1 Introduction:

Over the last century,p-adic number and p-adic analysis have come to play a
central role in modern number theory. This importance comes from the fact
that they afford a natural and powefull language for talking about congru-
ences between integers and allow the use of methods borrowed from calculus
and analysis for studying such problems. More recently, p-adic number have
shown up in other areas of mathematics and even in physics. The study
of p-adic number is attractive because it blends together so many part of
mathematics. While it is certainly a part of numbers theory.
These numbers were first introduce by Kurt Hensel in 1897. In a paper
which was concerned with the development of algebraic numbers in power
series. p-adic numbers were then generalized of valuations by Kurschack in
1913. p-adic number influence now beyond this, example, the field of p-adic
analysis essentially provides an alternative form of calculus. More formally,
for a given prime p, the field Qp of p-adic number is completion of the rational
numbers. The field Qp is also given a topology derived from a metric, which
is itself derived from the p-adic order. This metric space is complete in the
sense that every Cauchy sequence converges to a point in Qp . This is what
allows development of calculus on Qp and it is the interaction of this analytic
and algebraic structure that gives the p-adic numbers system their power and
utility.
The p in “p-adic” is a variable and may be replaced with a prime (yield-
ing, for instance, “the 2-adic numbers”) or another expression representing a
prime number. The “adic” of “p-adic” comes from the ending in words such
as dyadic or triadic. The p-adic numbers are most simply a field extension of
Q, the rational numbers which can be formulated in two ways using either an-
alytic or algebraic methods. The p-adic integers are the p-adic numbers with
non-negative valuation. Every integer is a p-adic integer(including zero).
The p-adic numbers are useful because they provide another toolset for
solving problems, one which is sometimes easier to work with than the real
numbers. Suppose we have a physical or any other system and we make
measurments. To describe results of the measurments, we can always use
rationals. According to the Ostrowski theorem there are only two kinds of
completions of the rationals. They give real or p-adic Qp numbers fields,
where p is any prime number with corresponding p-adic norm | x |p which is
non-Archimedean. Also, p-adic numbers have application in number theory,

1
where it has a significant role in diophantine geometry and diophantine ap-
proximation, some application required the development of functional anal-
ysis, algebra and more. One example is Hensel’s lemma for finding roots of
the polynomial.
To build a mathematical model of the system we use real or p−adic
numbers or both, depending on the properties of system. We start with in-
troducing the absolute value on the field Q and then valution on Field Q. We
then move on to p-adic absolute alvalue of Q and some properties. Next we
state the Ostrowiski’s Theorem. Then define distance on the field Q, p-adic
distance etc. Then we look at how p-adic geometry differs from Euclidean
geometry. Next, we discuss the completion using the concept of topology to
get a sense of p-adic spaces. We then move to p-adic integers. Finally, we
look at the Hensel’s lemma.

The main idea will be to introduce a different absolute value function on

the field of rational numbers. This will give us a different way to measure
distances. Once we have that, we will use it to construct the p-adic numbers.
To get the p-adic numbers, we need to start with the field Q of rational
numbers.

2 Absolute Value On Field Q

Definition : An absolute value on Q is a function | | : Q → R+ that satisfies
the following conditions :
For all x, y ∈ Q,

1. | x |≥ 0;

2. | x | = 0 if and only if x = 0;

3. | xy | = | x || y |;

4. | x + y | ≤ | x | + | y |;

5. | x + y | ≤ max{| x |, | y |}.

The absolute value is non-archimedean if it satisfies the condition 4; oth-

erwise, we will say that the absolute value is archimedean.

2
Note that | x | is usual absolute value.
| x |= 1, if x ̸= 0 and | 0 | = 0 is trivial absolute value.

Now for defining p-absolute value, let us explore · · ·

3 Valuation On Field Q
Definition : Fix a prime number p,
l
Let 0 ̸= x ∈ Q. Then x = ab11 = ppm×a ×b
such that p ̸ | a and p ̸ | b , where
a1 , b1 ∈ Z .
This implies x = pl−m × ab = pn × ab ;n = (l − m) ∈ Z and this n = vp (x)
where vp (x) is said to be p-adic valuation of any x ∈ Q

Remark : The p-adic valuation of any x ∈ Q, i.e. vp (x) is also defined

as,
for x = ab ∈ Q, vp (x) = vp (a) − vp (b) , where p ∈ Z is prime.
From above calculation we can see that valuation of p at x i.e. vp (x), is
just multiplicity of p as divisor of x.

