5 CONTEXT AND THE CURRICULUM

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The following aspects of the interaction between the teaching-learning context and the
curriculum will be considered in this chapter:

• The sociocultural environment • Means of delivery

• The learners • Adoption factors
• The teachers • 7YVÄSPUN[OLMHJ[VYZPKLU[PÄLKPU[OL
• The institution situation analysis

Case study 8,ќLJ[P]L*SHZZYVVT4HUHNLTLU[MVY0UZLY]PJL;LHJOLYZHusai Ching

Case study 9 A blended undergraduate course in Ecuador José Lema

Introduction
3HUN\HNL JV\YZLZ HYL KL]LSVWLK MVY THU` KPќLYLU[ JPYJ\TZ[HUJLZ HUK HYL PUÅ\LUJLK I` MHJ[VYZ
relating to the context of teaching and learning, such as where they will be used, when, how, and
by whom, that is by factors relating to the context of teaching and learning. When changes in the
curriculum are introduced, such as a new syllabus, a new teaching approach, or new teaching
materials, the extent to which they are adopted, that is, whether an innovation is adopted or resisted,
will depend on such factors in the teaching context. Hence, a key aspect in understanding any
teaching situation is the social and environmental context. As Hutchinson and Waters observed:
“Learning can, and should, be seen in the context in which it takes place. Learning is not just a
mental process, it is process of negotiation between individuals and society” (1987, 72). Similarly,
Bax warned of the dangers of importing teaching proposals to contexts they were not designed for
HUKHYN\LK[OH[VULZOV\SKUV[¸HZZ\TLHUKPUZPZ[[OH[*3;PZ[OL^OVSLHUKJVTWSL[LZVS\[PVU[V
language learning; assume that no other method could be any good; ignore people’s own views
of who they are and what they want; neglect and ignore all aspects of the local context as being
irrelevant” (2003, 280).
The contexts for language programs are diverse, and the particular variables that come into play in
H ZWLJPÄJ ZP[\H[PVU HYL VM[LU [OL RL` KL[LYTPUHU[Z VM [OL Z\JJLZZ VM H WYVNYHT :[\K` VM [OL YVSL
of context issues and their potential impact on curriculum design and implementation is known as
situation analysis or environment analysis and is an important aspect of curriculum development and
curriculum implementation. For example, some language curricula are planned for centrally organized
state school systems where a great deal of direction and support for teaching is provided and where
HSS[LHJOLYZHUKZ[\KLU[ZOH]LHJJLZZ[V[LJOUVSVN`HUK[OL0U[LYUL[6[OLYZ[HRLWSHJLPUZL[[PUNZ
where there are limited human and technological resources. Some proposals for curriculum change
HYL ^LSS YLJLP]LK I` [LHJOLYZ I\[ V[OLYZ TH` IL YLZPZ[LK 0U ZVTL ZP[\H[PVUZ [LHJOLYZ HYL ^LSS
[YHPULKHUKOH]L[PTLH]HPSHISL[VWSHU[OLPYV^USLZZVUTH[LYPHSZ0UV[OLYZP[\H[PVUZ[LHJOLYZTH`
have little time for lesson planning and materials production and simply teach from their textbooks.
Each context for a curriculum change or innovation thus contains factors that can potentially facilitate
[OLJOHUNLVYOPUKLYP[ZZ\JJLZZM\SPTWSLTLU[H[PVU4HYRLL ";OVTHZHUK9LPUKLYZ0[PZ

110
 5 Context and the curriculum • 111

PTWVY[HU[[OLYLMVYL[VPKLU[PM`^OH[[OLZLMHJ[VYZHYLHUK^OH[[OLPYWV[LU[PHSLќLJ[ZTPNO[IL^OLU
planning changes to the curriculum or introducing new language-teaching policies and practices.
0U [OPZ JOHW[LY ^L ^PSS JVUZPKLY ZP_ MHJ[VYZ PU [OL [LHJOPUNSLHYUPUN JVU[L_[! the sociocultural
environment; the learners; the teachers; the institution; means of delivery: adoption factors.

*HU`V\Z\NNLZ[ZVTLMHJ[VYZPUH[LHJOPUNJVU[L_[[OH[JV\SKPUÅ\LUJL[OL^H`HUL^JV\YZL
is received or implemented?

5.1 The sociocultural environment

*\YYPJ\SH HYL [`WPJHSS` KLZPNULK MVY H WHY[PJ\SHY ZL[[PUN VY LU]PYVUTLU[ ¶ H ZWLJPÄJ WSHJL ^OVZL
characteristics are shaped by the people who inhabit it and the activities they are engaged in.
*VSLTHU KLÄULZZVJPL[`HZ!

all of those wider (and overlapping) contexts in which are situated the institutions in which
language teaching takes place. These include – but are not limited to – the international,
national, community, ethnic, bureaucratic, professional, religious, linguistic, economic and
family contexts in which schools and other educational institutions are located and with
which they interact.

0UL_HTPUPUN[OLPTWHJ[VMZVJPL[HSMHJ[VYZVUSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN[OLYLMVYL[OLHPTPZ[VKL[LYTPUL[OL
PTWHJ[VMKPќLYLU[NYV\WZVYZ[HRLOVSKLYZPU[OLJVTT\UP[`VYZVJPL[`H[SHYNLVU[OLWYVNYHT;OLZL
NYV\WZPUJS\KLWVSPJ`THRLYZPUNV]LYUTLU[LK\JH[PVUHSHUKV[OLYNV]LYUTLU[VѝJPHSZLTWSV`LYZ
the business community, politicians, tertiary education specialists, educational organizations, parents,
citizens, and students.

What other stakeholders do you think could have a role to play in the success or otherwise
of a new curriculum?

( UH[PVUHS VY Z[H[L J\YYPJ\S\T OHZ H ]LY` ZWLJPÄJ MYHTL VM YLMLYLUJL `L[ ^P[OPU H JV\U[Y` [OLYL
HYL VM[LU ZPNUPÄJHU[ YLNPVUHS KPќLYLUJLZ PU [LYTZ VM LJVUVTPJ KL]LSVWTLU[ HJJLZZ [V HUK \ZL VM
technology, educational achievement, as well as the linguistic and social characteristics of the people
^OV SP]L [OLYL ;OLYL TH` IL ZPNUPÄJHU[ KPќLYLUJLZ IL[^LLU Y\YHS HUK \YIHU ZJOVVSZ HUK L]LU
^P[OPU H JP[` ZJOVVSZ PU KPќLYLU[ SVJH[PVUZ TH` OH]L ]LY` KPќLYLU[ JOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZ -VY L_HTWSL PU
Hong Kong, secondary schools are divided into three “bands” which are ranked in terms of academic
performance, band 1 schools being the most prestigious. Hong Kong schools are both English-
TLKP\THUK*OPULZLTLKP\THUK[OLNV]LYUTLU[OHZ[YPLK[VLUJV\YHNLHNYLH[LY\ZLVM*OPULZL
in schools. However, parents have generally expressed a preference for English-medium education for
their children, since this gives children a better preparation for English-medium university education.
0U 5L^ ALHSHUK ZJOVVSZ HYL YHURLK IHZLK VU ZVJPVLJVUVTPJ MHJ[VYZ RUV^U HZ H KLJPSL Z`Z[LT
^OPJOPUÅ\LUJLZ[OLL_[LU[VMYLZV\YJPUN[OL`YLJLP]LZLL¸:JOVVSKLJPSLZ¹ILSV^
112 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

School deciles in New Zealand

A school’s decile indicates the extent to which the school draws its students from low socio-
economic communities. Decile 1 schools are the 10 percent of schools with the highest
proportion of students from low socio-economic communities, whereas decile 10 schools are
the 10 percent of schools with the lowest proportion of these students. A school’s decile does
not indicate the overall socio-economic mix of the school … Schools are ranked in relation to
L]LY` V[OLY ZJOVVS MVY LHJO VM [OL Ä]L MHJ[VYZ HUK YLJLP]L H ZJVYL HJJVYKPUN [V [OL WLYJLU[PSL
[OH[[OL`MHSSPU[V;OLÄ]LZJVYLZMVYLHJOZJOVVSHYLHKKLK[VNL[OLY^P[OV\[HU`^LPNO[PUNZ[V
give a total. This total gives the overall standing of a school in relation to all other schools in the
country, enabling the ministry to place schools into ten groups called deciles, each having the
same number of schools.

(New Zealand Ministry of Education 2014)

;O\Z ZJOVVSZ KV UV[ ULJLZZHYPS` VќLY LX\HS VWWVY[\UP[PLZ [V HSS ZPUJL ZVTL Z[\KLU[Z MYVT ZVTL
OVTL IHJRNYV\UKZ TH` OH]L IL[[LY OVTL Z\WWVY[ MVY SLHYUPUN [OHU V[OLYZ +PќLYLU[ Z[HRLOVSKLYZ
TPNO[HSZVOH]L]LY`KPќLYLU[L_WLJ[H[PVUZMVYZLJVUKHY`VY[LY[PHY`LK\JH[PVU(Z*VSLTHU 
VIZLY]LK!

The different parties concerned may have very different expectations of the same higher
education system. In Indonesia, for example, the government apparently sees the universities
as instruments for modernization and social change, while some lecturers consider that
universities provide a mechanism for the advancement of their own families. Yet others see
universities as places to foster cooperation among members of society.

The status of English teachers also depends on the context, since in some cultures teachers have
[YHKP[PVUHSS`ILLUOLSKPUOPNOYLNHYKHUK[OL[LHJOPUNWYVMLZZPVUOHZOPNOZ[H[\Z0UV[OLYJVU[L_[Z
[LHJOPUN THU` UV[ ULJLZZHYPS` HJJY\L [OL ZHTL ]HS\L 5H[P]LZWLHRLY [LHJOLYZ HYL ZVTL[PTLZ
considered to bring extra value to a school, no matter their level of training and experience and despite
the fact that local teachers may sometimes have a better knowledge base and better teaching skills.

>OH[PZ[OLZ[H[\ZVM,UNSPZO[LHJOLYZPU`V\YJV\U[Y`VY[LHJOPUNJVU[L_[&0Z,UNSPZO[LHJOPUN
JVUZPKLYLKHWYVMLZZPVU[OH[YLX\PYLZOPNOS`[YHPULKZWLJPHSPZ[Z&

*VU[L_[ HSZV PUÅ\LUJLZ SLHYULYZ» \UKLYZ[HUKPUN VM [OL TLHUPUN HUK ]HS\L VM ,UNSPZO HUK [OLPY
attitudes toward learning English or other languages. Second or foreign language teaching is a fact
VMSPMLPUHSTVZ[L]LY`JV\U[Y`PU[OL^VYSK`L[JV\U[YPLZKPќLYNYLH[S`PU[LYTZVM[OLYVSLVMMVYLPNU
languages in the community, their status in the curriculum, educational traditions and experience in
language teaching, and the expectations that members of the community have for language teaching
HUKSLHYUPUN;OLYVSLVMMVYLPNUSHUN\HNLZPZJVTWSL[LS`KPќLYLU[PU,UNSPZOZWLHRPUNJV\U[YPLZZ\JO
HZ[OL<:(HUK(\Z[YHSPHHZJVTWHYLK[V[OLPYZ[H[\ZPUTHU`,\YVWLHUJV\U[YPLZ0UJV\U[YPLZSPRL
/VSSHUK5VY^H`HUK+LUTHYRMVYL_HTWSLHJVTTHUKVMVULVYTVYLMVYLPNUSHUN\HNLZOHZSVUN
ILLUHJJLW[LKHZHULJLZZP[`:JOVVSZHYLL_WLJ[LK[VVќLYHYHUNLVMMVYLPNUSHUN\HNLZHUK[OLYL
PZIV[OHZ[YVUN[YHKP[PVUHUKJVUZPKLYHISLL_WLY[PZLPUMVYLPNUSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN5L^WYVWVZHSZHYL
therefore met with informed skepticism.
 5 Context and the curriculum • 113

;OLMVSSV^PUNJVTTLU[ZKLZJYPIL[OLYVSLVM,UNSPZOHUK[OL]HS\LZP[YLWYLZLU[ZPU0YHU!

As the world’s international language, English now features prominently in Iran’s official education cur-
riculum and even more so in the private education sector. Knowing English is now considered a marker of
educational as well as social achievement. Officially English serves primarily as a tool for providing access
to information needed for technical, scientific and economic development, i.e., as a form of economic capital.
In the public sector, including [in] schools and universities, English is regarded as a tool providing access to
new knowledge and technology, and hence there is an emphasis on reading comprehension. Those studying
English in private institutes do so for a variety of reasons but often to develop functional communication
skills and to pass international tests. English also serves to signal prestige and status and membership
of a higher socio-economic class. When linked to products, it may signal quality. It can also signal that its
user is well educated and has an international perspective. And it can serve to distinguish someone from
those with a religious orientation. For some, it also means being young and can carry messages of love
and romance, e.g. on greeting cards.
(Karim Sadeghi, university professor, Iran)

0U [OL :JHUKPUH]PHU JV\U[YPLZ ,UNSPZO PZ H WYHJ[PJHS YLHSP[` MVY TVZ[ SLHYULYZ 0[ PZ L]LY`^OLYL ¶ VU
[OL[LSL]PZPVU[OLYHKPV[OL0U[LYUL[HUKPUUL^ZWHWLYZ0[OHZHWYVTPULU[YVSLPUWLVWSL»ZOVTLZ
[OYV\NO [LJOUVSVN` HUK [OL TLKPH -PSTZ HUK [LSL]PZPVU WYVNYHTZ HYL UV[ K\IILK *OPSKYLU HYL
familiar with the need to navigate manuals, instructions, and tutorials in English for software and digital
NHTLZ 2\\YL  0U 4L_PJV ,UNSPZO OHZ H KPќLYLU[ M\UJ[PVU :H`LY  L_HTPULK [OL ZVJPHS
TLHUPUNZVM,UNSPZOPU[OL4L_PJHUJP[`VM6H_HJHHZYLÅLJ[LKPU[OL\ZLVM,UNSPZOPUZ[YLL[ZPNUZ
ZOVWUHTLZHUKWYVK\J[IYHUKZ/LPKLU[PÄLKZP_[OLTLZVY¸PKLHZ¹[OH[,UNSPZOYLWYLZLU[ZPU[OH[
context: English is advanced and sophisticated; English is fashion; English is being cool; English is
sex(y); English is for expressions of love; English is for expressing subversive identities.
;OL ZP[\H[PVU PU 1HWHU HZ KLZJYPILK I` :LHYNLHU[   PZ KPќLYLU[ HNHPU HUK WLYOHWZ \UPX\L
Seargeant suggests that many people in Japan have an intense fascination with English, as is seen
in acts of cultural display like advertising and popular culture. Thousands of people devote huge
HTV\U[Z VM [PTL [V Z[\K`PUN ,UNSPZO PU ZJOVVSZ HUK PUZ[P[\[LZ HUK `L[ [OL SHUN\HNL OHZ UV VѝJPHS
Z[H[\ZHUKTVZ[JP[PaLUZOH]LUVYLHSULLKMVYP[PU[OLPYL]LY`KH`SP]LZ0UKLLKHZPU:V\[O2VYLH
THU` WLVWSL SP]L WYVK\J[P]L HUK Z\JJLZZM\S SP]LZ ^P[OV\[ HU` ULLK [V RUV^ ,UNSPZO 0UZ[Y\TLU[HS
ambition for learning English in Japan is much less important than the “idea” of English, that is, its
symbolic meaning.

What are the attitudes of young people toward English in your country? What values do they
associate with English?

Sociocultural factors such as those discussed above remind us that English is not a neutral or values-
MYLLMLH[\YLVM[OLJ\YYPJ\S\T0[TLHUZKPќLYLU[[OPUNZ[VKPќLYLU[TLTILYZVM[OLJVTT\UP[`HUK
PTWHJ[Z[OLPYSP]LZPUKPќLYLU[^H`ZLTWV^LYPUNZVTLHUKZVTL[PTLZKPZHK]HU[HNPUNV[OLYZ:VTL
of the key factors can be summarized as follows:
• Socio-economic factors in the learners’ environment.
• Attitudes toward English in the community.
• Views of current policies, curriculum, materials, and tests.
• Societal expectations about language teaching and learning.
• Language-teaching traditions.
114 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

• Status of teachers.
• Views of policymakers, academics, and language-teaching professionals.
• Role of English in the students’ daily experiences.

