Republic of IRAQ

Ministry of Higher Educationand Scientific Research

University of Technology
Electrical Engineering Department

Design and Implementation of Sinusoidal PWM

Inverter Using Arduino

A project
Submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering,
At University of Technology in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for
The degree of B.Sc. In Electrical Engineering

Submitted by
Ali Khalid Raheem & Mohammed Mahdi Mohammed
Under guidance of Project Supervisor
Dr Lina J. Rashad
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It was a great opportunity to gain a lot of experience in this project, followed by

learning how to actually design and analyze real projects. For that, we want to thank
all the people who made it possible for students like us. Special thanks to all the
professors and doctors for their efforts to provide us with all the useful information
and to show the path for the students to carry out all the teaching periods in the
project design and analysis in real time. Moreover, we are all electrical engineering
students visiting for the interesting lectures they gave which were of great benefit to
all of us. We would like to express our deepest gratitude to our graduation project
supervisor, Dr Lina J. Rashad , for his patience and guidance throughout the
semester. Moreover, it is our duty to thank all the testing committee members for
their generous discussions and encouragement.
Finally, we would like to thank all the people who helped, supported and encouraged us
to successfully finish the last phase of the graduation project.

I
 ABSTRACT

The primary objective of designing this Arduino based power inverter is to design a
low cost inverter as compared to the existing expansive inverter available in the
market. Arduino based power inverter is flexible in operation i.e. frequency and
voltage can be controlled and changed as per requirement. The advantage of using
Arduino is we can customize the output parameters, and mainly we can upgrade this
square wave inverter to pure sine wave inverter.

II
 SUPERVISOR CERTIFICATION

I certify that Ali Khalid Raheem and Mohammed Mahdi Mohammed prepared this
project entitled (Design and Implementation of sinusoidal PWM Inverter Using
Arduino) under my supervision at Electrical Engineering Department, University of
Technology as partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of
Science in Electrical Engineering.

Signature:
Name: Dr Lina J. Rashad
Date:

III
2021-2022
Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I
OBJECTIVE II
SUPERVISOR CERTIFICATION III

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 History of Power Inverter 2-5

1.2 Who Invented of Power Inverter? 6

Chapter 2 Types of Power Inverter

2.1 Introduction 8-10

2.2 Types of Power Inverter 11
2.2.1 Square wave inverter 12
2.2.2 Sine wave Inverter 12
2.2.3 Modified sine wave inverter 13
2.2.4 Current Source Inverter (CSI): 14

2.2.5 Voltage Source Inverter (VSI): 14

2.2.6 Single Phase Half bridge Inverter 15-16

2.2.7 Single-Phase Full-Bridge Inverter 17
2.2.8 Three Phase Power Inverter 18
2.2.9 120-Degree Mode of Operation 19
2.2.10 180-Degree Mode of Operation 20
2.2.11 Single Pulse Width Modulation (SINGLE PWM) 21
2.2.12 Multiple Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM) 22
2.2.13 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) 23
2.2.14 Modified Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation 24
(MSPWM)
2.2.15 Regular Two-Level Inverter 25
2.2.16 Multi-Level Inverter 25
2.3 Applications of Power Inverter 26-28

0|Page
2021-2022
Table of Contents

Chapter 3 Design and Simulation of the Power Inverter

3.1 A Simple Manual Simulation of Center-Tapped Inverter 30-32
3.2 Software Simulation of Center-Tapped Power Inverter 33-34

Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of the Power

Inverter
4.1 Arduino 36
4.1.1 Introduction 36
4.1.2 Arduino Uno 37-38
4.1.3 What is on the Arduino Board? 39-42
4.2 Power MOSFETs 43
4.2.1 Introduction 43
4.2.2 Type of MOSFETs 44
4.2.3 IRF3205 (Power MOSFETs Used) 45-46
4.3 Heat Sink 47
4.4 100 Ohm (Resistor Used) 48
4.5 1N4148 (Signal Diode Used) 49
4.6 9-0-9/220V (Transformer Used) 50
4.7 BT-12M High Power (Battery Used) 51
4.8 100K Ohm (Variable Resistors Rotary Carbon Film Used) 52
4.9 Additional Elements Used 53-54
4.10 Circuit Operation of SPWM Inverter 55-56
4.11 Result 57-58
References 59-60

0|Page
2021-2022
Chapter One

Chapter One

Introduction

1|Page
2021-2022
Chapter One

1.1 History of Power Inverter

At the very end of the 1800s The two feuding geniuses waged a "War of Currents"
over whose electrical system would power the world Tesla's alternating-current
(AC) system or Edison's rival direct-current (DC) electric power.

American electrician Thomas Edison (1847-1931) went his way to show that direct
current (DC) was preferable to supplying electric power than alternating current
(AC), a system supported by his Serbian arch rival Nikola Tesla (1856-1943).
Edison tried all kinds of sneaky ways to convince people that alternating current
was too dangerous, from electrocuting an elephant to (somewhat cunningly)
subsidizing the use of alternating current in an electric chair to carry out the death
penalty. However, the Tesla system won the day and the world has been running
largely on AC power since then.