Example : v3 (402) = 1, multiplicity of 3 as divisor of 402 is 1. since

402 = 31 × 134.
v3 ( 123
48
) = v3 (123) − v3 (48) = 1 − 1 = 0, multiplicity of 3 as divisor of 123 and
48 is 1 since 123 = 31 × 41, 48 = 31 × 16.
vp (1) = 0, multiplicity of any prime number as divisor of 1 is 0 since 1 = p0 ×1.

Note that vp (0) = +∞, since when we divide 0 by p, the answer is 0 which
can be divided by p, the answer is 0 which can be again divided by p, the
answer is 0 and so on. It means that we can divide 0 by p infinite times i.e.
multiplicity of p as divisor of 0 is infinity.

We observe that for any x ∈ Q, the value of vp (x) does not depend on it’s
representation as a quotient of two integers. In other words, if ab = dc , then
vp (a) − vp (b) = vp (c) − vp (d).

6 12
Example : As 4
= 8
then v2 (6) − v2 (4) = −1 = v2 (12) − v2 (8).

Now we will discuss on some basic properties of p-adic valuation.

3
Lemma : For all x and y ∈ Q, we have
1. vp (xy) = vp (x) + vp (y);

2. vp (x−1 ) = −vp (x);

3. vp (x + y) ≥ min{vp (x), vp (y)}, with equality if vp (x) ̸= vp (y),

with the obvious conventions with respect to vp (0) = +∞.
Proof : First we prove that vp (xy) = vp (x) + vp (y).
Let any x, y ∈ Q
Let x = pn ab and y = pm dc such that p ̸ | a, b, c, d. Then
ac
xy = pn+m ,
bd
where p ̸ | ac, bd
By definition we get, vp (xy) = n + m and vp (x) = n and vp (y) = m.
Thus vp (xy) = n + m = vp (x) + vp (y).

Next to prove that vp (x−1 ) = −vp (x),

We know that,

0 = vp (1) = vp (xx−1 ) = vp (x) + vp (x−1 )

This gives that vp (x−1 ) = −vp (x)

Further, we are trying to prove that vp (x + y) ≥ min{vp (x), vp (y)}

Let x = pn ab and y = pm dc such that p ̸ | a, b, c, d. Then

vp (x) = n and vp (y) = m

If x + y = 0 then vp (x + y) = +∞ ≥ min{vp (x), vp (y)} trivially.

We now assume that x + y ̸= 0.
If n = m,
Then min{vp (x), vp (y)} = n = m
Consider,
a c a c
x + y = pn + pm = pn ( + )
b d b d
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Then p-adic valuation of x + y is,
a c
vp (x + y) = vp (pn ) + vp ( + )
b d
ad + bc
= n + vp ( )≥n
bd

because p ̸ | a, b, c, d it implies p ̸ | bd, so vp (bd) = 0

Also p ̸ | ad, bc it doesn’t imply p ̸ | ad + bc, so vp ( ad+bc
bd
)≥0

Hence vp (x + y) ≥ min{vp (x), vp (y)}

If n ̸= m then,
CASE I: If n < m,
Consider,
a c a c a c
x + y = pn + pm = pn + pm+n−n = pn ( + pm−n )
b d b d b d

We get that vp (x + y) = vp (pn ) + vp ( ab + pm−n dc ),

ad + pm−n bc
= vp (pn ) + vp ( ) = vp (pn ) + vp (ad + pm−n bc) − vp (bd)
bd

But we have, p ̸ | a, b, c, d

Hence p ̸ | ad, bc, bd

This implies that p ̸ | ad + pm−n bc

i.e. p is not the divisor of ad + pm−n bc and bd

Hence vp (ad + pm−n bc) = 0 and vp (bd) = 0

Therefore vp (x + y) = vp (pn ) = n

Also we have n < m, implies min{vp (x), vp (y)} = vp (x) = n

5
Thus we get, vp (x + y) = min{vp (x), vp (y)}.

CASE II: If n > m,

Then we have min{vp (x), vp (y)} = vp (y).
Consider,
a c a c a c
x + y = pn + pm = pn+m−m + pm = pm (pn−m + )
b d b d b d