The following example illustrates a lack of understanding between the expectations of curriculum
planners and parents.

Example: A new English curriculum has been prepared for English at secondary level in an EFL
context. The new curriculum is described as communicative and task-based and downplays the
importance of grammar, which traditionally received a strong focus in the English curriculum. When
textbooks to support the new curriculum are published, concerns are expressed by parents and
parents’ groups because they feel that their children “are not being taught the basics” and the
[L_[IVVRZ^PSSUV[WYV]PKLZ\ѝJPLU[WYLWHYH[PVUMVYZJOVVSL_HTZ

Comment:0U[OPZZP[\H[PVUTLJOHUPZTZZOV\SKOH]LILLULZ[HISPZOLKMVYJVTT\UPJH[PUN[OLPU[LU[PVUZ
of the new curriculum to parents and other interested parties and for identifying and addressing their
concerns. Perhaps parents misunderstand the way grammar is being addressed in the new curriculum
HUK^V\SKILZH[PZÄLKVUJL[OL`\UKLYZ[HUKIL[[LYOV^[OLWYVNYHT^VYRZ0UHKKP[PVU[OL[L_[IVVRZ
should have been reviewed to ensure that they addressed the skills covered in the exams.

5.2 The learners

Learners bring to learning certain assumptions and beliefs about language teaching and learning
based on their cultural and educational background and their previous language learning experiences.
(Z5\UHU JVTTLU[Z!

The effectiveness of a language program will be dictated as much by the attitudes and expec-
tations of the learners as by the specifications of the official curriculum … Learners have their
own agendas in the language lessons they attend. These agendas, as much as the teacher’s
objectives, determine what learners take from any given teaching/learning encounter.

0[ JHUUV[ IL ZPTWS` HZZ\TLK [OLU [OH[ SLHYULYZ ^PSS IL WVZP[P]LS` KPZWVZLK [V^HYK [OL SLHYUPUN VM
English or other languages, have the appropriate skills the course demands, or share the teacher’s
understanding of what the goals of the course are. Learners enter a course with their own views of
teaching and learning, with established ideas about the roles of teachers and learners, and the norms
VMJSHZZYVVTWHY[PJPWH[PVUHUKILOH]PVY;Z\P 0U^LZ[LYUIHZLKHWWYVHJOLZZ\JOHZ*3;VY
Task-Based Teaching, the teacher may be viewed as a facilitator, and there is a strong emphasis
on individual learner creativity and on peer-supported as well as independent learning. These are
culturally marked representations of the roles of teachers, learners, and materials that may not align
^P[O SVJHS WYHJ[PJLZ /VSSPKH`   -VY L_HTWSL AOHUN HUK /LHK   KPZJ\ZZ [OL MHJ[ [OH[
*OPULZL SLHYULYZ [LUK [V ]PL^ [LHJOLYZ HZ WLYZVUZ ^P[O H\[OVYP[` ^OPJO KPќLYZ MYVT [OL ^H` [OL`
HYL WLYJLP]LK PU ^LZ[LYU J\S[\YL 0U *OPUH [OL [LHJOLY PZ ZLLU HZ OH]PUN ¸H JHYPUN U\Y[\YPUN HUK
ILUL]VSLU[YVSL¹ I\[HSZVHZHZV\YJLVMRUV^SLKNL[OH[OLVYZOL^PSSKLSP]LY;OL*OPULZL
JVUJLYUMVY¸MHJL¹HSZVTHRLZP[KPѝJ\S[MVY*OPULZLSLHYULYZ[VVќLYVWPUPVUZ[OH[KPќLYMYVT[OVZL
of the teacher or classmates, often leading to reticence and reluctance to participate in group-based
speaking activities.
3LHYULYZHSZVKPќLYPU[OLPYHJJLZZ[VHUK\ZLVM[LJOUVSVN`HS[OV\NOPUJYLHZPUNS`[VKH`»ZSLHYULYZ
have access to more English outside of the classroom than they are likely to have in their formal
,UNSPZOWYVNYHTH[ZJOVVS-VYTHU`[OL0U[LYUL[[LJOUVSVN`HUK[OLTLKPHHZ^LSSHZ[OL\ZLVM
 5 Context and the curriculum • 115

English in face-to-face and virtual social networks provide greater opportunities for meaningful and
authentic language use than are available in the classroom. Learners can download apps that support
many aspects of language learning and use these while waiting for the bus or train or traveling to
school. Moreover, when they get home they may enter a chat room to interact with other language
SLHYULYZVY^P[OUH[P]LZWLHRLYZ[OL`TH`LU[LYNHTLZP[LZHUKWSH`]PKLVNHTLZ[OH[YLX\PYL[OLT
to understand and use English, or they may watch a TV program or movie in English, following with
Z\I[P[SLZPMULJLZZHY`/V^L]LYSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUNHќVYKHUJLZZ\JOHZ[OLZLTH`ILTVYLHJJLZZPISL
[VSLHYULYZPUZVTLJVU[L_[Z[OHUPUV[OLYZ^P[OZVTLSLHYULYZMVYÄUHUJPHSVYV[OLYYLHZVUZILPUN
largely dependent on their textbooks and in-class learning opportunities.

To what extent do your learners have access to and make use of technology to support their
learning of English?

;OL PTWHJ[ VM H SHUN\HNL WYVNYHT TH` HSZV IL PUÅ\LUJLK I` SLHYULYZ» ILSPLMZ HIV\[ [LHJOPUN
and learning. Lai and Xialin (2015) point out that many Asian learners are familiar with a mode
VM [LHJOPUN PUÅ\LUJLK I` *VUM\JPHU LK\JH[PVUHS ]HS\LZ HUK TH` PUP[PHSS` IL YLZPZ[HU[ [V [OL [HZR
oriented methodology being recommended in some countries. Alcorso and Kalantzis (1985) found
that teachers rated the usefulness of communicative activities highly, whereas their learners tended
to favor more traditional activities such as grammar exercises, copying written materials, memorizing,
HUKKYPSS^VYR3LHYULYZTH`HSZVOH]LKPќLYLU[SLHYUPUNZ[`SLWYLMLYLUJLZ8PU;OL`TH`MH]VY
some approaches to or modes of learning over others, as seen in their preferences for particular
RPUKZVMJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZZ[`SLZVM[LHJOPUNHUKJSHZZYVVTHYYHUNLTLU[Z^OLUZ[\K`PUNZWLJPÄJ
HZWLJ[ZVMSHUN\HNL)YPJR YLWVY[ZJVU[YHZ[P]L]PL^ZVM[LHJOLYZPU(\Z[YHSPHHUK*OPUH!

The trouble with Chinese teachers is that they’ve never done any real teacher-training courses
so they don’t know how to teach. All they do is follow the book. They never give us any oppor-
tunity to talk. How in the world do they expect us to learn?
Australian student in China

Australian teachers are very friendly but they can’t teach very well. I never know where
they’re going – there’s no system and I just get lost. Also, they’re often very badly trained and
don’t have a thorough grasp of their subject.
Chinese student in Australia

So while some students enjoy games and role plays, others may prefer more structured activities
[OH[ MVJ\Z VU [OL THZ[LY` VM ZWLJPÄJ NYHTTH[PJHS WVPU[Z :VTL Z[\KLU[Z TH` SPRL [OL [LHJOLY [V
correct any mistakes in their pronunciation, while others may feel pronunciation is less important
[OHUÅ\LUJ`:VTLZ[\KLU[ZTH`MLLSTVYLJVTMVY[HISL^OLU[OL[LHJOLYPZLUNHNPUNPU^OVSLJSHZZ
teaching, while others may prefer group-based learning. Further, some students may prefer learning
from technology and media-based resources to learning from books and other print-based materials.

>OH[RPUKZVMJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZKVSLHYULYZPU`V\Y[LHJOPUNJVU[L_[LUQV`VYÄUK\ZLM\S&
(YL[OLYLZVTLRPUKZVMHJ[P]P[PLZ[OH[[OL`KVUV[ÄUK\ZLM\S&
 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

0UWSHUUPUNHJV\YZLP[PZHSZVPTWVY[HU[[VÄUKV\[^OH[[OLSLHYULYZ»TV[P]H[PVUZHYLMVY[HRPUN[OL
JV\YZL>O`HYL[OL`VU[OLJV\YZLHUKOV^^PSSP[HќLJ[[OLPYSP]LZ&>OH[KV[OL`^HU[MYVTP[&>OPJO
HZWLJ[ZVMP[HYL[OL`TVZ[PU[LYLZ[LKPU&0[TH`IL[OH[SLHYULYZOH]L]LY`KPќLYLU[WYPVYP[PLZ^OPJO
PZWHY[PJ\SHYS`[OLJHZLMVYHK\S[SLHYULYZ0U[OLZHTLJSHZZZVTLSLHYULYZTH`OH]L\YNLU[ULLKZ
MVYQVIZWLJPÄJSHUN\HNLZRPSSZZVTLTH`ULLK,UNSPZOMVYSHYNLS`ZVJPHSW\YWVZLZ^OPSLV[OLYZTH`
need preparation for a high-stakes test.
*\S[\YHSMHJ[VYZTH`HSZVPUÅ\LUJLSLHYULYZ»^PSSPUNULZZ[VH[[LTW[[V\ZL,UNSPZOPU[OLJSHZZYVVT
PL ^PSSPUNULZZ [V JVTT\UPJH[L HSZV YLMLYYLK [V HZ >;* 4HJ0U[`YL " 7LUN HUK >VVKYV^
2010). For example, in some cultures, students may be more willing to communicate in front of their
WLLYZPU[OLJSHZZYVVT[OHUPUV[OLYJ\S[\YLZ>LUHUK*SLTLU[Z\NNLZ[[OH[PU*OPUHNYV\W
JVOLZP]LULZZHUKH[[HJOTLU[[VNYV\WTLTILYZPUÅ\LUJL*OPULZLZ[\KLU[Z»>;*PU[OLJSHZZYVVT
A student may believe that if he or she speaks up in class, as is favored in communicative learner-
centered teaching methods, this may not be valued by other students, since it is judged as “showing
Vќ¹HUKHUH[[LTW[[VTHRLV[OLYZ[\KLU[ZSVVR^LHR4VYLV]LYPMZ[\KLU[ZHYL]LY`L_HTVYPLU[LK
and do not see that communicative activities will help them pass an exam, they may have little
TV[P]H[PVU [V JVTT\UPJH[L PU H JVTT\UPJH[PVUVYPLU[LK JSHZZ 0U V[OLY JV\U[YPLZ Z\JO HZ 1HWHU
^PSSPUNULZZ [V JVTT\UPJH[L TH` IL PUÅ\LUJLK I` [YHKP[PVUHS Z[\KLU[¶[LHJOLY YLSH[PVUZOPWZ WLLY
pressure, and a desire for error-free responses.

0ZH[`WPJHSSLHYULYPU`V\YJSHZZLZ^PSSPUN[V\ZLOPZVYOLY,UNSPZOPUJSHZZ&

*VY[HaaPHUK1PUYLMLY[VZVTLVM[OLZLMHJ[VYZ\ZPUN[OLJVUJLW[VMcultures of learning:

Members of different cultural communities may have different preferences, experiences,

interpretations, values and beliefs about how to learn or how to teach ... Cultural ideas of
learning, often subconscious and taken for granted, are absorbed in early learning in the
absence of contrasting ideas and are not normally articulated; they are built up in interaction
in families and through early and later schooling as cultures transmit ways of learning and
as children are socialized into education and then, through education, into so much else in
the wider world.

0U [OL MVSSV^PUN L_HTWSL ^L ZLL OV^ SLHYULYZ» L_WLJ[H[PVUZ TH` IL PUÅ\LUJLK I` [OL ^H`Z [OL`
have been taught in the past.

Example:(WYP]H[LPUZ[P[\[LPUHU,-3JV\U[Y`VќLYZHUPU[LYTLKPH[LSL]LSJVU]LYZH[PVUJV\YZL
;LHJOLYZPU[OLJV\YZLTHRLL_[LUZP]L\ZLVMÅ\LUJ`HJ[P]P[PLZPUJS\KPUNWHPYHUKNYV\WHJ[P]P[PLZYVSL
WSH`ZZVUNZHUKNHTLZHUKKPZJ\ZZPVUHJ[P]P[PLZ;OLZLHJ[P]P[PLZHYL[OV\NO[[VYLÅLJ[J\YYLU[]PL^Z
VUZLJVUKSHUN\HNLHJX\PZP[PVU/V^L]LY[OLÄYZ[JVOVY[VMSLHYULYZ[OYV\NO[OLWYVNYHTHYL]LY`
critical of it because they cannot see the point of many of the classroom activities they were asked to
[HRLWHY[PU;OL`YLX\LZ[TVYL[LHJOLYKPYLJ[LKHJ[P]P[PLZHUKTVYLLYYVYJVYYLJ[PVU¸>LKVU»[^HU[
to come to class to clap and sing” is a typical student comment.

Comment: This example illustrates that learners have their own views on how conversation skills can
ILKL]LSVWLKHUK[OLPYV^UWYLMLYLUJLZMVYJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZ0M[OLNVHSZVMÅ\LUJ`HJ[P]P[PLZHYL
not clearly explained and if students are not convinced of their value, they may not understand what
[OLPYPU[LU[PZHUKQ\KNL[OLT[VILPULќLJ[P]L(X\LZ[PVUUHPYLJV\SKOH]LILLUHKTPUPZ[LYLKWYPVY[V
[OLJV\YZL[VKL[LYTPULZ[\KLU[Z»]PL^ZVMKPќLYLU[RPUKZVMJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZ0UHKKP[PVUHIL[[LY
orientation to the goals and methodology of the program should have been provided.
 5 Context and the curriculum • 117

;OL UL_[ L_HTWSL YL]LHSZ H ZPTPSHY TPZ\UKLYZ[HUKPUN ^OPJO TH` IL ZLLU HZ [OL JVUZLX\LUJL VM
WSHUULYZHUKSLHYULYZOH]PUNKPќLYLU[ILSPLMZHIV\[[OLUH[\YLVMNVVK[LHJOPUN

Example: A group of foreign experts in an EFL context devise a program in oral communication skills
MVYHK\S[Z;OLWYVNYHTYLÅLJ[ZJ\YYLU[^LZ[LYU]PL^ZVM[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUNHUKPZI\PS[HYV\UK
such concepts as autonomous learning, the learner-centered curriculum, Task-Based Teaching, and
the negotiated curriculum. The teachers decide that rather than develop the detailed content of the
program in advance, they will involve the students in the development of the program’s goals and
JVU[LU[6UJL[OLWYVNYHTJVTTLUJLZOV^L]LY[OLZ[\KLU[ZQ\KNL[OH[[OL[LHJOLYZKVUV[RUV^
what they are doing and complain that the program is unstructured and unfocused.

Comment:;OPZPZHUL_HTWSLVMHZP[\H[PVU^OLYL[OL[LHJOLYZHUK[OLZ[\KLU[ZOH]LKPќLYLU[
L_WLJ[H[PVUZHIV\[[OLYLX\PYLTLU[ZVMHZV\UKWYVNYHTHZHYLZ\S[VMJ\S[\YHSKPќLYLUJLZPU[OLPY
approach to teaching and learning. The students expect a program with clear goals and with
an organization laid out in advance. This clashes with the beliefs of the teachers. Some sort of
compromise should have been decided on early on in the project to prevent the students from
misunderstanding the nature of the program. More time should have been spent explaining the
W\YWVZLVMKPќLYLU[HJ[P]P[PLZ^P[OPU[OLWYVNYHTHUK[OLWOPSVZVWO`P[^HZIHZLKVU

)LSV^ HYL ZVTL VM [OL THU` MHJ[VYZ [OH[ JHU PUÅ\LUJL SLHYULYZ» LUNHNLTLU[ ^P[O H SHUN\HNL
program:
• Age of learners (e.g., children, teenagers, adults).
• ;`WPJHSSLHYULYWYVÄSL
• Learning-style preferences.
• Motivation and interest to learn.
• Beliefs about teaching and learning.
• Language learning history.
• 7YLMLYLUJLZMVYZWLJPÄJRPUKZVMJVU[LU[
• Attitudes toward English and speakers of English.
• Practical need for English.
• *HWHJP[`MVYPUKLWLUKLU[SLHYUPUN
• Access to resources and technology.