The only trouble is, though many of our appliances are designed to work with AC,
small-scale power generators often produce DC. That means if you want to run
something like an AC-powered gadget from a DC car battery in a mobile home,
you need a device that will convert DC to AC an inverter, as it's called.

In addition, some renewable energy generation systems, such as solar energy,

produce direct current (DC) from solar panels at low voltages. Inverters, they can
convert DC into AC and at higher voltages allowing us to use these renewable
energy sources to power our homes and businesses. Over the past century,
inverters have evolved from basic electrical concepts to complex assemblies of
power electronics and digital controllers.

2|Page
2021-2022
Chapter One

Inverters began in the late 19th century as electromechanical devices in the form
of Rotary Converters as shown in Figure.1 (a) or Motor-Generator Sets (MG-Set)
as shown in Figure.1 (b). Also known Non-Solid-State inverter. If you invert the
connections to a MG-set (converter) and you put DC in, you get AC out. Hence, an
inverter is an inverted converter.

Old Methods of Conversion

Figure.1.1 (a) DC-AC Rotary Converter Layout

Figure.1.1 (b) DC-AC Motor-Generator Sets (MG-Set) Layout

3|Page
2021-2022
Chapter One

In early twentieth century and with the invention of the vacuum tubes, gas filled
tubes, transistor low voltage thresholds restricted use in power conversion, Silicon
Controlled Rectifier (SCR’s or Thermistors), Gate Turn Off Thermistor (GTO), and
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT). Initiated the transition to high power solid-
state inverter circuits. As shown in Figure.1 (c).

Figure.1.1 (C) 20W Self-Oscillating 12-240V Transistor Inverter

Base technology for today’s inverters much more efficient and faster now. Today digital
technology (Pulse width modulation PWM) combined with IGBT’s modulates the duty
cycle of a power source to control the amount of power sent to a load. Rapid switching and
PWM cancels harmonics making the output look like a pure sine wave. Digital control
provides increased reliability, accuracy and performance. As shown in Figure.1 (d)

4|Page
2021-2022
Chapter One

Figure.1.1 (d) Advanced power inverter

5|Page
2021-2022
Chapter One

1.2 Who Invented of Power Inverter?

Before the inverter was invented, a motor-generator set and rotary converter were used to
convert DC power into AC power.
It is not known who exactly invented the inverter but it likely occurred in the late 19th
and early 20th centuries.
It was David Prince who is thought to have coined the phrase inverter after he
published an article in 1925 called ‘The Inverter’. In the article, it contains all the
important components behind modern inverters.

By looking back at the history of inverter technology we can learn a lot, including how it
came to be known as an inverter.

As we discussed above, the first inverter was actually a motor-generator. A component of

these generators was something called a rotary converter (also called an M-G set). With
the right control, this can be ‘run backward’ or ‘inversely’ in order to convert DC to AC.
So inverter comes from an inverted converter.

6|Page
2021-2022
Chapter Two

Chapter Two

Types of Power Inverter

7|Page
2021-2022
Chapter Two

2.1 Introduction
What is a Power Inverter?

An inverter (or power inverter) is a power electronics device which used to converts the
DC voltage to an AC voltage. In most cases, the input DC voltage is usually lower while
the output AC is equal to the grid supply voltage of either 120 volts, or 240 Volts
depending on the country.

Aslo DC power is used in small electrical gadgets, most household equipment runs on AC
power. Hence, we need an efficient way to convert DC power into AC power.

The inverter may be built as standalone equipment for applications such as solar power, or
to work as a backup power supply from batteries which are charged separately.

. As shown in Figure.2.1 (a). and (b)

The inverter is a static device. It can convert one form of electrical power into other forms
of electrical power. But it cannot generate electrical power. Hence the inverter is a
converter, not a generator

Figure.2.1 (a),(b) Solar Power Inverter for Home

8|Page
2021-2022
Chapter Two

How Does a Power Inverter Work?

Let us understand the working of an inverter by an example. One bulb connected

with a battery. It makes a close path. Hence, the current will flow through the bulb.
The bulb has two terminals that are ‘A’ and ‘B’. The positive and negative
terminal of the battery is connected with ‘A’ and ‘B’ terminal respectively and the
bulb will glow. As shown in Figure.2.2 (a).
Now, change the terminals of the battery. The bulb will glow in this condition
also. As shown in Figure.2.2 (b).

Figur.2.2 (a) Positive Half Figure.2.2 (b) Negative Half

9|Page
2021-2022
Chapter Two

Alternating current or AC, constantly changes polarity, sending current one way through
the circuit, then reversing and sending it the other way. It does this very quickly 60 or
50times per second AC power works well at high voltages, and can be "stepped up" in
voltage by a transformer more easily than direct current can.

So what can we do ?
Now imagine that you can rotate the battery at 50 or 60 rpm. What will happen? The
direction will change 50 or 60 times. This is similar to AC power. And the frequency is 50
or 60 Hz.
Practically, inverter never works like this and it doesn’t have rotating parts. The inverter
uses the power electronics switches like IGBT, MOSFET. The number of switches
depends on the type of inverter.

Let’s take a circuit diagram of a single-phase full-bridge inverter to understand the

working.

Figure.2.1 (d) Single Phase Inverter Full-Bridge

There are four switches. A DC source connected with the switches and load.