Then vp (x + y) = vp (pm ) + vp (pn−m ab + dc )

pn−m ad + bc
= vp (pm ) + vp ( ) = vp (pm ) + vp (pn−m ad + bc) − vp (bd)
bd

But we have, p ̸ | a, b, c, d

Hence p ̸ | ad, bc, bd

Thie gives that p ̸ | pn−m ad + bc

i.e. p is not the divisor of pn−m ad + bc and bd

Hence vp (pn−m ad + bc) = 0 and vp (bd) = 0

Therefore vp (x + y) = vp (pm ) = m

Thus we get, vp (x + y) = m = vp (y) = min{vp (x), vp (y)}.

Hence from both the cases 1 and 2 we get vp (x + y) = min{vp (x), vp (y)}.

Thus we get equality if n ̸= m, otherwise vp (x + y) ≥ min{vp (x), vp (y)}.

4 p-adic Absolute Value Of Q

Definition : For any x ∈ Q, we define p-adic absolute value of x by

| x |p = p−vp (x) ,

6
where p ∈ Z is prime.

Examples :
1. For x = 0, | 0 |p = p−vp (0) = p−∞ = 1
p∞
= 1
∞
= 0.

2. | 35 |7 = 7−v7 (35) = 7−1 = 17 .

56
3. | 56
|
12 7
= 7−v7 ( 12 ) = 7−v7 (56)+v7 (12) = 7−1+0 = 7−1 = 17 .
360
4. | 360
|
93555 7
= 7−v7 ( 93555 ) = 7−v7 (360)+v7 (93555) = 7−0+1 = 7.

Lemma : The function | |p : Q → R+ has the properties

(a) | x |p ≥ 0;
(b) | x |p = 0 if and only if x = 0;
(c) | xy |p = | x |p | y |p ;
(d) | x + y |p ≤ max{| x |p , | y |p }, with equality if | x |p ̸= | y |p .
Proof : Fix a prime number p ∈ Z. Let x, y, z ∈ Q are arbitrary non-zero
rational numbers.
(a) For all 0 ̸= x ∈ Q we have | x |p = p−vp (x)
Since p ∈ Z is prime.
So p > 0
This gives that p−vp (x) > 0
Hence | x |p > 0

(b) | x |p = 0
if and only if p−vp (x) = 0 = p−∞
if and only if vp (x) = ∞, as vp (0) = +∞
if and only if x = 0.
(c) | xy |p = p−vp (xy)
= p−(vp (x)+vp (y))
= p−vp (x) p−vp (y)
=| x |p | y |p

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(d) If | x |p = | y |p ,
Then max{| x |p , | y |p } = | x |p = | y |p
As | x |p = | y |p
By p-adic absolute value, p−vp (x) = p−vp (y)
This gives vp (x) = vp (y)
Since by property 2 of valuation, vp (x + y) ≥ vp (x)
So −vp (x + y) ≤ −vp (x)
This gives p−vp (x+y) ≤ p−vp (x)
We get that | x + y |p ≤ | x |p
Hence | x + y |p ≤ max{| x |p , | y |p }

If | x |p ̸= | y |p ,

CASE I: | x |p > | y |p
Then max{| x |p , | y |p } = | x |p
As | x |p > | y |p
We have p−vp (x) > p−vp (y) , which gives −vp (x) > −vp (y)
We can write vp (x) < vp (y)
Then vp (x) = min{vp (x), vp (y)} = vp (x + y)
We get −vp (x + y) = −vp (x)
This implies p−vp (x+y) = p−vp (x)
Hence | x + y |p = | x |p = max{| x |p , | y |p }

CASE II: | x |p < | y |p

Then max{| x |p , | y |p } = | y |p
As | x |p < | y |p
We get p−vp (x) < p−vp (y)
This gives −vp (x) < −vp (y)
i.e. vp (x) > vp (y)
Then vp (y) = min{vp (x), vp (y)} = vp (x + y)
i.e. −vp (x + y) = −vp (y)
This implies p−vp (x+y) = p−vp (y)

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 Hence | x + y |p = | y |p = max{| x |p , | y |p }

From both cases we get that | x + y |p = max{| x |p , | y |p }

Hence we have | x + y |p ≤ max{| x |p , | y |p } and this is equal when
| x |p = | y |p .
Thus we get p-adic absolute value on Q is properly constructed so we can
conclude following:

Proposition : The p-adic absolute value is non-archimedean absolute value

on Q.
Proof : Proof follows from previous lemma.