5.3 The teachers

;LHJOLYZHYLHRL`MHJ[VYPU[OLZ\JJLZZM\SPTWSLTLU[H[PVUVMJ\YYPJ\S\TJOHUNLZ0UYLJLU[`LHYZHZ
[OLÄLSKVM;,:63OHZILJVTLTVYLWYVMLZZPVUHSS`KLTHUKPUNVMP[ZLSMHUKOHZZV\NO[[VKL]LSVW
standards for language teachers, there has been a much greater recognition of the expert language
teacher as a highly skilled professional. As a discipline, language teaching has done much in recent
`LHYZ [V JVUJLW[\HSPaL HUK KLÄUL P[Z RUV^SLKNL IHZL [V YLN\SH[L LU[Y` [V [OL WYVMLZZPVU HUK [V
TVUP[VY [OL WYHJ[PJLZ VM [LHJOPUN PUZ[P[\[PVUZ 0UJYLHZPUNS` SHUN\HNL ZJOVVSZ HYL YLJY\P[PUN IL[[LY
[YHPULKHUKIL[[LYX\HSPÄLKSHUN\HNL[LHJOLYZHUKHYLVWLYH[PUN^P[OPUKLÄULKZ[HUKHYKZVMX\HSP[`
0UWSHUUPUNHSHUN\HNLWYVNYHTP[PZ[OLYLMVYLPTWVY[HU[[VRUV^^OH[RPUKZVM[LHJOLYZ[OLWYVNYHT
will depend on and the kinds of teachers that are needed to ensure that the program achieves its
NVHSZ,_JLW[PVUHS[LHJOLYZJHUVM[LUJVTWLUZH[LMVY[OLWVVYX\HSP[`YLZV\YJLZHUKTH[LYPHSZ[OL`
TH`OH]L[V^VYRMYVT/V^L]LYPUHKLX\H[LS`[YHPULK[LHJOLYZTH`UV[ILHISL[VTHRLLќLJ[P]L
use of teaching materials no matter how well they are designed.
118 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

0M `V\ ^LYL OPYPUN H [LHJOLY MVY `V\Y ZJOVVS ^OH[ ^V\SK IL [OL [OYLL TVZ[ PTWVY[HU[
characteristics you would look for?

>P[OPU ZJOVVSZ [LHJOLYZ HSZV OH]L THU` KPќLYLU[ RPUKZ VM YLZWVUZPIPSP[PLZ :VTL [LHJOLYZ OH]L
mentoring or leadership roles within their schools and assist in orienting new teachers to the school
VYSLHKPUNNYV\WZVM[LHJOLYZPUTH[LYPHSZKL]LSVWTLU[HUKV[OLYHJ[P]P[PLZ6[OLY[LHJOLYZOH]L[PTL
MVYSP[[SLTVYL[OHU[LHJOPUN;OL`TH`OH]L]LY`OLH]`[LHJOPUNSVHKZVY[LHJOPUZL]LYHSKPќLYLU[
institutions in order to make ends meet. Some teachers may welcome the chance to try out a new
Z`SSHI\Z VY TH[LYPHSZ 6[OLYZ TH` YLZLU[ P[ ILJH\ZL [OL` ZLL P[ HZ KPZY\W[PUN [OLPY YV\[PUL HUK UV[
VќLYPUN[OLTHU`ÄUHUJPHSVYV[OLYRPUKVMHK]HU[HNL
Teachers also bring particular assumptions, beliefs, and values to teaching and are likely to assess
new approaches to teaching based on their own understanding of what constitutes good teaching
¶ HU \UKLYZ[HUKPUN [OH[ TH` VM[LU YLÅLJ[ [OLPY V^U L_WLYPLUJLZ HZ SHUN\HNL SLHYULYZ *\YYPJ\S\T
PUUV]H[PVUTHRLZKLTHUKZVU[LHJOLYZYLX\PYPUN[OLT[VTHRLJOHUNLZPU[OL^H`[OL`[LHJO[V
take on new and perhaps unfamiliar roles, and many such innovations have failed to be adopted
either because of teacher resistance or because a new curriculum does not align with teachers’
current beliefs and teaching context.

Have you changed any aspect of your approach to teaching recently? What prompted the
change?

The following example shows how teachers may resist curriculum change if it clashes with their
current beliefs and practices.

Example: As part of an overall reform of the school curriculum, the curriculum department in an EFL
country decides to implement a new task-based approach to teaching across the whole curriculum
in all subject areas. The new curriculum involves a greater use of teacher-made criterion-referenced
[LZ[Z[OH[HYLSPURLK[VNYHKLK[HZRZPUKPќLYLU[Z\IQLJ[HYLHZ/V^L]LY^OLU[OLWSHUPZPU[YVK\JLK
to teachers, it meets with great resistance. Teachers are happy with the current curriculum; they have
NYLH[KPѝJ\S[`\UKLYZ[HUKPUN[OLWOPSVZVWO`VM[OLUL^HWWYVHJOHUKZLLP[HZJYLH[PUNHT\JO
heavier workload. The teachers’ union organizes a number of teachers’ meetings to discuss and
JYP[PJPaL[OLUL^J\YYPJ\S\T0U[OLMHJLVMW\ISPJVWWVZP[PVU[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TKLWHY[TLU[KLJPKLZ[V
delay the introduction of the new curriculum and to modify it, despite having spent a large sum of
money in developing the curriculum and supporting materials.

Comment: This situation could have been avoided if much wider consultation had been undertaken
before deciding to change the existing curriculum. Teachers should have been consulted to see if
they saw the need for change. Teachers should have been involved in preparing the new curriculum
YH[OLY[OHUPTWVZPUNP[VU[OLTHZHMHP[HJJVTWSP(KLX\H[LWYV]PZPVUZOV\SKOH]LILLUTHKL[V[YHPU
[LHJOLYZ[V\ZL[OLUL^J\YYPJ\S\THUK[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TWPSV[LKÄYZ[[VPKLU[PM`[OLKLTHUKZP[JYLH[LK
for teachers and students.

;OLJOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZVM¸NVVK[LHJOLYZ¹YLÅLJ[[OLJ\S[\YLZVMSLHYUPUNPU^OPJO[OL`[LHJO;Z\P 
0U ZVTL J\S[\YLZ H NVVK [LHJOLY PZ VUL ^OV JVU[YVSZ HUK KPYLJ[Z SLHYULYZ HUK ^OV THPU[HPUZ H
respectful distance between the teacher and the learners. Learners are more or less the passive
 5 Context and the curriculum • 119

recipients of the teacher’s expertise. Teaching is viewed as a teacher-controlled and directed process.
0UV[OLYJ\S[\YLZ[OL[LHJOLYTH`IL]PL^LKTVYLHZHMHJPSP[H[VY:[\KLU[ZTH`L]LUILLUJV\YHNLK
[VX\LZ[PVUHUKJOHSSLUNL^OH[[OL[LHJOLYZH`Z;OL^H`HWLYZVU[LHJOLZHUKOPZVYOLY]PL^VM
^OH[NVVK[LHJOPUNPZ^PSS[OLYLMVYLYLÅLJ[[OL[LHJOLY»ZJ\S[\YHSIHJRNYV\UKHUKWLYZVUHSOPZ[VY`
the context in which he or she is working, and the kinds of students in his or her class. For this reason,
teaching sometimes is said to be “situated” and can only be understood within a particular context.
0U HU` PUZ[P[\[PVU ^L JHU Z\TTHYPaL ZVTL VM [OL WYPUJPWHS MHJ[VYZ [LHJOLYZ IYPUN [V [LHJOPUN HZ
follows:
• Levels of training and experience.
• 7YVÄJPLUJ`PU,UNSPZO
• Motivation and commitment.
• Personal principles and beliefs.
• Teaching responsibilities and teaching loads.
• Preferred teaching methods and styles.
• Receptivity to change.

5.4 The institution

A language-teaching program is typically delivered in an institution such as a university, school,
VY SHUN\HNL PUZ[P[\[L 0UZ[P[\[PVUZ HSZV OH]L [OLPY V^U ^H`Z VM KVPUN [OPUNZ 0U ZVTL PUZ[P[\[PVUZ
[L_[IVVRZHYL[OLJVYLVM[OLJ\YYPJ\S\THUKHSS[LHJOLYZT\Z[\ZL[OLWYLZJYPILK[L_[Z0UV[OLYZ
[LHJOLYZ ^VYR MYVT JV\YZL N\PKLSPULZ HUK Z\WWSLTLU[ [OLT HZ [OL` ZLL Ä[ 0UZ[P[\[PVUZ HSZV KPќLY
NYLH[S`PU[OLPYSL]LSZVMWYVMLZZPVUHSPZT0UZVTLPUZ[P[\[PVUZ[OLYLPZHZ[YVUNZLUZLVMWYVMLZZPVUHS
JVTTP[TLU[ HUK H J\S[\YL VM X\HSP[` [OH[ PUÅ\LUJLZ L]LY` HZWLJ[ VM [OL PUZ[P[\[PVU»Z VWLYH[PVUZ 0U
others, the driving force of the school may be monetary. As a cost-saving measure, heavy reliance
is made on part-time teachers or teachers with little training and experience. They are not paid for
SLZZVUWYLWHYH[PVU[PTLHUKJVUZLX\LU[S`[LHJO[OLPYJSHZZLZHUK[OLUKLWHY[MVY[OLPYUL_[[LHJOPUN
assignment, perhaps in another school.
/LUJLKPќLYLU[[`WLZVMPUZ[P[\[PVUZJYLH[L[OLPYV^U¸J\S[\YL¹[OH[PZZL[[PUNZ^OLYLWLVWSLPU[LYHJ[
and where patterns emerge for communication, decision making, role relations, and conduct. As
Morris (1994, 109) observed:

Schools are organizations and they develop a culture, ethos or environment which might be
favorable or unfavorable to encouraging change and the implementation of innovations. A
school with a relatively open climate, where the teachers collaborate with each other and
where the principal and [senior teachers] are supportive of teachers, is more likely to try to
implement a change. In contrast, a school where the principle focuses on administrative mat-
ters, the teachers work in isolation or in narrow subject-based groups and where there is no
mechanism to discuss and try to solve problems is less likely to change.

;OLZL MHJ[VYZ JVU[YPI\[L [V [OL VYNHUPaH[PVUHS J\S[\YL VM H ZJOVVS HUK PUÅ\LUJL [OL [LHJOLY»Z
role, responsibilities, and levels of decision making. Basic to this organizational culture is an
institution’s management structure. Davidson and Tesh (1997, 177) point out that a school’s
organizational design “is built by managerial decisions that delineate the number and type of jobs
in the organization and the processes that subordinate, control, and link them, such as authority
YLSH[PVUZOPWZ JVTT\UPJH[PVU UL[^VYRZ HUK ZWLJPÄJ WSHUUPUN HUK VYNHUPaH[PVUHS [LJOUPX\LZ¹
They describe two types of organizational structure that are commonly found in schools and other
120 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

kinds of organizations, the mechanistic model and the organic model. The mechanistic model is
a bureaucratic approach to organizing collective activities that stresses “the need for authority,
hierarchies of control, and an explicit chain of command” (Davidson and Tesh 1997, 178). This
model is seen in many contexts such as within national or institutionally developed curriculum,
where processes are set in place to manage and control teaching and learning in order to achieve
targets set by standards and tests. Teachers are expected to teach to guidelines, course outlines,
and syllabuses developed by curriculum specialists. Administrative processes are in place to
THPU[HPU\UPMVYTP[`HJYVZZKPќLYLU[[LHJOPUNZP[LZHUK[VTVUP[VYHUKYL]PL^[LHJOLYWLYMVYTHUJL
[VLUZ\YL[OH[P[YLÅLJ[ZWYLZJYPILKTVKLSZ0UZVTLJV\U[YPLZ[OL¸WVSPJPUN¹VM[LHJOPUNPZJHYYPLK
V\[I`[OL¸PUZWLJ[VYH[L¹HUK[LHTZVM¸PUZWLJ[VYZ¹;OPZYLÅLJ[ZH[VWKV^UJOHPUVMJVTTHUK
with the teachers at the end of the chain.
This mechanistic model can be compared with an organic model of organizational design which,
according to Davidson and Tesh (1997, 179):

maximizes flexibility and adaptability, encourages complete confidence and trust between
superior and subordinates, and taps a wide range of human motivations to achieve organi-
zational goals. Communication flows in all directions, both vertically and laterally. Teamwork
is substantial, and decision-making and control functions are shared widely throughout the
organization.

;OL WYVJLZZ VY LJVSVNPJHS HWWYVHJO [V J\YYPJ\S\T YLMLYYLK [V PU *OHW[LY  YLÅLJ[Z [OPZ VYNHUPJ
model. Teachers are central to decision making and planning, and there is a culture of sharing
and collaboration within a community of practice. Davidson and Tesh suggest that most language
programs have features of both the organic and the mechanistic models, depending on the values
HUKJ\S[\YLVM[OLPUZ[P[\[PVU[OLZPaLVM[OLWYVNYHTHUK[OL[`WLVMZ[Hќ^VYRPUNPUP[>P[OHSHYNL
WYVNYHT Z[HќLK I` L_WLYPLUJLK HUK TH[\YL WYVMLZZPVUHSZ H TVYL VYNHUPJ HWWYVHJO PZ SPRLS` >P[O
ZTHSSLYWYVNYHTZVYWYVNYHTZKLWLUKLU[VUSLZZL_WLYPLUJLKZ[HќHTVYLTLJOHUPZ[PJHWWYVHJO
is typical.

What is the management structure like in your school? Does it facilitate change and innovation?