When switch S1 and S2 are ON, S3 and S4 OFF, the direction of current through the load
are positive in this condition. It gives a positive half cycle of the AC output.

Now, switch S3 and S4 is ON, S1 and S2 OFF. The current flowing in the opposite
direction. It gives a negative half cycle of the AC output.
The ON and OFF time of switches decides the output frequency.

The output of the inverter is a square wave. The filters used to generate a sine wave.

10 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

2.2 Types of Power Inverter:

Inverters are classified into many different categories based on the applied input source,
connection wise, output voltage wise etc. In this article, we will see some of the
categories.

(I) According to the Output Characteristic

1. Square Wave Inverter
2. Sine Wave Inverter
3. Modified Sine Wave Inverter

(II)According to the Source of Inverter

1. Current Source Inverter
2. Voltage Source Inverter

(III) According to the Type of Load

1. Single Phase Inverter
a. Half Bridge Inverter
b. Full Bridge Inverter
2- Three Phase Inverter
a.180-degree mode
b. 120-degree mode

(IV) According to different PWM Technique

1. Single Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
2. Multiple Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM)
3. Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)
4. Modified sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (MSPWM)

(V) According to Number of Output Level

1. Regular Two-Level Inverter
2. Multi-Level Inverter

11 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

-Now We Will discuss all of them one by one.

(I) According to the Output Characteristic

2.2.1) Square wave inverter:

The output waveform of the voltage for this inverter is a square wave as shown in
Figure.2.2.3. This type of inverter is least used among all other types of inverter because
all appliances are designed for sine wave supply. If we supply square wave to sine wave
based appliance, it may get damaged or losses are very high. The cost of this inverter is
very low but the application is very rare. It can be used in simple tools with a universal
motor.

Figure.2.2.1 Output Waveform of Square Wave Power Inverter

2.2.2) Sine wave Inverter:

The output waveform of the voltage is a sine wave and it gives us a very similar output to the
utility supply. This is the major advantage of this inverter because all the appliances we are using,
are designed for the sine wave. So, this is the perfect output and gives guarantee that equipment
will work properly. This type of inverters is more expensive but widely used in residential and
commercial applications.

Figure.2.2.2 Output waveform of Sine wave Power Inverter

12 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

2.2.3) Modified sine wave inverter:

The construction of this type of inverter is complex than simple square wave inverter but easier
compared to the pure sine wave inverter. The output of this inverter is neither pure sine wave nor
the square wave. The output of such inverter is the some of two square waves. The output
waveform is not exactly sine wave but it resembles the shape of a sine wave.

Figure.2.2.3 Output Waveform of Modified Sine Wave Power Inverter

Figure.2.2.4 Output Waveform of 1)square wave inverte 2)sine wave inverter 3)Modified Sine Wave Power

13 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

(II) According to the Source of the Inverter

2.2.4) Current Source Inverter (CSI):

In CSI, the input is a current source. This type of inverters is used in the medium voltage
industrial application, where high-quality current waveforms are compulsory. But CSIs are
not popular.

2.2.5) Voltage Source Inverter (VSI):

In VSI, the input is a voltage source. This type of inverter is used in all applications
because it is more efficient and have higher reliability and faster dynamic response. VSI is
capable of running motors without de-rating.

Figure 2.2.5 Current Source Inverter and Voltage Source Inverter

14 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

(III) According to the Type of Load

1) single-phase inverter

Generally, residential and commercial load uses single phase power. The single-phase
inverter is used for this type of application. The single-phase inverter is further divided
into two parts;

 Single Phase Half-bridge Inverter

 Single Phase Full-bridge Inverter

2.2.6) Single Phase Half bridge Inverter:

The working / operating principle of half bridge inverter as shown in Figure.2.2.6 (a) is
based on the fact that, for half of time period of output wave, one thyristor conducts
whereas for another half of time period, another thyristor conducts. The output frequency
of this type of inverter may be controlled by controlling the switch ON and switching OFF
time of thyristors. Figure below shows the power circuit diagram of a single-phase half
bridge inverter.

Figure.2.2.6 (a)

15 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

Single Phase Half Bridge Inverter comprises of two thyristors T1 & T2, two diodes D1 &
D2 and three wire DC source. The circuit for turning ON and turning OFF the thyristor is
not shown in the above circuit to maintain simplicity. While analyzing the circuit, it is
assumed that each thyristor conducts for the duration its gate pulse is present and is
commutated as soon as this pulse is removed. The gating signal for thyristor T1 (ig1) and
thyristor T2 (ig2) and output voltage waveform of this inverter is shown below in
Figure.2.2.6 (b).

Figure.2.2.6 (b).

By this operation, we can get alternating voltage waveform with 1/T Hz frequency and
Vs/2 peak amplitude. The output waveform is a square wave. It will be passed through the
filter and remove unwanted harmonics which give us pure sine waveform. The frequency
of the waveform can be controlled by the ON time (Ton) and OFF time (Toff) of the
thyristor.

The magnitude of the output voltage is half of the supply voltage and source utilization
period is 50%. This is a disadvantage of half bridge inverter and solution of this is full
bridge inverter.