Now we state the theorem that classifies all non-trivial absolute value,
defined on the field of the rational numbers Q.

Ostrowski’s Theorem : [Alexander Ostrowski (1916)] Every non-trivial

absolute value on the rational numbers Q is equivalent to either the usual
absolute value | |∞ or a p-adic absolute value | |p , for some prime p .
The whole idea of an absolute value is that it provides us with a notion
of “size”. In other words, once we have an absolute value, we can use it to
measure distances between numbers, to define a metric on our field Q.

5 Distance On The Field Q

Definition : Let Q be a field of rationals numbers and | | an absolute value
on Q. We define the distance d(x, y) between two elements x, y ∈ Q by

d(x, y) = | x − y |

The function d(x, y) is called the metric induced by absolute value.

Now we see the general properties for a metric d(x, y) as follows :

For any x, y, z ∈ Q

(a) d(x, y) ≥ 0;

(b) d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y;

(c) d(x, y) = d(y, x) (Symmetric Property);

9
 (d) d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) (Triangle Inequality).

Here the last inequality is called the triangle inequality, since it expresses the
usual fact that the sum of the lengths of two sides of triangle is bigger than
the length of the other sides.
A set on which the metric is defined is called the ’metric space’.

Lemma : | x | is non-archimedean if and only if for any x, y, z ∈ Q, we

have
d(x, y) ≤ max{d(x, z), d(z, y)}.

Now we have a new concept of the distance between two rationals numbers
which is different from the usual absolute value.
Let’s define,

6 p-adic Distance On The Field Q

Definition : Let Q be a field of rationals numbers and | |p be an p-adic
absolute value on Q. We define the distance d(x, y) between two elements
x, y ∈ Q by
d(x, y) =| x − y |p ,
for some fixed prime p.

For example, take p = 7, d(3, 2) = | 3 − 2 |7 = | 1 |7 = | 70 × 1 |7 = 7−0 = 1;

d(28814, 2) = | 28814 − 2 |7 = | 28812 |7 = | 74 × 13 |7 = 7−4 = 1/74 .
In above example 1 > 1/74 so we can conclude that 28814 and 2 are
“closer together” than 3 and 2 are!

The above metric d satisfy the following properties:

Proposition : For all x, y, z ∈ Q, we have

(a) d(x, y) ≥ 0;

(b) d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y;

(c) d(x, y) = d(y, x) (Symmetric Property);

10
 (d) d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) (Triangle Inequality).
Proof : Let x, y, z ∈ Q
(a) Since x and y ∈ Q then x − y ∈ Q.
Let x − y = pn ab , where p ̸ | a, p ̸ |b
Then vp (x − y) = n

consider d(x, y) = | x − y |p = p−vp (x−y) = p−n > 0 , as p ∈ Z is

prime.

(b) Let d(x, y) = 0

iff | x − y |p = 0
iff p−vp (x−y) = 0 = p−∞
iff vp (x − y) = ∞, as vp (0) = +∞
iff x − y = 0
iff x = y

(c) Since x and y ∈ Q the x − y ∈ Q.

Let x − y = pn ab ,where p ̸ | a, p ̸ |b
Then vp (x − y) = n
We can also write y − x = −pn ab , where p ̸ | a, p ̸ |b
Then vp (y − x) = n = vp (x − y)

Consider d(x, y) = | x − y |p = p−vp (x−y) = p−n = p−vp (y−x) =| y − x |p

= d(y, x).
Thus d(x, y) = d(y, x).

(d) Consider d(x, z) = | x − z |p

= | x + y − y − z |p

= | (x − y) + (y − z) |p
≤ max{| x − y |p , | y − z |p }
≤ | x − y |p + | y − z |p
= d(x, y) + d(y, z)

11
Hence we get d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z).

Proposition : If d(x, z) ≤ max{d(x, y), d(y, z)} then the metric defined
by d is non-Archimedean.
Proof : Let x, y, z ∈ Q
Consider d(x, z) = | x − z |p

= | x + y − y − z |p

= | (x − y) + (y − z) |p
≤ max{| x − y |p , | y − z |p }
= max{d(x, y), d(y, z)}
Thus,
d(x, z) ≤ max{d(x, y), d(y, z)}
This inequality is known as the “ultrametric inequality”, and a metric for
which it is true is sometimes called an “ultrametric”.
A space with an ultrametric is called an “ultrametric space”.