1PUHUK*VY[HaaPKLZJYPILHKPќLYLU[KPTLUZPVUVMHZJOVVS»ZVYNHUPaH[PVUHSJ\S[\YL^OPJO
they call the “culture of learning” in an institution, as we noted above. This refers to how teaching
YLÅLJ[Z[OLMLH[\YLZVM[OLSVJHSJVU[L_[ZVM\ZLPUJS\KPUNJSHZZZPaLJSHZZYVVTYLZV\YJLZSLHYULYZ»
WYVÄJPLUJ` SL]LS HNL IHJRNYV\UKZ ULLKZ SLHYUPUN Z[`SLZ NVHSZ HUK ZV VU 0U SLHYUPUN [V [LHJO
[OL[LHJOLY»ZYVSLPZ[VHSPNUOPZVYOLY[LHJOPUN[V[OLJSHZZYVVTHUKZJOVVSJVU[L_[1PUHUK*VY[HaaP
L_WSHPU[OPZPUYLSH[PVU[V[OLSLHYUPUNJ\S[\YLVY¸J\S[\YLVMSLHYUPUN¹VM*OPULZLJSHZZYVVTZ
;OL` KLZJYPIL [OPZ HZ YLÅLJ[PUN H JVTWSL_ ISLUK VM ]HS\LZ ILSPLMZ H[[P[\KLZ HZZ\TW[PVUZ HUK
expectations about the nature of teaching and learning and the respective roles of teachers and
SLHYULYZ PU [OL JSHZZYVVT 0[ PUÅ\LUJLZ H[[P[\KLZ [V [LHJOPUN HUK SLHYUPUN HUK OV^ P[ ZOV\SK IL
accomplished. Teachers are respected as authorities, as holders of knowledge, as models of learning,
as providers of care, guidance, and concern. The role of students is to work hard, to prepare for
exams, to complete homework assignments, to repeat, practice and memorize on the understanding
[OH[JVU[PU\V\ZLќVY[HUKUV[ZPTWS`[HSLU[^PSSSLHK[VYLZ\S[ZHUK[OH[WLYZPZ[LUJL^PSSL]LU[\HSS`
V]LYJVTLKPѝJ\S[PLZHUKOHYKZOPWZ
 5 Context and the curriculum • 121

0UHKKP[PVU[V[OLO\THUZPKLVM[OLPUZ[P[\[PVU[OLWO`ZPJHSHZWLJ[ZULLK[VILJVUZPKLYLKPUJS\KPUN
the kinds of resources and facilities available to teachers such as print and non-print materials,
technology, and internet access.
0UZ[P[\[PVUZ[OLYLMVYLVќLYKPќLYLU[HќVYKHUJLZHUKVWWVY[\UP[PLZMVYJ\YYPJ\S\TPUUV]H[PVUHUKJOHUNL¶
in some situations providing positive support and direction for change, but in others creating resistance
[V PUUV]H[PVU :\JJLZZM\S J\YYPJ\S\T PUUV]H[PVU OV^L]LY YLX\PYLZ H JOHUNL PU TPUKZL[ (Z -PZOLY
(2004, 17) comments: “Success in any grand project needs help from others, which means making
HSSPHUJLZTLHUZILULÄ[PUNMYVT[OLKPZ[YPI\[LKPU[LSSPNLUJLVMV[OLYZ¶KL]LSVWPUN[OLºPUMVZ[Y\J[\YL»¶
PU[LYJVUULJ[P]P[`[OYV\NOSLHYUPUNJVU]LYZH[PVUZ^P[OV[OLYZ¹;OLJVUZLX\LUJLVMSHJRVMJVTT\UPJH[PVU
IL[^LLUKPќLYLU[Z[HRLOVSKLYZPUH[LHJOPUNJVU[L_[PZPSS\Z[YH[LKPU[OLMVSSV^PUNL_HTWSL!

Example: A new director is appointed to a private language institute. The owners of the institute are
concerned at falling student enrollments and feel that the institute’s programs need to be reviewed
to make them more competitive and attractive to potential clients. The director prepares an excellent
rationale for revamping existing courses and for replacing the textbooks currently in use with more
up-to-date texts, and then develops a plan for marketing new courses. However, she meets a wall of
resistance from teachers who feel that they are undervalued and underpaid, and that the proposed
JOHUNLZ^PSSUV[IYPUNHU`ILULÄ[Z[V[OLT

Comment: 0U[OPZJHZLWLYOHWZ[OL[LHJOLYZJV\SKOH]LILLUPU]VS]LKPUYL[OPURPUN[OLPUZ[P[\[L»Z
programs from the start and ways found to build in some incentives for the teachers themselves. This
could have involved negotiating with the school’s owners for better service conditions for teachers as
WHY[VM[OLV]LYHSSJ\YYPJ\S\TYLUL^HSWSHU0UHKKP[PVUZVTLVM[OL[LHJOLYZJV\SKOH]LILLUYLWSHJLK
with teachers who were more open to the kinds of changes the director was proposing.

There are a number of ways in which educational institutions can discourage innovation and
creativity in teaching, such as when the curriculum, tests, and constant monitoring drive teaching,
and teachers cannot depart from established or approved practices because there is too much of
an emphasis on book learning, rote learning, and test scores; where teachers are not given time to
be creative and are not encouraged to innovate or to develop an individual and personal teaching
Z[`SL"^OLU[LHJOLYZHYLZ[\JR^P[OÄ_LKYV\[PULZHUKWYVJLK\YLZ>H[LYZHUK=PSJOLZHYN\L
that curriculum innovations in language teaching are often unsuccessful due to a lack of alignment
between educational policies and the realities of the local context, including teachers’ established
ILSPLMZHUKWYHJ[PJLZPUHKLX\H[L[LHJOLYWYLWHYH[PVUHUKWYVMLZZPVUHSZ\WWVY[HZ^LSSHZPUHKLX\H[L
teaching materials. This has been demonstrated many times. For example, Humphries and Burns
 KLZJYPIL [OL KPѝJ\S[PLZ 1HWHULZL [LHJOLYZ LUJV\U[LYLK ^OLU ZLLRPUN [V PTWSLTLU[
curriculum change in a college in Japan. The lack of success the teachers experienced in adopting
the communicative methodology embodied in a new set of textbooks was attributed to the lack of
relevant training and experience, lack of institutional support for change, and low motivation on the
WHY[VMZ[\KLU[Z¶MHJ[VYZ[OH[¸SLK[OLT[VYLZVY[[VYV\[PUL[LHJOLYJLU[YLKHWWYVHJOLZ^OLYL[OL`
THPU[HPULKWYHJ[PJLZ[OH[^LYLMHTPSPHYHUKJVTMVY[HISL¹W
(U\TILYVMPUZ[P[\[PVUHSMHJ[VYZJHU[O\ZPUÅ\LUJL[OLYLJLW[PVUVMHU`WSHUULKJ\YYPJ\S\TPUUV]H[PVU
HUKZOV\SKILPKLU[PÄLKHZWHY[VM[OLWYVJLZZVMJ\YYPJ\S\TKLZPNUHUKKL]LSVWTLU[;OLZLJHUIL
summarized as follows:
• Type of school or institution (e.g., state, private, secondary, tertiary).
• 6YNHUPaH[PVUHSZ[Y\J[\YLHUKJ\S[\YL
• Management style.
122 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

• Role and duties of teachers.

• ,_WLYPLUJLVMZ[Hќ
• Morale of teachers.
• *SHZZZPaLLN¶Z[\KLU[Z"¶"
• Assessment practices.
• Level of professionalism.
• 8\HSP[`MLH[\YLZ
• Resources and facilities.

5.5 Means of delivery

The nature of language teaching has changed substantially in recent years. Traditionally, the primary
resources involved were teachers and textbooks. The teacher stood at the front of the class, with the
students in rows of sometimes as many as 50 or more students as the teacher led them through exercises
HUKKYPSSZ0M[LJOUVSVN`^HZH]HPSHISLP[JVUZPZ[LKVMHUH\KPVYLJVYKLY[OH[[OL[LHJOLY\ZLK[VWYLZLU[
KPHSVNZ HUK KYPSSZ 0U ZVTL JVU[L_[Z H SHUN\HNL SHIVYH[VY` ^HZ H]HPSHISL MVY Z\WWSLTLU[HY` WYHJ[PJL
Doubtless the styles of teaching that occur around the world vary considerably; however, for many students
L]LU[VKH`[OLMVSSV^PUNHWWYVHJOVIZLY]LKPU,UNSPZOJSHZZLZPU0UKVULZPH^V\SKZ[PSSILMHTPSPHY!

My observation notes report teacher-dominated lessons based on a standard textbook with

a grammatico-lexical syllabus and offering a set of traditional activities, including teacher
explanations of language, reading-comprehension tasks, reading texts aloud, grammar and
vocabulary exercises, and feedback sessions involving pupils writing their answers up on the
blackboard. Oral work consisted mainly of teacher questions, plus some choral chanting.
(Lamb 2009, 240)

How typical is the lesson above of language lessons in your country?

0UHJVU[L_[Z\JOHZ[OPZHSHUN\HNLJV\YZLWYLKPJH[LKVU[OLHZZ\TW[PVU[OH[T\JOVMJSHZZ[PTL
will not be textbook-based and will consist of students working on activities in small groups would be
unlikely to succeed. Today, however, the ways in which language courses are delivered are likely to
KPќLYZPNUPÄJHU[S`MYVT[OLHJJV\U[KLZJYPILKHIV]L-VYL_HTWSLJVUZPKLY[OLZLJVTTLU[ZMYVTH
teacher in a Japanese university who describes his approach to teaching his English classes:

I don’t do any “teaching” per se. I assign students to do things using their laptops, tablets or mobile
phones. For example, for today’s speaking lesson, students were asked to choose a Ted Talk to watch at
home and to prepare 3 power point slides summarizing the talk. In class they first had to present their
slides in pairs. Later they recorded their summaries using an app that corrected their pronunciation.
(Hiroyuki, Japanese teacher, in conversation with author)

The mode of instruction provided for a course therefore plays a crucial role in course design, as do
[OLSLHYUPUNZP[LZ^OLYL[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUN^PSSVJJ\YHUK[OLYLZV\YJLZ\ZLK*V\YZLZKPќLYPU[OL
extent to which they make use of teacher-directed as compared to learner-managed or autonomous
learning and, similarly, in the extent to which they make use of technology. Some curricula are
heavily teacher-dependent, while others depend much more on self-managed learning on the part of
SLHYULYZ0UZVTLJVU[L_[Z[OLJSHZZYVVTPZ[OLWYPTHY`SLHYUPUNZP[LPUV[OLYZSLHYUPUNPZ¸ÅPWWLK¹
 5 Context and the curriculum • 123

and out-of-class learning is primary, with the classroom serving as a preparation or for the review of
V\[VMJSHZZSLHYUPUN+PќLYLUJLZVM[OPZRPUKHYLZLLUPU;HISL

Table 5.1 Modes and contexts for learning in language teaching

Modes of instruction Teacher directed: whole-class activities, small-group activities: indi-
vidual activities (e.g., lectures, tutorials, workshops, project-based,
task-based, problem-based)

Learner directed: internet-based, movies, television, technology (e.g.,

chat rooms, blogs, apps, video games)
Learning sites classroom, media lab, library, campus, home

Learning resources books, worksheets, mobile devices, computer, dvds, whiteboards,

internet, television, movies

What would a typical mode of delivery look like for courses in your institution?

0UTHU`PUZ[P[\[PVUZ[LHJOPUNPZKLSP]LYLK[OYV\NOISLUKLKSLHYUPUN¶HTP_VMMHJL[VMHJLJSHZZYVVT
based teaching and technology-mediated learning that may take place at school but increasingly
VJJ\YZ LSZL^OLYL 0UKLLK ^VYSK^PKL ISLUKLK SLHYUPUN OHZ ILJVTL [OL KLMH\S[ HWWYVHJO [V [OL
[LHJOPUNVMTVZ[Z\IQLJ[ZPUJS\KPUNSHUN\HNLZHZOLYHSKLKI`9VZZHUK.HNL!

In the long run, almost all courses offered in higher education will be blended ... It is almost
certain that blended learning will become the new traditional model of course delivery in ten
years ... What will differentiate institutions from one another will not be whether they have
blended learning but rather how they do the blending and where they fall on the blended
learning spectrum.

An example of how technology is replacing traditional modes of teaching is provided by Japanese

[LHJOLYYLZLHYJOLY/PYV`\RP6IHYP/LOHZJHYYPLKV\[L_[LUZP]LYLZLHYJO[V[Y`[VKL[LYTPUL
^OL[OLY H ISLUKLKSLHYUPUN LU]PYVUTLU[ JHU PTWYV]L [OL ;6,0* ;LZ[ VM ,UNSPZO MVY 0U[LYUH[PVUHS
*VTT\UPJH[PVUHUKWYLZLU[H[PVUZRPSSZVM1HWHULZL\UKLYNYHK\H[LZ[\KLU[Z;OLNVHSVMVULZ[\K`
^HZ[VL_HTPUL[OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVMISLUKLKHUKTVIPSLSLHYUPUNHJ[P]P[PLZVU[OLZ[\KLU[Z»,UNSPZO
SHUN\HNL WYVÄJPLUJ` HUK VYHS JVTT\UPJH[PVU ZRPSSZ ;OL ISLUKLKSLHYUPUN HJ[P]P[PLZ PUJS\KLK! 
Z[\KLU[Z ^H[JOPUN VUSPUL *V\YZLYH SLJ[\YLZ ^P[O [OL \ZL VM 7* HUK TVIPSL KL]PJLZ"  Z[\KLU[Z
presenting oral summaries of the lectures to their classmates both face to face and in front of the
class; and (3) students spending extensive periods of time watching several online lectures during
their commuting hours and writing a 400-word summary of each lecture each week. An assessment
VM WYL HUK WVZ[[YHPUPUN ;6,0* ZJVYLZ YL]LHSLK [OH[ [OL *V\YZLYH SLJ[\YL HJ[P]P[PLZ OHK H WVZP[P]L
LќLJ[ VU [OL Z[\KLU[Z» V]LYHSS ,UNSPZO ZRPSSZ ;OL ;6,0* YLZ\S[Z YL]LHSLK [OH[ [OL TLHU ZJVYL
ZPNUPÄJHU[S`PUJYLHZLKMYVTZ[HUKHYKKL]PH[PVUB:+D$PU[OLWYL[LZ[Z[V:+$PU
[OLWVZ[[LZ[Z0UHKKP[PVU[OLZ[\KLU[Z»SPZ[LUPUNHUKVYHSJVTT\UPJH[PVUZRPSSZPTWYV]LKHZHYLZ\S[
of the online English lecture activities with English subtitles.
(UV[OLY Z[\K` MVJ\ZLK VU [OL \ZL VM HU VUSPUL ;6,0* [YHPUPUN RP[ PU VYKLY [V OLSW KL[LYTPUL [OL
LќLJ[P]LULZZ VM [OL LSLHYUPUN HUK TSLHYUPUN HJ[P]P[PLZ :[\KLU[Z ^LYL YLX\PYLK [V ZWLUK YV\NOS`
OV\YZJVTWSL[PUN[OLVUSPUL;6,0*JV\YZL^P[O7*ZHUKTVIPSLWOVULZ;OL`JVTWSL[LKULHYS`
80% of the online course content to improve their reading and listening comprehension skills. The
124 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

Z[\KLU[Z^LYLHKTPUPZ[LYLK[OL;6,0*[LZ[HZHWYL[LZ[HUKHNHPUHZHWVZ[[LZ[0U[OLJHZLVM[OL
ZLJVUKZ[\K`[OL;6,0*YLZ\S[ZPUKPJH[LK[OH[Z[\KLU[Z»TLHUZJVYLZZPNUPÄJHU[S`PTWYV]LKMYVT
:+$[V:+$V]LY[OL[OYLLTVU[OWLYPVK
0U IV[O Z[\KPLZ [OL PTWYV]LTLU[ PU ZJVYLZ ^V\SK ZLLT [V PUKPJH[L [OH[ [OL \[PSPaH[PVU VM H SLHYUPUN
environment integrating m-learning and e-learning helped the students to improve their overall
,UNSPZOWYVÄJPLUJ`;HRLUHZH^OVSL[OLZLYLZ\S[ZZ\NNLZ[[OLU[OH[ISLUKLKSLHYUPUN\ZPUNTVIPSL
[LJOUVSVNPLZ JHU IL LќLJ[P]LS` PU[LNYH[LK PU[V [OL SHUN\HNL SLHYUPUN J\YYPJ\S\T HUK JHU WSH` H
WVZP[P]LYVSLPUPTWYV]PUNZ[\KLU[Z»SHUN\HNLWYVÄJPLUJ`:LL6IHYP
As we have seen above, a variety of modes and means are involved in the delivery or implementation
of a language course, and the resources available to support learning in one context may be very
KPќLYLU[MYVT[OVZLH]HPSHISLPUHKPќLYLU[JVU[L_[(JV\YZLKLZPNULKMVYSLHYULYZ^OVHYLHZZ\TLK
[VOH]LHJJLZZ[V[L_[IVVRZ[LJOUVSVN`HUK[OL0U[LYUL[^PSSOH]LSP[[SLZ\JJLZZPUZP[\H[PVUZ^OLYL
[OLYLPZYLZ[YPJ[LKHJJLZZ[VZ\JOYLZV\YJLZ;OLMVSSV^PUNHYLMLH[\YLZ[OH[HќLJ[[OLKLSP]LY`VMH
language course:
• Availability of textbooks.
• Availability of technology.
• *SHZZYVVTYLZV\YJLZ
• School resources such as access to graded readers, DVDs, whiteboards, photocopy machines,
realia, and a library or self-access center.
• (JJLZZ[VHUK\ZLVM[OL0U[LYUL[
• Modes of teaching and learning.