16 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

2.2.7) Single Phase Full-bridge Inverter:

In a full-bridge inverter, four thyristors and four feedback diodes used. One DC source
applied to the circuit.

In a half-bridge inverter, one switch is in conduction at a time. And in a full-bridge

inverter, two switches are in conduction at a time.

Mode-1
Thyristor S1 and S2 are ON and thyristors S3 and S4 are OFF during this mode. The
current flowing path is V-S1-A-RL-B-S2-V.
The current flowing through the load is from A to B and make a positive half cycle.

Mode-2
Thyristor S3 and S4 are ON and thyristor S1 and S2 are OFF. The current flowing path is
V-S3-B-RL-A-S4-V.
The current flowing through the load is from B to A and make a negative half cycle of
output.

Figure mode 1 figure mode 2

17 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

2.2.8) Three Phase Inverter:

In case of industrial load, three phase ac supply is used and for this, we have to use a
three-phase inverter. In this type of inverter, six thyristors and six diodes are used and they
are connected as shown in below figure

It can operate in two modes according to the degree of gate pulses.

A)120-degree mode

B)180-degree mode

18 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

2.2.9 ) 120-Degree Mode of Operation:

At a time, two thyristors are in conduction. The conduction time for all thyristors is 120-
degree. It means, a switch remains ON for 120-degree and OFF for the next 240-degree.

The shape of phase voltage is a quasi-square wave and the shape of the line voltage is
three-stepped waveform.

19 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

2.2.10) 180-Degree Mode of Operation:

Three thyristors are in conduction at a time. The conduction time for all thyristors is 180-
degree.

The shape of the line voltage and phase voltage is opposite to the 120-degree mode of
operation. Here, for phase voltage, a waveform is a three-stepped wave and for line
voltage, a waveform is a quasi-square wave.

In a 180-degree mode of operation, two thyristors of the common bridge are ON and OFF
simultaneously. For example, in half cycle (180-degree) S1 is ON and the next half-cycle
S4 is ON. So, at the same time, S1 is switching OFF and S4 is switching ON. Because of
this simultaneous conduction, it is possible that the source may sort circuited.

This problem will not happen in a 120-degree mode of operation.

20 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

(IV) According to different PWM Technique

2.2.11) Single Pulse Width Modulation (SINGLE PWM) :
For every half cycle, the only pulse is available in this control technique. The reference
signal is square wave signal and the carrier signal is triangular wave signal. The gate pulse
for the switches is generated by comparing the reference signal and carrier signal. The
frequency of output voltage is controlled by the frequency of the reference signal. The
amplitude of the reference signal is Ar and the amplitude of the carrier signal is Ac, then
the modulation index can be defined as Ar/Ac. The main drawback of this technique is
high harmonic content.

21 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

2.2.12) Multiple Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM):

The drawback of single pulse width modulation technique is solved by multiple PWM. In
this technique, instead of one pulse, several pulses are used in each half cycle of the output
voltage. The gate is generated by comparing the reference signal and carrier signal. The
output frequency is controlled by controlling the frequency of the carrier signal. The
modulation index is used to control the output voltage.

The number of pulses per half cycle = fc/ (2*f0)

Where fc = frequency of carrier signal

f0 = frequency of output signal

22 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

2.2.13) Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM):

This control technique is widely used in industrial applications. In above both methods,
the reference signal is a square wave signal. But in this method, the reference signal is a
sine wave signal. The gate pulse for the switches is generated by comparing the sine wave
reference signal with the triangular carrier wave. The width of each pulse varies with
variation of amplitude of the sine wave. The frequency of output waveform is the same as
the frequency of the reference signal. The output voltage is a sine wave and the RMS
voltage can be controlled by modulation index. Waveforms are as shown in below figure.

Several pulses are used for each half cycle of the output voltage but instead of same pulse
widths, the width of the pulses increase proportionally to the sine wave. The width of the
pulses will increase in the sinusoidal manner. Just like a sinusoidal wave alternates after
specific period of time, the resulting pulses will too, as shown in the figure

23 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

2.2.14) Modified Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (MSPWM):

Due to the characteristic of sine wave, the pulse width of the wave cannot be changed with
variation in the modulation index in SPWM technique. That is the reason, MSPWN
technique is introduced. In this technique, the carrier signal is applied during the first and
last 60-degree interval of each half cycle. In this way, its harmonic characteristic is
improved. The main advantage of this technique is increased fundamental component,
reduced number of switching power devices and decreased switching loss. The waveform
is as shown in below figure.

24 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

(V) According to Number of Output Level

2.2.15) Regular Two-Level Inverter :

These inverters have only voltage levels at the output which are positive peak voltage and
negative peak voltage. Sometimes, having a zero-voltage level is also known as a two-
level inverter.

2.2.16) Multi-Level Inverter:

These inverters can have multiple voltage levels at the output. The multi-level inverter is
divided into four parts.

- Flying capacitor Inverter

- Diode-clamped Inverter

- Hybrid Inverter

- Cascade H-type Inverter

Every inverter has its own design for operation, here we have explained these inverter
briefly to get an basic ideas about them.

