discussed in non-empirical Consideration of context
articles. Of the 22 identified theories in our review, only • Legal issues in HR • Study how GBA attract or
three theories mentioned in non-empirical articles are • Effect of GBA on deter protected groups in
used in empirical articles. There are 12 theories employee diversity HR and other contexts
mentioned in non-empirical articles that have yet to be • Prevalence of • Use multiple methods to
examined in the context of HR recruitment and mixed results assess effectiveness of GBA
selection, offering opportunities for future research. related to outcomes vs. non-GBA approaches
Despite most articles focusing on the organizational of GBA • Study game elements that
perspective in studying GBA in recruitment and • Limited study of assess self-presentation and
selection, the theories used are primarily at the game elements social interaction as
individual level (e.g., self-determination, technology desirable candidate abilities
acceptance). While some of the employed theories are Clarification of concepts
multi-level (e.g., actor network theory, gamification • Lack of clarity for • Build on more refined
theory) or incorporate an organizational referent (e.g., core concepts definitions and frameworks
organizational citizenship behavior, organizational • Misalignment to study GBA
justice), we suggest that future studies can benefit by between conceptual • Increase design focus in
adopting theoretical lenses that are congruent with the and empirical focus empirical research to align
focal phenomena. For example, sociotechnical systems on game elements artifacts with desired
theory can help to explain the co-evolution of human outcomes
and technical systems as organizations adapt to dynamic Treatment of theory
cultural and regulatory contexts [50, 59]. Theories of
• Current state is • Build on current theorizing
team coordination and communication [e.g., 38] can
mostly atheoretical from the broader GBA
help to explain and predict applicants’ teamwork skills
and GBA can serve to assess or even enhance such • Suggested theories literature
skills. At a higher level, human-centric theories of the are not used in • Employ promising theories
firm may help to guide strategic use of GBA in empirical research from HR literature
organizations as the war for talent continues. Table 5 • Primary focus on • Align theoretical lens with
presents a summary of the proposed research agenda. individual-level focal HR phenomenon
theories
6. Conclusion
7. References
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8. Appendix

Table 6. Descriptive classifications by article

Methodological

Game Element
Demographics
Serious games

HR Processes
Gamification
Game-based

Application

Application
Perspective
Approach

Approach

Theory
Source

Source
Article
[1] Allal-Chérif (2014) E O SG None Own Y/Z None M R
[2] Allal‐Chérif & Makhlouf (2016) L O SG None Own Y None None R, S
[3] Allen (2014) E O SG None None Z None None R
[4] Armstrong et al. (2015) L O GBA [14] [39] None M M R, S
[5] Armstrong et al. (2016) C O GF [14] [39] None M M S
[6] Buil et al. (2020) E A GBA [29] [61] Y U M R
[8] Callan et al. (2015) C O GF [14] None None M U R
[9] Chamorro-Premuzic et al. (2016) L O GF None None None None M S
[10] Chamorro-Premuzic et al. (2017) L O GF [14] None None None None S
[11] Collmus et al. (2016) L O GBA [14] [39] None M M R, S
[12] Collmus & Landers (2019) E A GF [14] None None U U S
[16] Ferrell et al. (2015) L O GF [15] None None M U R, S
[17] Fetzer et al. (2017) C O GBA Own Own None None U S
[18] Georgiou et al. (2019) E O GF Own [39] Y None U S
[19] Georgiou & Nikolaou (2020) E A GF [14] None Y U U S
[20] Gkorezis et al. (2020) E A GF [14] [39] Y U U R, S
[23] Hawkes et al. (2018) L O GBA Own [49] None None U R, S
[26] Ihsan & Furnham (2018) L O GF [14] None None None M R, S
[31] Krasulak (2015) E A GF [14] None Y None M R, S
[32] Küpper et al. (In Press) C O GBA [14] Own None U U R, S
[33] Landers et al. (2020) E A GF [14] None None U U S
[34] Laumer et al. (2012) E A SG None [47] Y U M R
[36] Lowman (2016) L O GF [14] None None None M R, S
[41] Nair & Sadasivan (2019) E O GF [7] None Z None M R
[43] Nikolaou et al. (2019a) E O GF [14] None Y U None S
[44] Nikolaou et al. (2019b) L A GF [14] None None M M R, S
[45] Obaid et al. (2020) L O GBA [14] None None None M R
[48] Petter et al. (2018) E O GBA [7] None Y None None R, S
[53] Shree & Singh (2019) C O GF [14] None None U U R
[54] Simons et al. (2020) E O GBA [14] [39] None None None S
[56] Tansley et al. (2016) C A GF Own None None U U S
[57] Tippins (2015) L O GF [46] None None None M S
[58] Tosca et al. (2019) C O GF None None None M U R, S
[62] Woods et al. (2020) L O GF [14] None None None M S
[63] Woźniak (2015) E O GF [14] None Y/Z None M R, S
Methodological Approach: Conceptual (C), Empirical (E), Literature Review (L)
Perspective: Applicant (A), Organization (O)
Game-based Approach: General (GBA), Gamification (GF), Serious Games (SG)
Demographics: Generation Y (Y), Generation Z (Z)
Theory Application and Game Element Application: Mentioned (M), Used (U)
HR Processes: Recruitment (R), Selection (S)

* All authors contributed equally to this paper.

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