5.6 Adoption factors

Any attempt to introduce a new curriculum, syllabus, or set of materials must take into account
[OL YLSH[P]L LHZL VY KPѝJ\S[` VM PU[YVK\JPUN JOHUNL PU[V [OL Z`Z[LT *\YYPJ\S\T JOHUNLZ HYL VM
THU` KPќLYLU[ RPUKZ ;OL` TH` HќLJ[ [LHJOLYZ» HUK SLHYULYZ» WLKHNVNPJHS ]HS\LZ HUK ILSPLMZ [OLPY
understanding of the nature of language or second language learning, or their classroom practices
and use of teaching materials. Some changes may be readily accepted, while others may be resisted.
With any proposed curriculum innovation, however, the following issues need to be considered
(Morris 1994):
• 0[ZWLYJLP]LKHK]HU[HNLZ
• 0[ZHSPNUTLU[^P[OJ\YYLU[WYHJ[PJLZ
• 0[ZSPURZ[VL_PZ[PUNILSPLMZH[[P[\KLZVYNHUPaH[PVUHUKWYHJ[PJLZ^P[OPUHJSHZZYVVTVYZJOVVS
• 0[ZSL]LSVMJVTWSL_P[`
• 0[Z[YHJRYLJVYKPUV[OLYJVU[L_[Z
• The level of interest it attracts from teachers and learners.
• 0[ZJOHTWPVUZHUKHK]VJH[LZ
• The levels of teacher support accompanying it.

The kinds of factors noted above emphasize the importance of pilot-testing or small-scale
PTWSLTLU[H[PVUVMHWSHUULKJOHUNLILMVYLHKVW[PUNP[VUH^PKLYZJHSL0U[OPZ^H`P[PZWVZZPISL
to assess teachers’ and learners’ reactions and to identify possible problems and solutions. For
example, although curriculum planners might provide many compelling reasons for adopting a
 5 Context and the curriculum • 125

task-based or content-based curriculum, teachers might feel that it makes testing more difficult
compared with a more traditional grammar-based approach. Hence, it is perceived as offering
ML^ YLSH[P]L HK]HU[HNLZ MVY [LHJOLYZ -\Y[OLYTVYL H SHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN HWWYVHJO [OH[ YLX\PYLZ
teachers to adopt new roles in the classroom, such as needs analyst, resource person, materials
developer, and language tutor, might not be compatible with learners’ expectations of the role
of teachers.
The complexity and clarity of a curriculum change might also be crucial in respect of its successful
HKVW[PVU*VTWHYL[OLMVSSV^PUNWHPYZVMP[LTZMVYL_HTWSLHUKJVUZPKLY^OPJO^V\SKILLHZPLY[V
explain to a group of teachers:
• *VTW\[LYIHZLKSLHYUPUN]LYZ\ZJVVWLYH[P]LSLHYUPUN
• *VTT\UPJH[P]LWHPY^VYR]LYZ\ZJVUZJPV\ZULZZYHPZPUNHJ[P]P[PLZ
• A functional syllabus versus a task-based syllabus.
• A product syllabus versus a process syllabus.

7YHJ[PJHSP[`PZHSZVHZPNUPÄJHU[PZZ\L(TL[OVKVSVN`[OH[JHUYLHKPS`IL[\YULKPU[V[LHJOPUNTH[LYPHSZ
and textbooks will generally be easier to adopt than one that exists only as a set of guidelines. For
this reason content-based teaching is much more widely adopted as a teaching approach than
[HZRIHZLK[LHJOPUNZPUJL[OLSH[[LYYLX\PYLZOLH]`[LHJOLYPU]VS]LTLU[PUTH[LYPHSZ»KL]LSVWTLU[
The support networks available in promoting or explaining an innovation may also be crucial. Are the
ministry of education, key educational administrators, professional bodies, and recognized educational
authorities committed to the project, and what level of support will they provide? Rodgers (1984, 41),
discussing implementation of a communicative syllabus in Malaysia in the 1980s, describes some of
the societal agencies that were involved:

Implementation of a new syllabus needs to involve the cooperation of many agencies. In

Malaysia these include the Ministry of Education Directorship, the Curriculum Development
Center, the Inspectorate, the Examinations Syndicate, Teacher Training Centres, The Textbook
Bureau, textbook publishers, State Education officers, School Headmasters, the National Union
of Teachers, and the formal and informal groups of teachers, themselves. As well, external
agencies need to be informed about and, perhaps, directly involved in discussion of syllabus
changes. These include the National Parliament, the press, the universities and language
advisory agencies (e.g. the British Council). Feelings of being left out or uninformed create the
adversary stance that representatives of such agencies often take with regard to new programs.

The following examples illustrate some of the issues that can arise in the implementation of a
curriculum innovation, and possible responses.

Example: A new state textbook series is prepared by the ministry of education in an EFL country. The
ZLYPLZHZZ\TLZH]LY`KPќLYLU[[`WLVMTL[OVKVSVN`MYVT[OH[J\YYLU[S`\ZLKPUZJOVVSZILJH\ZLP[PZ
less transmission-oriented and more experientially based. When the program is introduced, however, a
U\TILYVMWYVISLTZX\PJRS`LTLYNL![LHJOLYZÄUK[OLTH[LYPHSZKPѝJ\S[[V\ZLHUK\UZ\P[HISLMVYSHYNL
classes; some of the content in the materials is thought to be unsuitable for the target population.

Comment: 0U[OPZZP[\H[PVU[OLTH[LYPHSZJV\SKOH]LILLUPU[YVK\JLKPUZLSLJ[LKZJOVVSZÄYZ[WLYOHWZ
in a pilot version) in order to identify what problems teachers encountered using the materials. These
problems could then have been addressed before full-scale implementation was carried out.
 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

Example: ,UNSPZOPZILPUNPU[YVK\JLKH[[OLLSLTLU[HY`SL]LSMVY[OLÄYZ[[PTLPUHU,-3JV\U[Y`
A teacher-training program is set in place to prepare teachers for teaching at this level. To provide
the training, local teacher trainers are hired and given a “training-of-trainers course” by a foreign
expert. However, a number of the local trainers are found to have very traditional views about teacher
LK\JH[PVUHUKHYLVWWVZLK[V[OL[YHPUPUNTVKLSILPUN\ZLKPU[OL[YHPUPUNJV\YZL6UJL[OL`YL[\YU
to their own training centers, they try to use their own training principles that are not consistent with
the philosophy of the new course.

Comment: This problem could have been avoided if more time had been spent on selecting trainers to
[HRLWHY[PU[OL[YHPUPUNVM[YHPULYZWYVNYHT0U[OLWYVJLZZ[OVZL^OVKPKUV[Z\WWVY[[OLWOPSVZVWO`
VM[OL[YHPUPUNWYVNYHTJV\SKOH]LILLUYLQLJ[LK6UNVPUNMLLKIHJRVU[OL[YHPULYZ»WLYMVYTHUJL
through workshops and visits might also have helped to make sure the trainers were using an
appropriate training model.

5.7 Profiling the factors identified in the situation analysis

>L OH]L PKLU[PÄLK H U\TILY VM ^H`Z PU ^OPJO [OL JVU[L_[ VM H J\YYPJ\SHY PUUV]H[PVU PZ JY\JPHS PU
LќLJ[PUN P[Z V\[JVTL ;LHJOPUN JVU[L_[Z JHU IL KLZJYPILK PU [LYTZ VM [OLPY MH]VYPUN VY KPZMH]VYPUN
JVUKP[PVUZ7LUUPUN[VUHUK9PJOHYKZ!
• Favoring conditions:;OLZLJVUZ[P[\[L[OLWVZP[P]LWV[LU[PHSZVYHќVYKHUJLZ[OH[Z\WWVY[[LHJOPUN
HUKSLHYUPUNLNZTHSSJSHZZZPaL"L_JLSSLU[MHJPSP[PLZYLZV\YJLZHUKLX\PWTLU["ZRPSSLKHUK
Z\WWVY[P]LHKTPUPZ[YH[VYZ"NVVKJVTWLUZH[PVUILULÄ[ZHUKYL^HYKZ`Z[LTMVY[LHJOPUN
• Disfavoring conditions!;OLZLJVUZ[P[\[L[OLULNH[P]LPUÅ\LUJLZVYPUOPIP[PUNMHJ[VYZ[OH[
constrain teaching and learning (e.g., large class size; substandard and/or limited facilities,
YLZV\YJLZHUKLX\PWTLU["\UZRPSSLKHUK\UZ\WWVY[P]LHKTPUPZ[YH[VYZ"WVVYJVTWLUZH[PVU
ILULÄ[ZHUKYL^HYKZ`Z[LTMVY[LHJOPUN

0UJ\YYPJ\S\TKL]LSVWTLU[[OLWYVJLZZVM situation analysis seeks to identify key favoring or disfavoring

MHJ[VYZ [OH[ TPNO[ WVZP[P]LS` VY ULNH[P]LS` HќLJ[ PTWSLTLU[H[PVU VM J\YYPJ\S\T JOHUNL I` WV[LU[PHS
HKVW[LYZ ¶ PU [OPZ JHZL [LHJOLYZ HUK SLHYULYZ ;OPZ PZ HSZV RUV^U HZ H :>6; HUHS`ZPZ ILJH\ZL P[
involves an examination of “a language program’s internal strengths and weaknesses in addition to
external opportunities and threats to the existence or successful operation of the language program”
2SPUNOHTTLY 9VNLYZHYN\LK[OH[Ä]LH[[YPI\[LZVMHUPUUV]H[PVUJHUOLSWVYOPUKLY
P[ZKPќ\ZPVU!YLSH[P]LHK]HU[HNL^OL[OLY\ZLYZZLL[OLJOHUNLHZHK]HU[HNLV\ZJVTWH[PIPSP[`
OV^ JVTWH[PISL P[ PZ ^P[O \ZLYZ» ]HS\LZ HUK L_WLYPLUJL  JVTWSL_P[` OV^ KPѝJ\S[ P[ PZ [V
implement), (4) trialability (the extent to which users can try it out), and (5) observability (the extent to
which the innovation can be observed before it is tried out).

0U [OL JHZL VM H SHYNLZJHSL SHUN\HNL J\YYPJ\S\T PUUV]H[PVU PU (\Z[YHSPH )YPUKSL`   P[ ^HZ
concluded that a number of principles needed to be considered in planning curriculum innovation:

1. For a change to get under way there has to be an educational need and a political agenda.

2. Rational argument alone will not bring about change.

3. Individuals need to experience change personally.

4. The intentions of curriculum change will frequently be misunderstood.

5. Innovations need local advocates.

 5 Context and the curriculum • 127

(UV[OLY PUÅ\LU[PHS TVKLS VM J\YYPJ\S\T PUUV]H[PVU ^HZ 2LUULK`»Z   TVKLS V\[SPULK OLYL I`
Markee (2013, 28):

Within the innovation literature in TESOL, the idea that context is a multi-layered phenomenon
is particularly widespread. For example Kennedy (1988) has proposed a model of context in
which he asserts that (in descending order of importance) cultural, political, administrative,
educational and institutional factors all affect the possibility of classroom innovation. More
specifically, Kennedy argues that cultural factors are the most important drivers of change,
and thus strongly influence the hierarchically lower levels of political and administrative fac-
tors. In turn, these shape educational and institutional factors, which finally determine what
may or may not happen in individual classrooms.

-HJ[VYZ [OH[ TH` PUÅ\LUJL [OL YLJLW[PVU HUK PTWHJ[ VM H J\YYPJ\S\T PUUV]H[PVU JHU VM[LU IL
Z\TTHYPaLKPU[OLMVYTVMHSPZ[HUK[OLWYVÄSL[OLUKL]LSVWLKMVYKPZJ\ZZPVU^P[OPU[OLWYVQLJ[[LHT
ministry, funding body, or institute (see Appendix 1). Rodgers (1984) describes a more elaborate
TH[YP_[OH[JHUHSZVIL\ZLKMVYLZ[PTH[PUN[OLKPѝJ\S[`VMPTWSLTLU[PUNUL^WYVNYHTZZLL(WWLUKP_
>H`ZVMHKKYLZZPUN[OLULNH[P]LMHJ[VYZ[OH[^LYLPKLU[PÄLKJHU[OLUILJVUZPKLYLK(S[LYUH[P]LS`
[OLNVHSZVMHWYVQLJ[TPNO[ULLK[VILTVKPÄLK[VYLÅLJ[[OLYLHSP[PLZVM[OLZP[\H[PVUPU^OPJO[OL
curriculum will be implemented.

Conclusions
3HUN\HNLJV\YZLZHYLKLZPNULK[VIL\ZLKPUTHU`KPќLYLU[RPUKZVMJVU[L_[Z.SVIHS[L_[IVVRZ
that provide the basis for many language courses worldwide are generally developed with reference
[V HU PKLHSPaLK JVU[L_[ [OH[ PZ VM[LU KPќLYLU[ MYVT [OL YLHSP[` [OH[ [LHJOLYZ MHJL /LUJL NSVIHS
courses assume well-trained and highly motivated teachers, students who will respond positively
to the course’s methodology, and schools where classroom resources and learning facilities provide
VW[PT\T Z\WWVY[ ;OL YLHSP[` VM SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN PZ VM[LU ]LY` KPќLYLU[ ;LHJOPUN PZ H ZP[\H[LK
HJ[P]P[`[OH[PZZOHWLKI`MHJ[VYZZWLJPÄJ[V[OH[JVU[L_[HUK[OLZLV]LYSHWWPUNHUKPU[LYKLWLUKLU[
factors can be seen to link the society, the community, the school, the classroom, the teachers,
HUK[OLSLHYULYZ;OLZLPUÅ\LUJL[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUNPUKPќLYLU[^H`ZKLWLUKPUNVU[OLSVJH[PVU
and the participants involved and the events and processes that unfold in each context. Situation
analysis thus serves to help identify potential obstacles to implementing a curriculum project and
factors that need to be considered when planning the parameters of a project. Together with needs
HUHS`ZPZ*OHW[LYZP[\H[PVUHUHS`ZPZJHUIL\ZLKHZHYLZV\YJLMVYIV[OJ\YYPJ\S\TWSHUUPUNHUK
curriculum evaluation.
These processes are not ends in themselves but means to an end. They provide information that is a
reference point in planning the goals and learning outcomes for a language course. These stages in
the process of curriculum development and course design are the focus of the next chapter.

Discussion questions
1. 0M HU V]LYZLHZ [LHJOLY ^OV OHK UL]LYILLU[V`V\YJV\U[Y`ILMVYL^HZOPYLK[V[LHJOPU`V\Y
school, what are some of the things he or she should know about schools and learners of English
in your country?
2. How are decisions related to English teaching policies and practices arrived at in your school?
3. Do local teachers’ organizations have an impact on approaches to teaching? What is their role
HUKPUÅ\LUJL&
128 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

4. What support for the learning of English in your country is provided by media such as
newspapers, radio, and television?
5. Do you think watching TV and movies in English plays a role in the development of your learners’
English language skills?
 How do you think teachers see their principal role in the classroom in your country?
7. >OH[X\HSPÄJH[PVUZKV,UNSPZO[LHJOLYZUVYTHSS`OH]LPU`V\YJV\U[Y`&0Z[OLYLT\JOWYV]PZPVU
for ongoing professional development?
8. How would you characterize the typical “culture of learning” in schools in your country?
9. 0ZISLUKLKSLHYUPUNNYV^PUNPU`V\YJV\U[Y`&>OH[PZ`V\YVWPUPVUVMP[Z]HS\L&
10. Have you ever seen a new curriculum innovation (e.g., a new textbook, course, or teacher-
training initiative) meet with resistance from teachers? What prompted the resistance?
11. 9LHK[OLJHZLZ[\KPLZI`/\ZHP*OPUNHUK1VZt3LTHH[[OLLUKVM[OPZJOHW[LY>OH[HZWLJ[Z
of the context had the greatest impact on the design and delivery of these two courses?