25 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

2.3) Applications of Power Inverter:

Inverters are widely used in industries and home appliances and have become essential for
our daily life. Some of the applications have been mentioned above in application base
classification of inverters. Here are some other major applications of inverters:

1:-

An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) uses batteries, converter and an inverter to

convert low frequency AC power to higher frequency for use in induction heating. To do
this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then changes the DC
power to high frequency AC power.

2:-

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is
transmitted to desired location. At the destination location, an inverter converts the power
back to AC.

26 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

3:- The output of the solar panel is DC power. The solar inverter used to convert
DC power into AC power. Figure.2.3 (c) shows solar inverter for home appliances.

Figure.2.3 (c) Solar Inverter for Home Appliances

4:-It can convert the low-frequency AC power to a higher frequency, which used in
Induction Heating. Figure.2.3 (d) shows induction heating.

Figure.2.3 (d) Circuit Diagram of Induction Heating

27 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Two

5:-The inverter produces variable output voltage by using a control unit (close-loop
inverter). The speed of inverter controlled by supplying variable voltage. For
example, it used in the refrigerator compressor motor, rail transport, induction
motor speed control, electric vehicle, and split air conditioner. Figure.2.3 (e) shows
split inverter air conditioner wiring diagram.

Figure.2.3 (e) Split Inverter Air Conditioner Wiring Diagram

28 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Three

Chapter Three

Design and Simulation of the Power Inverter

29 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Three

3.1 A Simple Manual Simulation of Center-Tapped Power Inverter

At first, we can make this inverter at home with simple needs, to understand how to make
an inverter easily
This circuit design does not have any functional limit and comes with an efficiency of
more than 75%. And in addition, it is capable of compensating almost all of our power
needs and that too at very most of your power requirement at a very reasonable cost.
There are many basic electrical circuits for the power devices, a transformer, and
switching devices. The DC alteration to an AC can be attained by stored energy within the
DC source like the battery. The entire process can be done with the help of switching
devices which are constantly turned ON & OFF, and then stepping-up with the
transformer.
The input DC voltage can be turned ON/OFF by using power devices like MOSFETs
otherwise power transistors. The changing voltage within the primary makes an alternating
voltage at resultant winding. The working of the transformer is equivalent to an amplifier
where the output can be increased from the voltage supply by the batteries to 120 V
otherwise 240 V.
An easy push-pull direct current to an alternating current inverter by center tap transformer
circuit can be shown in the below figures.

Figure.3.1 (a) Manual Center-Tapped Inverter

30 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Three

Figure.3.1 (b), 3.1 (c) show the arrangement and the process involved.

Figure.3.1 (b) first stage of the process of converting DC voltage to AC using topswitch first
primary coil of center tapped winding transformer.

Figure.3.1 (c) second stage of the process of converting DC voltage to AC usingbottom switch
second primary coil of center tapped winding transformer.

31 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Three

In a circuit operated inverters the same operation is implemented but through power
devices and an oscillator circuit which switches the winding at a much faster pace, usually
at the rate of 50Hz or 60Hz.

Thus, in an inverter the same action due to fast switching would cause the load to appear
always ON, although in reality the load would be switched ON/OFF at 50Hz or 60Hz rate.

Figure.3.1 (d) Center-Tapped Power Inverter Layout

As we have seen in the previous figures,

the input to the primary cannot be a direct current, meaning though the source may be a
DC, it must be applied in a pulsed form or intermittently across the primary, or in the form
of a frequency at the specified level. This is required so that the inherent attributes of an
inductor can be implemented, according to which an inductor restricts a fluctuating current
and tries to balance it by throwing an equivalent current into the system during the absence
of the input pulse, also known as fly-back phenomenon.

32 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Three

3.2 Software Simulation of Center-Tapped Power Inverter

We have simulated our center tapped power inverter circuits on Proteus Software.
The Simulink model is shown in the Figure.3.2 (a). This model contain the two
Power MOSFETs and a center tapped transformer. The gate of the both mosfet are
triggered signal generated by the Arduino at pin 9 and pin 10. The outputwave of the
SPWM shown in the Figure.3.2 (b) by Oscilloscope attached to the circuit. The pin
10 wave is at terminal B in the Oscilloscope and the pin 9 wave in terminal C of the
Oscilloscope. The output waveform generated by the inverter circuit shown the
terminal A on the oscilloscope. The output waveform is not pure sine wave. The
output waveform is PWM square sine waveform.

Figure.3.2 (a) Centre- Tapped Power Inverter Circuit

33 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Three

Figure.3.2 (b) Input and Output waveform of Centre-Tapped Power inverter circuit

34 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

Chapter Four

Design and Implementation of the Power

Inverter

35 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.1 Arduino

4.1.1 Introduction
The story begins in 2005 in Italy, a team of electronics engineers met to discuss ways to
teach students of universities and technical institutes the sciences of microcontrollers, the
aim of the meeting was to find an easy and inexpensive way to spread this kind of science
and be easily available to amateurs at the same time without being there Expensive
restrictions or licenses that they need to buy to use the software that was used to program
microcontrollers at that time. From here, the Arduino's inception journey begins

Figure 4.1 Team of Arduino

Arduino is an electronic board consisting of an open source electronic circuit with a

microcontroller on a single board, programmed by a computer and designed to make the
process of using interactive electronics in multidisciplinary projects easier for the user.
The Arduino board is mainly used in the design of interactive electronic projects, and the
Arduino can be connected to various programs on the personal computer. Arduino
programming is based on the open source programming language, and the programming
codes of the Arduino language are similar to C, C++ Programming Language, and it is
considered one of the easiest programming languages used in writing microcontroller
programs in terms of use and learning by professionals and beginners. What distinguishes
the Arduino board is that it is an open source platform, as it is designed to suit everyone's
needs. What is meant here is that the Arduino board is open source. The software code
used in the programming can be downloaded and modified to suit you with ease and
without any complexity. Also, you can make your own Arduino board by looking at the
electronic circuit diagram. This will be mentioned in detail later.

36 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.1.2 Arduino Uno

It is one of the most popular and widely used Arduino boards, as it works with the
“ATmega328” microcontroller, which is not installed in the board, but rather is installed
on the base of the integrated circuit “IC”, and this feature makes it the best option so that if
you accidentally burn the chip while working on your project You can restore your work
on the board by simply changing the controller IC chip “ATmega328” to another.The
following figure shows the external structure of the Arduino Uno and we will mention in
detail each part of this board. Figure.4.1.2 (a) shows 4.1.2 Arduino Uno

Figure.4.1.2 (a) Arduino Uno

The Uno is one of the more popular boards in the Arduino family and a great
choice for beginners. Figure.4.1.2 (b) shows 51 lines of code are all you
need to generate SPWM on your Arduino at pin 9 and pin 10.

37 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

Figere.4.1.2 (b) This is a screenshot of the Arduino IDE.

38 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.1.3 What is on the Arduino Board?

1- digital input and output ports (Digital pins)

The Arduino Uno board contains 14 digital ports (d0 - d13). These lines operate
on a voltage of 5v, where these outputs take one of the two logical states 0 or 1
so that the elements connected to these ports can be turned on and off

There is also pin 0 (RX) and pin 1 (TX) used to receive and send data in a serial
manner, usually used with transmitters and receivers.
(pin pwm): Pulse width modulation is the control of the pulse width so that it
gives a variable voltage value depending on the width of this pulse and there is a
~ sign next to it

2- Analog Input Ports (Analog pins)

The Arduino board has 6 analogue ports. From (A0-A5) each port secures an
accuracy of 10 Bit, by default these inputs can measure the value from 0v to 5v,
as this signal that takes a continuous range of values in contrast to the digital
signal that takes values 1 and 0

39 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

3-Power
The Arduino Uno board contains two power output ports, equipped with 5V volts and
3.3V volts, and we often use the 5V operating voltage to supply the circuit
with power with the Ground voltage port. Suppose, if the circuit is connected
to an operating voltage of 5V, this may sometimes cause the circuit to stop
working. 5V in electronic circuits is called VCC or the positive electrode (+)
Ground in electronic circuits is called GND or negative electrode (-). Vin The
input voltage port of the Arduino board is used when an external power
source is inserted, we can secure the voltage through this port

4- External power input port

The Arduino Uno board contains an external power input port, and through this port, the
Arduino Uno board can be supplied with an external power source by one of the following
methods: Either by supplying the Arduino board through a 9v battery via the connector
socket or by 4 )1.5v( batteries or through an electric (transformer) truck, taking into
account the value of the voltage and amperage of the transformer (9V,1A). The benefit of
these two methods is when you download the program on the Arduino board through the
computer, then you need to disconnect it from the computer. For example, if we designed
A circuit that measures room temperature with an Arduino, you will need to install the
circuit somewhere. This circuit is supplied with a voltage source through an external
source (battery with plug socket).

5- USB port
via the USB port The Arduino board can be supplied with power by connecting it to the
computer. The computer port and the Arduino port uses USP directly and also through a
cable when: Connecting it to the Arduino board used to download the code to the Arduino
board.

40 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

6-Voltage Regulator
Most of the Arduino boards contain a voltage regulator, and the Arduino Uno board
contains a 5V voltage regulator to operate the board at a constant voltage. When using a
9V battery or transformer, the voltage passes through the voltage regulator, which in turn
converts the voltage from 9V to 5V, and this The amount of operating voltage of the
Arduino Uno board.

7- Reset button
Most of the Arduino boards contain the Reset button, and the Arduino Uno board is
designed so that the circuit can be reformatted by pressing the Reset button on the circuit.
When you press the Reset button, the Arduino board will be reformatted (rebooted). The
Arduino board also contains a Reset port through which the board can be reformatted.

8-The microcontroller ATmega328

which is a programmable microcontroller, is a small digital electronic piece that stores
programs inside it in the form of instructions, which is called a Code. This processor
holds the description that when the program is loaded on it, then it is not possible to see
the code that is inside, that is, if you borrow from your friend an Arduino board that
contains a specific program inside, you will not be able to extract this program and modify
it. This processor is also characterized by being the best choice for choosing an Arduino
board that works with the "ATmega328" microcontroller, which is not installed in the
board, but rather on the base of the integrated circuit "IC", so that if you accidentally burn
the chip while working on your project, you can restore your work on the board as soon as
possible. You replaced the controller IC chip "ATmega328" with an undamaged one.