APPENDIX 1:P[\H[PVUHUHS`ZPZWYVÄSL

Societal factors: Positives:

5LNH[P]LZ!

Learner factors: Positives:

5LNH[P]LZ!

Teacher factors: Positives:

5LNH[P]LZ!

0UZ[P[\[PVUMHJ[VYZ! Positives:

5LNH[P]LZ!
 5 Context and the curriculum • 129

Delivery factors: Positives:

5LNH[P]LZ!

Adoption factors: Positives:

5LNH[P]LZ!

APPENDIX 24H[YP_MVYPKLU[PM`PUNMHJ[VYZPUJ\YYPJ\S\TYLUL^HSWYVJLZZMYVT
9VKNLYZ 
;OPZTH[YP_PUJS\KLZHULZ[PTH[LVM[OLKPѝJ\S[`PUM\SÄSSPUN[OLYLX\PYLTLU[ZVM[OLMHJ[VY

Low High
KPѝJ\S[` KPѝJ\S[`
A. The educational requirement sought:
1. The subject matter is familiar or unfamiliar.
2. The knowledge domain (skill, or other) is
simple or complex.
3. The learning group is relatively easy to
[LHJOVYKPѝJ\S[[V[LHJO
4. The instructional design is simple or
complex.
5. The instructional design is familiar or
unfamiliar.
 ;OLJ\YYPJ\SHYHUKPUZ[Y\J[PVUHSKLZPNUZ
HYL^LSSVYPUHKLX\H[LS`YLZLHYJOLK
 0UZ[Y\J[PVUHSTH[LYPHSZHYL¸Vќ[OLZOLSM¹
or nonexistent.
8. The instructional materials are to be
technically simple or sophisticated.
9. The renewal is to be made in an
individual or local arena or in a nationwide
(worldwide?) arena.
130 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

Low High
KPѝJ\S[` KPѝJ\S[`
10. The proportion of concern with the “full
renewal process” (from theory, through
design and development, publications,
training, and support) is partial or
complete.

Low High
KPѝJ\S[` KPѝJ\S[`
B. Renewal activities and resources required:
1. Time available is extensive or limited.
2. Funds available are extensive or limited.
3. Professional resources are extensive or
limited.
4. Professional resources are experienced
and accomplished or inexperienced.
5. The “standing” of the renewal agency/
persons (status, reputation, track record)
is excellent or poor.
 ;OLYVSLVYWVZP[PVUPU[OL¸Z`Z[LT¹VM[OL
YLUL^HSHNLUJ`PLZ¶PUKP]PK\HSZJOVVS
system, university, publisher, etc.).
7. The theory and practice of curriculum
YLUL^HSPZHKLX\H[L[VUVUL_PZ[LU[

Low High
KPѝJ\S[` KPѝJ\S[`
C. The content of the renewal program:
1. The target school system(s) is (are) well
organized or unorganized.
2. The competing renewal programs are few
or many.
3. The target school system(s) has (have)
simple or profound educational problems.
4. The idea of curriculum renewal is well or
poorly accepted.
 ;OLPKLHVM[OLYLUL^HSLќVY[PZ
consistent with or inconsistent with the
current view.
 5 Context and the curriculum • 131

CASE STUDY 8,ɈLJ[P]L*SHZZYVVT4HUHNLTLU[MVY0UZLY]PJL;LHJOLYZ

/\ZHP*OPUN
What is the context of the course?
,ќLJ[P]L*SHZZYVVT4HUHNLTLU[MVY0UZLY]PJL;LHJOLYZPZHJV\YZL0VќLYHZHMYLLSHUJLJVUZ\S[HU[PU
Mexico. What usually happens is that school owners, academic coordinators, or school administrators
YLX\LZ[T`ZLY]PJLZ[VOLSW[OL[LHJOPUNZ[HќPTWYV]L[OLPYJSHZZYVVTTHUHNLTLU[ZRPSSZ
0KP]PKL[OLWYVJLZZPU[V[OYLL\ULX\HSWOHZLZ!0Z[HY[I`^VYRPUN^P[O[OLV^ULYZHUK[OLWYPUJPWHSVM
[OLZJOVVS"[OLU0^VYR^P[O[OLHJHKLTPJJVVYKPUH[VYVYOLHKVM[OL,UNSPZOKLWHY[TLU["HUKÄUHSS`
0^VYR^P[O[OL[LHJOPUNZ[HќHUK^YHWP[\W^P[O[OLHKTPUPZ[YH[P]LZ[Hќ
)LJH\ZL0^VYRHZHJVUZ\S[HU[T`JVU[L_[MVYKLZPNUPUNHUKKLSP]LYPUNHJV\YZLPZX\P[LKPќLYLU[
from that of an in-house academic coordinator or head of the English department. The sessions of the
WYVJLZZ[OH[HYLMVY[OLV^ULYZWYPUJPWHSZHUKHKTPUPZ[YH[P]LZ[HќHYL\Z\HSS`OLSKPU:WHUPZO;OL
HJ[\HSPUZ[Y\J[PVUPU]VS]PUN[OL[LHJOPUNZ[HќPZOLSKPU,UNSPZO\UKLYHZ[YPJ[no Spanish in class policy.

What are the goals of the course?

The general goal is, of course, to improve classroom management; however, the actual outcomes are
HS^H`ZKPќLYLU[ILJH\ZL0VќLY[HPSVYTHKLJV\YZLZ(ZHJVUZ\S[HU[0[Y`[VNL[L]LY`VULPU]VS]LK
L]LUPMH[ÄYZ[NSHUJLHJV\YZLVUJSHZZYVVTTHUHNLTLU[HWWLHYZ[VILYLSL]HU[[V[LHJOLYZVUS`
and, given that the actual instruction for teachers is carried out in English, it doesn’t usually make any
ZLUZL[VZJOVVSV^ULYZHUKHKTPUPZ[YH[P]LZ[Hќ[V[HRLWHY[PUP[5L]LY[OLSLZZHM[LYZL]LYHS`LHYZ
VM L_WLYPLUJL 0 OH]L JVTL [V \UKLYZ[HUK [OH[ \USLZZ [OL V^ULYZ HUK HKTPUPZ[YH[VYZ HYL HJ[P]LS`
involved in the process of setting and understanding the goals, my course is likely to fall below my
client’s (unexpressed) expectations.
The usual goals for this course include but are not limited to understanding and using the following:
• 3LZZVUWSHUUPUNHZH[VVSMVYLќLJ[P]LJSHZZYVVTTHUHNLTLU[
• =VPJLPUÅLJ[PVUZHUKIVK`SHUN\HNLHZ[VVSZMVYLќLJ[P]LHUKHќLJ[P]LJVTT\UPJH[PVU
• Self, peer, and academic coordinator monitoring of teachers’ command of the language as a
means to avoid distraction and disruptive behaviour from students.
• *SHZZYVVTY\SLZHUKZJOVVSY\SLZHZH^H`[VWYL]LU[\U^HU[LKILOH]PV\Y
• ([[LU[P]LSPZ[LUPUNHZHNH[L^H`[VLќLJ[P]LJSHZZYVVTTHUHNLTLU[
• ;OLZJOVVS»ZJHSLUKHYHUKHNLUKHHZHZ[HY[PUNWVPU[MVYNLULYHSPaLKLќLJ[P]LJSHZZYVVT
management.

What planning was involved in developing the course?

This course was originally designed as a one-time, on demand job; however, after several invitations to
KLSP]LY¸[OLZHTL¹JV\YZLH[V[OLYZJOVVSZ0KLJPKLK[VH[[LTW[HÄ_LK]LYZPVUVMP[5LLKSLZZ[VZH`PU
my capacity as a freelance consultant it didn’t work to step in and try to succeed with something that
OHKUV[ILLUHKHW[LKVUHJHZLI`JHZLIHZPZ0J\YYLU[S`^VYR^P[OHNLULYHSV\[SPULVM[OLJV\YZL
and an ever-growing bank of resources to tackle almost any particular goal that might spring from the
initial generic and vague goal of improving teachers’ classroom management.
0Z[HY[I`^VYRPUNHSVUNZPKL[OLV^ULYZVM[OLZJOVVS^OLUL]LYWVZZPISLVY[OLZJOVVS»ZWYPUJPWHS
>L \Z\HSS` [HRL [^V ^LLRZ [V YLHJO H JSLHY JVUJYL[L HUK Ä_LK ZL[ VM VIQLJ[P]LZ HSVUN ^P[O [OL
HZZLZZTLU[ [VVSZ T` JSPLU[ ^PSS \ZL [V TLHZ\YL V\Y Z\JJLZZ ;OPZ PZ \Z\HSS` [OL TVZ[ KPѝJ\S[ WHY[
of the process, not only because school owners and school administrators in Mexico seldom speak
132 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

,UNSPZO I\[ HSZV ILJH\ZL [OLPY WYPVYP[PLZ HYL SHYNLS` ÄUHUJPHS 6UJL ^L»]L YLHJOLK HNYLLTLU[ VU
the expected academic outcome and the assessment tools, we move forward to establishing what
would be deemed acceptable evidence of success; this is the time for the academic coordinator(s)
to step in.
0\Z\HSS`[HRLHUV[OLY^LLRVY[^VKLWLUKPUNVU[OLZPaLVM[OLZJOVVS[VNL[HZT\JOPUMVYTH[PVU
as possible from the academic coordinator. We work together towards reaching a satisfactory
HJHKLTPJ¸[YHUZSH[PVU¹MVY[OLNVHSZZL[I`[OLZJOVVSV^ULYZ>LZL[ZWLJPÄJNVHSZKL[LYTPUL^OH[
will be regarded as acceptable evidence of success, and agree on the rubrics that will be used for
HZZLZZTLU[+\YPUN[OPZ[PTL0JVUK\J[HZLYPLZVMJSHZZVIZLY]H[PVUZHUK[LHJOLYZPU[LY]PL^Z"HM[LY
[OH[ 0 [HRL ZVTL [PTL [V HUHS`ZL [OL PUMVYTH[PVU [OVYV\NOS` ([ [OPZ WVPU[ 0 ^HU[ [V THRL Z\YL [OH[
everyone involved so far is “on the same page”; should there be any discrepancy and/or situations
[OH[^LYLUV[TLU[PVULKILMVYLVY[OH[^LYLTLU[PVULKI\[VUS`I`VULKLWHY[TLU[0NVIHJRHUK
JSHYPM` [OL PZZ\L 0M L]LY`[OPUN PZ ^VYRPUN V\[ ZTVV[OS` 0 KL]LSVW [OL NLULYHS V\[SPUL VM [OL JV\YZL
0[OLUKLJPKL^OPJOTVK\SLZHYL[VILPUJS\KLK^OH[[OLNLULYHSTL[OVKVSVN`^PSSILHUK^OPJO
ZWLJPÄJ[LJOUPX\LZ0^PSSULLK[VHWWS`
5V^P[»Z[OL[LHJOLYZ»[\YU>LZWLUK[OLMVSSV^PUN^LLRZ^VYRPUN[VNL[OLY\U[PSLHJOVULVM[OLT
achieves the learning outcomes.
-PUHSS` 0 ^YHW [OL JV\YZL \W I` SLHKPUN H ZLZZPVU ^OLYL [OL V^ULYZ [OL WYPUJPWHS [OL HJHKLTPJ
JVVYKPUH[VY [OL [LHJOPUN Z[Hќ HUK [OL HKTPUPZ[YH[P]L Z[Hќ HYL WYLZLU[ ;OPZ ZLZZPVU PZ OLSK PU
:WHUPZO HUK [OL NVHS PZ [V JYLH[L WYVWLY JOHUULSZ VM JVTT\UPJH[PVU PU VYKLY [V Z\WWVY[ LќLJ[P]L
classroom management.
As a result of these processes, every member of the team gains understanding about how every
administrative decision, if not handled properly, carries the potential for a negative impact on our
classroom management. At the top of the list of teacher complaints about school practices that
commonly promote unwanted behaviour from students are the following: sudden changes to school
ZJOLK\SLZ" [VV THU` L_[YHJ\YYPJ\SHY HJ[P]P[PLZ" ÄLSK [YPWZ H[ ZOVY[ UV[PJL" JLSLIYH[PVUZ PU]VS]PUN
PUZJOVVSYLOLHYZHSZ"JVTWL[P[PVUZ[OH[YLX\PYLHML^Z[\KLU[Z[VTPZZJSHZZHYYP]LSH[LVYSLH]LLHYS`"
marketing activities involving students and/or teachers; along with interruptions from administrative
WLYZVUULS[VKLSP]LYHTLZZHNL[VTHRLHUHUUV\UJLTLU[VY[VYLX\LZ[[OH[HNP]LUZ[\KLU[NVLZ
[V[OLVѝJL

How is the course organized?

The actual course that is delivered to teachers lasts for ten weeks; teachers attend a 90-minute
ZLZZPVUL]LY`KH`4VUKH`[OYV\NO;O\YZKH`0[PZKP]PKLKPU[V[OYLL\ULX\HSZLJ[PVUZ
;OLÄYZ[ZLJ[PVUPZVUL^LLRSVUN"^LJHYY`V\[HKPHNUVZPZVM[OLZP[\H[PVU0ZOHYL[OLYLZ\S[ZVMT`
observations, the information provided by the school’s principal and the academic coordinator, and
^OH[L]LYJVTTVUMLH[\YLZ0MV\UKPU[LHJOLYZ»PU[LY]PL^Z;OLL]PKLUJLVMZ\JJLZZMVY[OH[^LLRPZH
^YP[[LUJVTTP[TLU[[VPTWYV]L[OVZLZWLJPÄJHYLHZPKLU[PÄLKI`[LHJOLYZHZULLKPUN[VILPTWYV]LK
HZHYLZ\S[VM[OLSLHYUPUNL_WLYPLUJL[OYV\NOV\[[OH[^LLR0ÄUPZOVќ[OL^LLRI`PU[YVK\JPUN[OL
formats we’ll be using during the following four weeks.
;OL ZLJVUK ZLJ[PVU PZ KP]PKLK PU[V [^V MV\Y^LLR ISVJRZ +\YPUN [OL ÄYZ[ ISVJR ^L MVJ\Z VU
PKLU[PM`PUN HUK \UKLYZ[HUKPUN [OL WYPUJPWSLZ ^L ^HU[ [V HWWS` PM ^L HYL [V HJOPL]L LќLJ[P]L HUK
HќLJ[P]L JSHZZYVVT THUHNLTLU[ ([ [OPZ WVPU[ [OLYL PZ H SV[ VM YLHKPUN MVY OVTL^VYR H[ SLHZ[ [^V
WLLYJSHZZVIZLY]H[PVUZWLY[LHJOLYHÄ]LWHYHNYHWOWHWLY[VIL[\YULKPUL]LY`;O\YZKH`HUK]LY`
K`UHTPJJSHZZKPZJ\ZZPVUZL]LY`ZLZZPVU;OLSHZ[VM[OLZLÄYZ[MV\Y^LLRZPZKL]V[LKHSTVZ[LU[PYLS`
to teacher presentations. The evidence of success per teacher for that block is a video recording
 5 Context and the curriculum • 133