41 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

42 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.2 Power MOSFETs

4.2.1 Introduction
The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor is a
semiconductor device that is widely used for switching purposes and for the amplification
of electronic signals in electronic devices. A MOSFET is either a core or integrated circuit
where it is designed and fabricated in a single chip because the device is available in very
small sizes. The introduction of the MOSFET device has brought a change in the domain
of switching in electronics. Let us go with a detailed explanation of this concept.
A MOSFET is a four-terminal device having source(S), gate (G), drain (D) and body (B)
terminals. In general, The body of the MOSFET is in connection with the source terminal
thus forming a three-terminal device such as a field-effect transistor. MOSFET is
generally considered as a transistor and employed in both the analog and digital circuits.
This is the basic introduction to MOSFET. And the general structure of this device is as
below :

Figure.4.2.1 (a) and (b) Basic Structure

43 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.2.2 Type of MOSFETs

The MOSFET is classified into two types such as;

 Depletion mode MOSFET

 Enhancement mode MOSFET

Depletion Mode
When there is no voltage across the gate terminal, the channel shows its maximum
conductance. Whereas when the voltage across the gate terminal is either positive or
negative, then the channel conductivity decreases. Shown in figure 4.2.2(a)

figure 4.2.2(a)
Enhancement Mode

When there is no voltage across the gate terminal, then the device does not conduct. When
there is the maximum voltage across the gate terminal, then the device shows enhanced
conductivity.

44 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.2.3 IRF3205 (Power MOSFETs Used)

Datasheet below shows IRF3205 specification

45 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

46 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.3 Heat Sink

A heat sink is a thermal device of a heat transfer nature, which is designed to be able to
absorb and remove heat from associated objects such as computers, mobile phones, DVD
players, and refrigerators.

From a technical point of view, the heat sink is a metal device that increases the effective
dissipation surface area, to increase the rate of heat dissipation compared to the rate of heat
generation.

Heat sinks consist of a fan or cooling device to dissipate the body heat associated with it.
In computers, a heat sink is attached to the microprocessor chip to absorb heat and send it
into the air. Heat sinks are made of metals such as copper or aluminum alloys.
Figure.4.3 shows Heat Sink

Figure.4.3 Heat Sink

47 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.4 100 Ohm (Resistor Used)

A resistor (also known as an electrical resistor) is defined as a two-terminal passive
electrical element that provides electrical resistance to current flow. Resistance is a
measure of the opposition to the flow of current in a resistor. The larger a resistor’s
resistance, the greater the barrier against the flow of current. The ratio of the
voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the circuit
is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the
voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings. Figure.4.4 shows how to
determine the resistance and tolerance for resistors. The table can also be used to
specify the color of the bands when the values are known. An automatic resistor
calculator can be used to quickly find the resistor values.

48 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.5 1N4148 (Signal Diode Used)

The semiconductor Signal Diode is a small non-linear semiconductor devices generally

used in electronic circuits, where small currents or high frequencies are involved such as
in radio, television and digital logic circuits.
Signal diodes in the form of the Point Contact Diode or the Glass Passivated Diode, are
physically very small in size compared to their larger Power Diode cousins.
Generally, the PN junction of a small signal diode is encapsulated in glass to protect the
PN junction, and usually have a red or black band at one end of their body to help identify
which end is the cathode terminal. The most widely used of all the glass encapsulated
signal diodes is the very common 1N4148 and its equivalent 1N914 signal diode

Figure.4.5 Silicon Diode V-I Characteristic Curve

Table.4.5 Specifications of 1N4148

49 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.6 9-0-9/220V (Transformer Used)

transformer, device that transfers electric energy from one alternating-current circuit to
one or more other circuits, either increasing (stepping up) or reducing (stepping down)
the voltage. Transformers are employed for widely varying purposes; e.g., to reduce the
voltage of conventional power circuits to operate low-voltage devices, such as doorbells
and toy electric trains, and to raise the voltage from electric generators so that electric
power can be transmitted over long distances. The working principle of the transformer
can be understood from the Figure.4.6 (a).

Figure.4.6 (a) Single Phase Transformer

In our project, we use step-up transformer ( center tapped transformer) which step-up the
9V to 220V. The current carrying capacity of this transformer is 400m Amp. As shown in
Figure.4.6 (b)

Figure.4.6 (b) 9-0-9/220V, 400mAmp Transformer

50 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.7 Battery 12V High Power (Battery Used)

An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with
external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smart
phones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive
terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked
negative is the source of electrons that when connected to an external circuit will
flow and deliver energy to an external device. When a batteryis connected to an
external circuit, electrolytes are able to move as ions within, allowing the chemical
reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver energy to the
external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery, which allows
current to flow out of the battery to perform work.
Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of
multiple cells, however he usage has evolved to additionally include devices
composed of a single cell.
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power
hearing aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in Smartphone’s, to large
lead acid batteries used in cars and trucks, and at the largest extreme, huge battery
banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency power for telephone
exchanges and computer data centers. In our project, we use 12V, 7.5AH high
power battery as shown in Figure.4.7.

Figure.4.7 12V, 7.5AH Battery

51 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.8 100K Ohm (Variable Resistors Rotary Carbon Film Used)

When we use the term variable resistor, it means we are talking about linear
resistors by default. Linear resistors, as we know are those resistors whose
resistance remains constant, even when the voltage and current through it changes.
The voltage and current follow ohm’s law and are proportional to each other.

A typical variable resistor has 3 terminals. Out of the three, two are fixed terminals
at the ends of a resistive track. The terminals are made of conducting metal. The
other terminal is a moving terminal, mostly known as the wiper. It is the position
of this terminal on the resistive track that decides the resistance of the variable
resistor.
These resistors offer a different resistance value, which means their resistance
values can be adjusted to different values so as to provide the necessary control of
current and/or voltage.

To do so, a resistive strip is placed in between two fixed terminals of the device, a
third terminal which is a movable one, is made to glide over this strip.

Recall your basics of resistance; the resistance of a material is directly proportional

to the length of the material. Yes, that’s exactly what is used here.

Figure.4.8 (a) Terminals in a Variable Resistor

In our project, we use 100K Ohm Variable Resistors Rotary Carbon Film Taper
Potentiometer with Knob as shown in Figure.4.8 (a) to change modulation index.

52 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.9 Additional Elements Used

PVC Junction Box

In our project, we use PVC Junction Box for containing componentsSPWM

Inverter. Figure.4.9 (a) shows PVC Junction Box.

Figure.4.9 (a) PVC Junction Box

Rocker Switch On/Off

Also in our project, we use Rocker Switch On/Off to turn on and off SPWM Inverter.
Figure.4.9 (b) shows Rocker Switch On/Off.

Figure.4.9 (b) Rocker Switch On/Off

53 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

Proskit MT-1210 Compact Digital Multimeter

Also in our project, we use Proskit Multimeter to read output voltage of SPWM Inverter.
Figure.4.9 (c) shows. Proskit MT-1210 Compact Digital Multimeter

Figure.4.9 (c) Proskit MT-1210 Compact Digital Multimeter

AC Socket SS-801-2 IEC

Also in our project, we use AC Socket SS-801-2 IEC. Figure.4.9 (d) shows AC
Socket SS-801-2 IEC.

Figure.4.9 (d) AC Socket SS-801-2 IEC

54 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.9 Circuit Operation of SPWM Inverter

Inverter circuits are very helpful to produce AC supply when we need andit uses minimum
level of DC bias from battery source. Figure.4.9 (a) shows ArduinoInverter Circuit
Diagram

Figure.4.9 (a) Arduino Inverter Circuit Diagram

Here the simple and reliable inverter circuit designed with Arduino board, we
program Arduino to obtain SPWM output to different range of voltage output, and
we can program Arduino board to bring different range of frequency output. This
inverter circuit have three stages and a 12V 7.5Ah BT-12M battery as a DC bias.
The first stage of this circuit is Arduino Micro controller board and it is
programmed to give SPWM (Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation).
Second stage is switching, output pulse from the Arduino digital pins 9 and 10 are
fed into power mosfet IRF3205.
Third stage is a output stage which is constructed by using center tapped
transformer (220 VAC primary / 12-0-12 VAC secondary) and it is connected
reversely with the power mosfet and primary side of transformer let to give output
supply.

When the rocker switch is on, powers up the Arduino board and it starts producing
55 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

output pulses depends on sketch, the pulses are trigger power mosfet IRF3205 and
transformer secondary winding connected with the mosfet get discrete energy and
mutually induce the large number of primary winding, as we know due to large
numbers of winding and changing magnetic field, it produce high voltage AC
output. Figure.4.10 (b) shown Output Waveforms of SPWM Inverter.

56 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

Figure.4.10 (b) Output Waveforms of SPWM Inverter

57 | P a g e
2021-2022
Chapter Four

4.11 Result
We have successfully designed and implemented Arduino based Inverter circuit.
Center-tapped inverter circuit are working properly and we are getting output in the
range of 0-220V AC. We have successfully operated resistive load i.e. incandescent
lamp. It is being supplied with 220V AC and it is working properly and drawing a
current of 0.2Amp approximately. Likewise, it can also be used to operate
Inductive, Capacitive and RLC loads like single-phase induction motors, various
household appliances like induction heater, JMG etc.

58 | P a g e
2021-2022
References

References

59 | P a g e
2021-2022
References
References:

[1] P. Bimbhra, A Course in Power Electronics, 1999.

[2] F. Adnan, The world of arduino, 2019.
[3] N. Mohan, Power Electronics, First Course, 2012.
[4] M. H. Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices, and Applications (4th Edition), 2014.
[5] D. W.Hart, Power Electronics, 2010.
[6] C. W.Lander, Power Electronics (Third Edition), 1993.
[7] "Solar Power World," https://www.solarpowerworldonline.com/.
[8] https://www.matsusada.com/.
[9] https://www.elprocus.com/.
[10] http://www.birstolwatch.com/.
[11] https://www.theengineeringprojects.com/.
[12] https://www.youtube.com/electroboom.
[13] https://www.theorycircuit.com/.
[14] https://www.homemade-circuits.com/.
[15] https://www.create.arduino.cc/.
[16] https://www.tinkercad.com/.
[17] https://www.electrical4u.com/.
[18] https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/.
[19] https://github.com/.

60 | P a g e