VM [OLPY WYLZLU[H[PVU PU HKKP[PVU [V MV\Y Ä]LWHYHNYHWO WHWLYZ 6UJL HNHPU 0 ^YHW \W [OL ^LLR I`
introducing the formats we’ll be using during the following four weeks.
;OLZLJVUKISVJRPZKL]V[LK[V[OLHWWSPJH[PVUVM[OLWYPUJPWSLZ[OH[^LYLPKLU[PÄLKHUK\UKLYZ[VVK
during the previous four-week block. At this point there is less reading and a lot more collaborative
WSHUUPUNMVYOVTL^VYR"[LHJOLYZHYLL_WLJ[LK[VÄSSV\[HUKIYPUN[VJSHZZL]LY`KH`[OLPY[LHJOLY»Z
journal and classroom management lesson plan formats; teachers still have to turn in their Thursday
WHWLYHUKJSHZZKPZJ\ZZPVUZILJVTLHSV[TVYLPU[LYHJ[P]LHUKWHZZPVUH[L6UJLTVYL[OLSHZ[VM
these four weeks is devoted almost entirely to teacher presentations. The evidence of teacher success
MVY[OPZSHZ[ISVJRPZH]PKLVYLJVYKPUNVM[OLPYWYLZLU[H[PVUPUHKKP[PVU[VMV\YÄ]LWHYHNYHWOWHWLYZ
and a collection of personal and team best practices that have helped them develop strategies for
TVYLLќLJ[P]LJSHZZYVVTTHUHNLTLU[
;OL [OPYK HUK ÄUHS ZLJ[PVU SHZ[Z VUL TVYL ^LLR 6U 4VUKH` HUK ;\LZKH` ^L ^VYR [V^HYKZ [OL
PU[LNYH[PVU VM H KVJ\TLU[ [OH[ ^PSS JVU[HPU YLMLYLUJL [V [OVZL WYPUJPWSLZ JVUJLW[Z HUK X\V[LZ [OH[
we borrowed from the professional literature during the course and, just as importantly, a collection
of those best practices that actually worked for them in their individual contexts, thus enabling the
WVZZPIPSP[` VM M\[\YL JVUZ\S[H[PVU >LKULZKH` PZ PUZ[Y\J[VY L]HS\H[PVU KH` ¶ [OL KH` [OH[ 0 YLJLP]L
MLLKIHJRHUK^LKVJ\TLU[P[;LHJOLYZL_WYLZZ[OLTZLS]LZMYLLS`HUKHYL[OLUHZRLK[VÄSSV\[[OL
PUZ[Y\J[VYHZZLZZTLU[MVYTH[Z[OH[HYL[VILPUJS\KLKPU[OLÄUHSKVJ\TLU[H[PVUT`JSPLU[^PSSYLJLP]L
;O\YZKH`PZ^OLU^LPU]P[L[OLZJOVVSV^ULYZHUKVYZJOVVSWYPUJPWHSHUK[OLHKTPUPZ[YH[P]LZ[Hќ[VH
ÄUHSWYLZLU[H[PVUSLKI`[OLHJHKLTPJJVVYKPUH[VY;OPZZLZZPVUPZHUVWWVY[\UP[`[VHKKYLZZKPZJ\ZZ
HUKKVJ\TLU[HU`UVUHJHKLTPJPZZ\LZYLSH[LK[VRLLWPUN\WV\YLќLJ[P]LJSHZZYVVTTHUHNLTLU[

What teaching and learning methods do you use?

The course is heavily anchored to Bloom’s Taxonomy, Shulman’s Model of Pedagogical Reasoning, and
Wiggins & McTighe’s Backwards Design; hence the need for a comprehensive selection of methods
HUK[LJOUPX\LZ(^H`[VL_WSHPUT`JOVPJLVMWHY[PJ\SHYTL[OVKZHUK[LJOUPX\LZPZI`ZH`PUN[OH[
Z[\KLU[Z»HJOPL]LTLU[ZHUKZ[\KLU[Z»ZLUZLVMHJOPL]LTLU[JVTLÄYZ[HUK^P[O[OH[PUTPUK0^PSS
\ZLHU`TL[OVKHUK[LJOUPX\L[OH[WYV]LZLќLJ[P]L([[PTLZ0»]LOHK[VJOHUNL[OL^OVSLZLZZPVU
dynamics on the spot in order to guarantee that every student succeeds in every single session.

What is the role of materials and other resources?

:[\KLU[ZYLJLP]LHJV\YZLIVVRSL[[OH[JVU[HPUZ[OLIPISPVNYHWO`0^PSSYLMLY[VJVUZ[HU[S`K\YPUN[OL
course as well as a recommended reading list, the course outline and calendar of events, a glossary,
HX\PJRYLMLYLUJLZLJ[PVUL_LYJPZLZHUKL_JLYW[ZMYVTYLSL]HU[^VYRZPU[OLÄLSK0UHKKP[PVU[V[OH[
0SPRL[VTHPU[HPUHZ[PT\SH[PUNLU]PYVUTLU[ZV0\ZLWSLU[`VM]PKLVZKV^USVHKLKMYVT[OL0U[LYUL[;=
HUK+=+WSH`LYZT\ZPJT`SHW[VWYLHSPHWYVWZ^HSSKLJVYH[PVUZTHNHaPULJ\[V\[ZL[J0U[LYTZ
of materials and resources, my philosophy is that pretty much any object can be used as a teaching
aid, and pretty much any teaching aid can be substituted by any other object should the need arise.

'LG\RXH[SHULHQFHDQ\GLτFXOWLHVLQGHYHORSLQJWKHFRXUVH"
0U [OL ILNPUUPUN 0 Z[Y\NNSLK ^P[O [Y`PUN [V JVW` HUK WHZ[L [OL [L_[ VM H Ä_LK JV\YZL [V SL[[LYOLHK
WHWLY^P[OHKPќLYLU[UHTLVUP[;OLVI]PV\ZYLZ\S[ILPUN[OH[0OHKH]LY`OHYK[PTL[OYV\NOV\[[OL
[LHJOPUNSLHYUPUNL_WLYPLUJL6UJL0OHKSLHYULK[VHKHW[MYVTHÄ_LKNLULYHSV\[SPULL]LY`[OPUNNV[
ZTVV[OLY0UT`JVU[L_[0»KIL[[LYHUZ^LY[OPZX\LZ[PVUPU[OLWYLZLU[[LUZL!0KVL_WLYPLUJLZL]LYHS
SL]LSZHUKRPUKZVMKPѝJ\S[PLZL]LY`[PTLHSHUN\HNLJLU[YLYLX\LZ[ZT`ZLY]PJLZ/V^L]LY[OLTVZ[
rewarding part of it is the fact that my course-designing skills are constantly improving to the point
[OH[0J\YYLU[S`LUQV`KL]LSVWPUN[OLZLJV\YZLZHZT\JOHZ0LUQV`[LHJOPUN[OLT
134 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

0KPKMHJLZVTLKPѝJ\S[PLZ^OLU0ÄYZ[Z[HY[LK[VNL[ZJOVVSV^ULYZHUKZJOVVSHKTPUPZ[YH[VYZPU]VS]LK
in the process. Fifteen years ago, the notion of meeting an academic consultant who would ask
ZJOVVSV^ULYZ[VZ\WWVY[HJHKLTPJVYPLU[LKHJ[P]P[PLZ^HZ\UOLHYKVM5L]LY[OLSLZZP[»ZWYV]LU[V
IL^PZLIV[OHJHKLTPJHSS`HUKÄUHUJPHSS`
7LYOHWZ [OL VUS` YLHS VIZ[HJSL 0 JHTL HJYVZZ HUK Z[PSS JVTL HJYVZZ PZ ÄUKPUN [OL ILZ[ ^H` [V
THRLL]LY`VULPU]VS]LKMLLSZH[PZÄLK^P[O[OLV\[JVTL(ZH[LHJOLY0Q\Z[MVJ\ZVUT`Z[\KLU[Z"
HZHUPUZ[Y\J[PVUHSKLZPNULY0[Y`[V[HRLL]LY`VULMYVT[OLZJOVVSV^ULY[V[OLZJOVVSZLJYL[HY`
into account.
0»]LMV\UK[OH[VUL^H`[VH]VPK[OPUNZNL[[PUN[VVJVTWSPJH[LKPZ[VILYLHSS`ZJLW[PJHS!PM[OLJV\YZL
design looks gorgeous on paper, the course will more than likely be very hard for me to deliver and
]LY`OHYKMVYT`Z[\KLU[Z[VZ\JJLLKH[;OLTVZ[Z\JJLZZM\SJ\YYPJ\S\TKLZPNUZ0»]LJVTLHJYVZZ
look too light-packed on paper to be regarded as serious; unfortunately, school owners and principals
seem to prefer curriculum designs that look heavy-packed, with lots of class activities, plenty of
assignments, loads of books to carry around during the course, and several objectives per session,
even if that means modifying the expected outcomes, sometimes more than once, throughout the
duration of the course.

What role does assessment play in the course?

Assessment is critical to this course. Bloom, Shulman, and Wiggins & McTighe revolve around
the concept of evaluation as a means to acknowledge students’ success and a tool to measure
improvements in teachers’ performance; therefore, what constitutes acceptable evidence of success
is set weeks before any of the actual instruction takes place, along with the evaluation tools, class
HJ[P]P[PLZHUKY\IYPJZ0U[LYTZVM[OLHJ[\HSHZZLZZTLU[VM[LHJOLYZ»WLYMVYTHUJLP[[HRLZWSHJLVU[OYLL
KPќLYLU[SL]LSZ!\UKLYZ[HUKPUNVM[OLWYPUJPWSLZVULVM[OLW\YWVZLZVM[OL;O\YZKH`WHWLYZHUK[OL
presentations); application of the principles (the purpose of the class observations, the teacher’s journal,
and the classroom management lesson plans); and command of the language (the other purpose of
the weekly papers, the presentations, and my initial set of class observations and teacher interviews).
.P]LU[OH[[OPZPZJVUZPKLYLKL_[YHJ\YYPJ\SHYPUOV\ZLVUNVPUN[YHPUPUN0[Y`UV[[VNYHKLZ[\KLU[Z»
^VYR HUK WLYMVYTHUJL I\[ PUZ[LHK [Y` [V N\PKL HUK MHJPSP[H[L [OLPY Z\JJLZZ 0 HSZV [Y` [V THPU[HPU
the balance between direct and indirect assessment. Weekly papers, two presentations, and peer
observation formats are among the products that will be evaluated using the rubrics that were agreed
\WVU^P[O[OLHJHKLTPJJVVYKPUH[VY"[OH[PUHKKP[PVU[VHU`WVWX\PaaLZ0TPNO[OH]LH]HPSHISL^PSS
be used to determine the teachers’ ÄUHS NYHKL. The teacher’s journal and classroom management
lesson plans along with peer feedback and class discussions provide the basis for self-evaluation and
HSZVWYVTV[LZLSMYLÅLJ[PVU
Husai Ching is a freelance TESOL and Language Acquisition academic consultant. He has been
responsible for the design and implementation of several courses at prestigious private language
centres in Mexico. He specializes in collaborating with language centres that wish to redesign their
administrative processes in order to enhance the teaching-learning experience.
 5 Context and the curriculum • 135

CASE STUDY 9(ISLUKLK\UKLYNYHK\H[LJV\YZLPU,J\HKVY

1VZt3LTH
What is the context of the course?
;OPZ JV\YZL PZ H ISLUKLK WYVNYHT MVY \UKLYNYHK\H[L Z[\KLU[Z VM [OL *H[OVSPJ <UP]LYZP[` PU
8\P[V ,J\HKVY :[\KLU[Z [HRL ZP_ SL]LSZ VM NLULYHS ,UNSPZO H[ [OL (( HUK ) SL]LSZ VM [OL
*VTTVU ,\YVWLHU -YHTL^VYR HZ WHY[ VM [OLPY \UKLYNYHK\H[L KLNYLL WYVNYHT PU [OL :JOVVS
of Education. The course involves two modes of delivering content: face-to-face and via
[LJOUVSVN` -VY IV[O TVKLZ [OL PUZ[P[\[PVU ^VYRZ ^P[O [OL -V\Y *VYULYZ -* ZLYPLZ ([ LHJO
SL]LS [OL Z[\KLU[Z JV]LY ZP_ \UP[Z VM [OL -* JV\YZLIVVR ;OL ISLUKLK WHY[ VM [OL JV\YZL PZ
carried out using the university Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) Moodle. The use of Moodle
is intended to support students’ learning through delivering, expanding and providing additional
English practice.

What are the goals of the course?

;OL THPU NVHS VM [OL ,-3 ISLUKLK JV\YZL PZ [V HSSV^ Z[\KLU[Z [V THZ[LY HSS MV\Y SHUN\HNL ZRPSSZ ¶
SPZ[LUPUN ZWLHRPUN YLHKPUN HUK ^YP[PUN ¶ \ZPUN H ]HYPL[` VM JVTT\UPJH[P]L SHUN\HNL Z[YH[LNPLZ 0U
order to accomplish this goal, the institution uses language learning standards similar to the ones
KLZPNULKI`[OL*VTTVU,\YVWLHU-YHTL^VYRVM9LMLYLUJLMVY3HUN\HNLZ*,-93
Thus, the expected outcomes after concluding each of the six levels are as follows:
• ;OLÄYZ[HUKZLJVUKSL]LSZ^PSSLX\H[L[V[OL*,-93(VYLSLTLU[HY`!Z[\KLU[ZJHUKLHS^P[O
very limited day-to-day activities.
• ;OL[OPYKHUKMV\Y[OSL]LSZ^PSSLX\H[L[V[OL*,-93(VYSV^LYPU[LYTLKPH[L!Z[\KLU[ZJHUKLHS
with predictable day-to-day activities.
• ;OLMV\Y[OHUKZP_[OSL]LSZ^PSSLX\H[L[V[OL*,-93)VYPU[LYTLKPH[L!Z[\KLU[ZJHUKLHS^P[O
varied familiar everyday activities.

What planning was involved in developing the course?

;VJVTWS`^P[ONYHK\H[PVUYLX\PYLTLU[Z[OL\UP]LYZP[`VќLYZH]HYPL[`VMMVYLPNUSHUN\HNLJV\YZLZ[VP[Z
KPќLYLU[ZJOVVSZHUKKLWHY[TLU[Z,UNSPZOSHUN\HNLJSHZZLZHYL[H\NO[VUJHTW\ZVUHKHPS`IHZPZHUK
mainly in the traditional face-to-face form. Likewise, some programs and many subjects are now being
delivered in a blended form: face-to-face sessions are supported, expanded and complemented through
the use of technological platforms such as Moodle. The blended English-language teaching program
has been designed to meet the needs of part-time students who are taking their major in education. The
JV\YZL^HZQVPU[S`KL]LSVWLKI`HZ[HќTLTILYMYVT[OL\UP]LYZP[`»Z,UNSPZO3HUN\HNL+LWHY[TLU[HUK
+LWHY[TLU[VM5L^;LJOUVSVNPLZ)V[OKLWHY[TLU[ZOH]L^VYRLK[VNL[OLY[VKL]LSVWHZV\UK[LHJOPUN
model that addresses the delivery of face-to-face instruction in conjunction with the university VLE Moodle.

How is the course organized?

The ELT blended course is organized over one 15-week semester. The course has six units and each
unit is planned to be delivered in two weeks. During those two weeks, students attend two sessions and
work on the VLE platform. Since the VLE allows plenty of reading and writing activities to be included,
in the face-to-face sessions there is an emphasis on practicing and developing verbal communicative
ZRPSSZ;OLVUSPUL^VYRJVTWYPZLZPU[LYHJ[P]LHJ[P]P[PLZVUSPUL^VYRIVVRZLSMZ[\K`*+964HJ[P]P[PLZ
and tests, portfolio); written and oral tasks. The organization of the course is as follows:
 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

Blended Language Course Organization

Level 1
Face-to- 6USPUL^VYR
face
Weeks Units Topics sessions 0U[LYHJ[P]LHJ[P]P[PLZ Written production 6YHSWYVK\J[PVU *SHZZ^VYR
# of 6USPUL :LSMZ[\K`*+ *+[LZ[Z Portfolio 6USPUL^YP[PUN[HZRZ 6USPULZWLHRPUN[HZRZ X\PaaLZ
hours workbook
Week 1 Unit 1 5L^ 4 hours 0[»ZUPJL[V Famous
and 2 friends meet you names X\LZ[PVUZ *OLJRSPZ[Z 1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5  Unit 1
Week 3 Unit 2 People and 4 hours People and Surprise
and 4 places places X\LZ[PVUZ *OLJRSPZ[Z D Six writing tasks D Six speaking tasks Unit 2
Week 5 Unit 3 What’s 4 hours What’s My favorite
HUK that? that? things X\LZ[PVUZ *OLJRSPZ[Z D Six writing tasks D Six speaking tasks Unit 3
Week 7 Unit 4 Daily life 4 hours Daily life My busy
and 8 Monday X\LZ[PVUZ *OLJRSPZ[Z D Six writing tasks D Six speaking tasks Unit 4
Week 9 Unit 5 Free time 4 hours Free time What do you
and 10 do for fun? X\LZ[PVUZ *OLJRSPZ[Z D Six writing tasks D Six speaking tasks Unit 5
Week 11 <UP[ Work and 4 hours Work and Hidden talent
and 12 play play X\LZ[PVUZ *OLJRSPZ[Z D Six writing tasks D Six speaking tasks <UP[
Week 13 [V *V\YZL 4 hours
and 14 review
Week 15 Exam 4 hours

Each unit has a topic, four subtopics and four learning outcomes. Moreover, each unit includes
grammar points, vocabulary development, functional language descriptions, listening and pronunciation
exercises, reading, writing and speaking tasks.
LEVEL 1
FACE TO FACE SESSIONS AND ONLINE WORK
Weeks 1 and 2
UNIT 1
Vocabulary Functional Listening and Reading
Topic: My interest Learning outcomes Grammar Speaking
language pronunciation and writing
• *SHZZPU[YVK\J[PVUHUK
Students can … greetings
The verb be
¶HZRMVYHUKZH`UHTLZ Possessive Reading: • 2LLW[HSRPUN!5HTLJPYJSL
A What’s your name? ¶ZWLSSUHTLZ Listening • *SHZZUHTLSPZ[
adjectives 5HTLZ “Famous
B How do you spell it? ¶[HSRHIV\[^OLYL 0U[LYHJ[PVUZ! Spelling
Subject and titles names” • Guessing game about
Asking for names
*(YL`V\HZ[\KLU[& people are from and pronouns 0U[LYLZ[PUN spelling An Article famous people
Pronunciation:
+5HTLZHUKQVIZ what they do Yes / no jobs Writing My • Keep talking: “Find the
*VU[YHJ[PVUZ
¶KPZJ\ZZWLVWSL»Z X\LZ[PVUZ name KPќLYLUJL¹HJ[P]P[`HIV\[
names and jobs with be jobs and cities
• 8\PaHIV\[JLSLIYP[PLZ

The blending of the course relies on a number of self-study guides to be studied and completed
using the university VLE Moodle. The self-study guides have been designed to explain, expand and
practice content. Together they serve to manage assignments and grades; start discussion forums;
embed videos and podcasts; manage email; organize online chats; and hand over feedback. The
VYNHUPaH[PVU VM [OL WSH[MVYT H[[LTW[Z [V ^VYR PU HU PU[LNYH[LK ^H` ZV [OH[ [OL KPќLYLU[ HJHKLTPJ
components of the course, such as the topics, vocabulary, listening, speaking, reading, writing, etc.,
are relevant, related and intertwined. The organization of the online self-study guides is as follows:

Unit 1. New Friends

At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
1. ask for and say names
2. spell names
3. talk about where people are from what they do
4. discuss people’s names and jobs

 :LSM:[\K`.\PKL0U[YVK\J[PVUZUHTLZHUK[P[SLZ
Self-Study Guide 1.2. The English Alphabet
 :LSM:[\K`.\PKL)L!(ѝYTH[P]L
 :LSM:[\K`.\PKL)L!5LNH[P]L
 :LSM:[\K`.\PKL@LZ5V8\LZ[PVUZ^P[O]LYI;V)L
 :LSM:[\K`.\PKL:\IQLJ[7YVUV\UZHUK7VZZLZZP]L(KQLJ[P]LZ
 :LSM:[\K`.\PKL=LKPV!-HTV\Z5HTLZ
Self-Study Guide 1.8. Wrap up
 5 Context and the curriculum • 137

Each self-study guide shares the following format:

3L]LS¶<UP[
Self-Study Guide 1.1
Topic:
0U[YVK\J[PVU 2 Before you start 3 Review 4 Learning activities 5 Writing and Speaking
*VU[LU[
1 ………… (J[P]P[`0UZ[Y\J[PVU (J[P]P[`0UZ[Y\J[PVU (J[P]P[`0UZ[Y\J[PVU Activity 1. Writing
Resources: Strategy explanation Strategy Strategy Strategy
• Student’s Book • Step 1… • Step 1… • Step 1… *SPJRVU[OLSPURILSV^[VKV[OL[HZR
• :LSM:[\K`*+9VT • Step 2… • Step 2… • Step 2… Writing 1.1 Topic
• 6USPUL>VYRIVVR Activity 2. Speaking
• Microphone (J[P]P[`0UZ[Y\J[PVU (J[P]P[`0UZ[Y\J[PVU Strategy
Estimated time: 1 hour Strategy Strategy *SPJRVU[OLSPURILSV^[VKV[OL[HZR
Deadline: (Date) (Time) • Step 1… • Step 1… Speaking 1.1 Topic
• Step 2… • Step 2…

What teaching and learning methods do you use?

The blended program combines classroom sessions and online lessons and activities through the
\UP]LYZP[`=3,4VVKSL;OLJV\YZLPZKLZPNULK[VLUHISLSLHYULYZ[VPU[LYHJ[LќLJ[P]LS`^P[OV[OLYZPU
English in a variety of communicative situations. Students are given as many opportunities as possible
to share ideas and experiences individually, in pair and group work, in both classroom sessions and
online lessons. The progression of tasks in each unit allows students to relate what they have learned
[V [OLPY V^U L_WLYPLUJLZ (U PUK\J[P]L HWWYVHJO PZ HWWSPLK PU ^OPJO [OL JVU[LU[ PZ ÄYZ[ WYLZLU[LK
in context. Learners are encouraged to observe, compare and analyze in order to identify the use
of vocabulary and structures. Students are also presented with targeted exercises that ensure
JVTWYLOLUZPVUVM[OLJVU[LU[0ULHJO\UP[[OLMV\YZRPSSZHYLJV]LYLKMVYYLHKPUNSPZ[LUPUNZWLHRPUN
and writing plus vocabulary, grammar structures and pronunciation.

What is the role of materials and other resources?

;OL ISLUKLK ,UNSPZO SHUN\HNL JV\YZL \ZLZ [OL TH[LYPHSZ Z\WWSLTLU[LK I` [OL JV\YZLIVVR 0[
PUJS\KLZKPќLYLU[JVTWVULU[Z[OH[HYL\ZLK[OYV\NOV\[[OLJV\YZLZLL[OLJOHY[ILSV^+LWLUKPUN
VU[OLVIQLJ[P]LZVM[OLSLZZVU[OLKPќLYLU[JVTWVULU[ZTH`IL\ZLKPU[OLJSHZZYVVTVYL_JS\ZP]LS`
online; they can be used for autonomous learning and with a VLE platform. The chart below shows
[OLTH[LYPHSZHUK[OLPYKPќLYLU[\ZLZ!
Textbook components To be used in To be used To be used for To be used with
and teaching resources the classroom online (only) self-study a VLE platform
Student’s book yes - yes yes
Teacher’s guide yes - - yes
:LSMZ[\K`*+9VT - - yes yes
JSHZZH\KPV*+Z yes yes yes yes
(free online-available)
Assessment audio yes - - -
*+9VT
<UP[X\PaaLZ yes - - -
6USPUL^VYRIVVR - yes yes -
*SHZZ^HYL yes - - -
Videos yes - yes -
Video worksheets yes - yes yes
Grammar and vocabulary yes - - yes
worksheets
Speaking sheets yes - - -
Website yes yes yes yes
Teacher’s support - yes yes -
Technical support - yes - -
138 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching

;LHJOLYZ HUK Z[\KLU[Z TH` ILULÄ[ MYVT [OL 0U[LYUL[ HUK [OL THZZP]L HTV\U[ VM PUMVYTH[PVU [OH[
JHUIL\ZLKHUKHKHW[LKMVY[OL[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUNVMZWLJPÄJJVU[LU[VYH\[VUVTV\ZL_[LUKLK
practice. Teachers may even create their own materials to be used in class and online. A list of
examples for online resources and teacher-developed resources are described in the chart below:
Resources 6USPUL[LHJOPUN Teacher created Resources 6USPUL[LHJOPUN Teacher created
resources resource resources resource
Text types 3 *YVZZ^VYKZ
Sound Dictionaries &
Video clips theasaurus
Animations Translators
0THNLZ Text chat
Hypermedia Forums
Blogs Feedback
Rss feeds Presentations
Lesson plans
*VYWVYH
Language games
Pronunciation
Speaking practice
Exercises
Wikis
*OHY[Z
Websites
Forums
4\S[PWSLJOVPJLX\PaaLZ
Video conferencing
.HWÄSS[L_[Z
Scorms
6YKLYPUNHUK
matching activities Tests
Jumbled sentences Screen captures
and words Screencastings
Social networking Podcasts

'LG\RXH[SHULHQFHDQ\GLτFXOWLHVLQGHYHORSLQJWKHFRXUVH"
+L]LSVWPUN H ISLUKLK JV\YZL Z\JO HZ [OPZ OHZ YHPZLK H U\TILY VM PZZ\LZ YLSH[LK [V MV\Y KPќLYLU[
factors.
1. ;OL PUZ[P[\[PVUHS MHJ[VYZ PU]VS]L KLHSPUN ^P[O PU[LYUHS HKTPUPZ[YH[P]L WYVJLK\YLZ [OH[ HќLJ[ [OL
KLJPZPVU THRPUN VM ZWLJPÄJ HUK ]P[HS JOVPJLZ *VUZPKLY [OL MVSSV^PUN L_HTWSL! ^OLU UL^
teachers join the blended program, they may know how to teach using technology; however, due
to the demands of using more advanced techno-pedagogical procedures, more teacher training
PZYLX\PYLK;OLPUZ[P[\[PVUTH`UV[OH]LHZ\P[HISLZ\WWVY[HUKVYNHUPaH[PVUHSZ`Z[LTH]HPSHISL
to respond to this, so teachers have to deal with the new challenges by themselves.
2. ;OL[LHJOLYMHJ[VYZHYPZL^OLU[LHJOLYZHYLYLX\PYLK[VTLL[[OLKLTHUKZVMHISLUKLK[LHJOPUN
environment. Since the majority of teachers have been used to teaching in the traditional mode
HUK HYL UV[ ]LY` MHTPSPHY ^P[O \ZPUN 0*; [VVSZ ZVTL [LHJOLYZ MLS[ IV[O MY\Z[YH[LK HUK L]LU
V]LY^OLSTLKHM[LY\ZPUNISLUKLK[LHJOPUNWYHJ[PJLZ0U[OLISLUKLKWYVNYHTKLZJYPILKHIV]L
many teachers found themselves bewildered not only by the need to be technological literates
but also by the need to deal with the state-of-the-art techno-pedagogical content knowledge
YLX\PYLKMVY[OPZ[`WLVMJV\YZL
3. The teaching-factor issues relate to the need to develop a sound teaching model as well as a set
of principles to support blended language instruction. Philip Hubbard (2009) alleges that much of
the technology available to support language teaching has been “H[OLVYL[PJHS^P[OV\[HU`ZWLJPÄJ
theory or framework,” and when an attempt has been made to develop a theoretical basis for
the use of technology, there has been either a “simple theory borrowing ... without any changes”
from general education theory and teaching practices, or, “theory adaptation” where “Theory
PZ TVKPÄLK VY LUOHUJLK [V HJJVTTVKH[L [OL KPќLYLUJLZ PUOLYLU[ PU [OL JVTW\[LY ]LYZ\Z [OL
face-to-face environment¹0UV\YISLUKLKWYVNYHT[OL[LHJOPUNPZZ\LZHUKJOHSSLUNLZSPLTVYL
 5 Context and the curriculum • 139

in the technological teaching side than the face-to-face one. Using technology and not having
crystal-clear boundaries for the roles of teachers, the instructional materials, teaching activities
and procedures certainly may have a negative impact on the program. Furthermore, as in any
other language teaching program, a comprehensive pedagogical theory and model will allow us
[VHJOPL]LNVVKISLUKLK[LHJOPUNWYHJ[PJLZ"[O\ZP[YLX\PYLZHUVUNVPUNL]HS\H[PVUVMISLUKLK
practices and procedures.
4. Finally, student issues hinge on learners becoming familiar with using technology as a
WV^LYM\SZV\YJLVMPUMVYTH[PVUHUKSLHYUPUN:VTLSLHYULYZMVYPUZ[HUJLTH`ÄUK[OLTZLS]LZ
JOHSSLUNLK I` UV[ VUS` [OL PUOLYLU[ KPѝJ\S[PLZ VM SLHYUPUN ,UNSPZO I\[ HSZV [OL ULLK [V ^VYR
out how to use technological gadgets and novel teaching procedures such as asynchronous
or synchronous learning.

What role does assessment play in the course?

As in any language program, assessment and evaluation procedures are a fundamental element
PU [OL ISLUKLK SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN J\YYPJ\S\T 0U [OPZ JV\YZL KPќLYLU[ MVYTH[P]L HUK Z\TTH[P]L
assessment procedures were implemented. Formative assessment procedures are used to monitor
students’ performance and to check or collect information on their linguistic or communicative
performance. For example, during the face-to-face sessions, informal assessment strategies are used,
LN PU[LY]PL^Z YVSL WSH`Z VIZLY]H[PVUZ JVTWYLOLUZPVU X\LZ[PVUZ L[J (UK VU [OL =3, WSH[MVYT
screenshots and screencasting procedures are used to provide feedback through images and video.
Summative assessment procedures are also used for evaluating the students’ learning at the end of
LHJOPUZ[Y\J[PVUHS\UP[!LNMVY[OLMHJL[VMHJLZLZZPVUZ¶^YP[[LUHUKVYHSX\PaaLZ¶HUKVUSPUL[LZ[Z
VYWYVQLJ[ZMVY[OL[LJOUVSVNPJHSJVTWVULU[:JYLLUJHZ[64H[PJ

Recording #80

Tuesday, 23 June 2013, 4:30 PM

>OLU0^HZVY`LHYZP[OHWWLULKILJH\ZL0»]L^HU[LKHZWLJPHS[V`I\[T`WHYLU[ZZHPK56:V
^OLU^L^LU[[V1\N\L[VU0[VVR[OL[V`HUKW\[P[PU[VT`WVJRL[HM[LY[OH[^OLUWHYLU[ZOH]L
ÄUPZOLK[OL`[VSKTLJHTLVUZV^OLU0^HZWHZZPUNMVY[OLKVVY[OLHSHYTILNHU[VYPUNHUK[OL
N\HYKZJHTL[V\ZHUK[OL`ZHPKWLSHZL`V\YIHNZHUK`V\YWVJRL[Z[OLU0OHK[VSLH]LT`ZWLJPHS
[V`0[^HZ[OL^VYZ[[OPUN:PUJL[OPZKH`0OH]LUL]LY[HRLUHUV[OLY[OPUNVMV[OLYWLVWSL4`WHYLU[Z
thaught me about the honesty.
02:32 02:45

References
Hubbard, P. (ed.). 2009. Computer assisted language learning=VS0!Foundations of CALL*YP[PJHS
*VUJLW[Z PU 3PUN\PZ[PJZ :LYPLZ 5L^ @VYR! 9V\[SLKNL 9L[YPL]LK MYVT O[[W!^LIZ[HUMVYK
LK\eLMZJHSSJV\YZL*(33O[T

Jost Lema is a TESOL teacher and consultant in the School of Languages at the Catholic University
and the Army University ESPE in Quito, Ecuador. He has been interested in developing teaching
language procedures using technology and teaching a wide variety of ELT courses. Jost is currently
interested in researching about blended teaching and the use of technological apps and software
in the ELT classroom, and he has contributed a number of examples to 2L` 0ZZ\LZ PU 3HUN\HNL
Teaching by Jack C. Richards (Cambridge University Press, 2015).