7 Geometry in Qp
Once we have a way to measure distances, we can do the geometry. So to do
the geometry in Qp we start with three following remarks:

Remarks :

(a) A point is an element of Qp .

(b) A triangle is three distinct point a, b the c in Qp . We will denote a

triangle by △abc.

(c) A triangle abc has sides of lengths given by d(a, b),d(b, c) and d(c, a).

Now we will see a geometry different from the euclidean geometry in

which all triangles are isosceles.

Theorem : In Qp , all triangles are isosceles.

Proof : Let △abc be a triangle. Let a, b and c be distinct points in Qp .

12
Then d(a, b), d(b, c) and d(a, c) are the lengths of the sides of the triangle
determined by those points.
If any two of d(a, b), d(b, c) and d(a, c) are equal, then we have nothing to
prove.
Without loss of generality, suppose d(a, b) ̸= d(b, c)
Then | a − b |p ̸= | b − c |p .
Here we note that | a − c |p = | (a − b) + (b − c) |p
But by using (d) property of p-adic absolute value of Qp i.e.,
If | x |p ̸=| y |p then | x + y |p = max{| x |p , | y |p }, we get,

| a − c |p = max{| (a − b) |p , | (b − c) |p }.

i.e., we get either | a − c |p = | (a − b) |p or | a − c |p = | (b − c) |p .

This implies either d(a, c) = d(a, b) or d(a, c) = d(b, c).

i.e., we get that, the length of the at least two sides of the triangle is always
equal in Qp .
Thus all triangles are isosceles in Qp .

Example : Let Q5 with | |5 .

Let x = 200, y = 185, z = 85 ∈ Q5 be vertices of a triangle.
By 5-adic metric we have,
d(x, y) =| x − y |5 = | 200 − 185 |5 = | 15 |5 = 1/5
and
d(y, z) =| y − z |5 = | 185 − 85 |5 = | 100 |5 = 1/25
It implies that d(x, y) ̸= d(y, z)
Now consider,
d(x, z) =| x − z |5 = | x − z + y − y |5 = | (x − y) + (y − z) |5

= | (200 − 185) + (185 − 85) |5 = | 15 + 100 |5

Since d(x, y) ̸= d(y, z),

Therefore by using (d) property of p−adic absolute value of Qp
i.e. if | x |p ̸=| y |p then | x + y |p = max{| x |p , | y |p }, we get,
d(x, z) =| 15 + 100 |5 = max{| 15 |5 , | 100 |5 } = max{1/5, 1/25} = 1/5
Hence we get, d(x, y) = d(x, z)

13
Therefore △xyz is isosceles triangle.

Theorem : If a triangle is not equilateral, the unequal side has the largest
valuation and hence the shortest length.
Proof : Let △abc be a triangle. Let a, b and c be distinct points in Qp .
Then d(a, b), d(b, c) and d(a, c) are the lengths of the sides of the triangle
determined by those points.
Since △abc is not equilateral.
Withot loss of generality, let d(a, b) = d(b, c) ̸= d(a, c)
Then | a − b |p = | b − c |p ̸= | a − c |p
i.e. p−vp (a−b) = p−vp (b−c) ̸= p−vp (a−c)
We get vp (a − b) = vp (b − c) ̸= vp (a − c)
Then vp (a − c) = vp (a − c + b − b)
= vp ((a − b) + (b − c))
≥ min{vp (a − b), vp (b − c)}, by property 3 of valuation
Since vp (a − c) ̸= vp (a − b) = vp (b − c)
We have vp (a − c) > vp (a − b)
Hence the unequal side has largest valuation.

Now, to show that the unequal side has the shortest length.
From above, we have vp (a − c) > vp (a − b) or vp (a − c) > vp (b − c)
Let vp (a − c) > vp (a − b)
Then pvp (a−c) > pvp (a−b)
This gives 1/pvp (a−c) < 1/pvp (a−b)
i.e. p−vp (a−c) > p−vp (a−b)
i.e. | a − c |p < | a − b |p
Thus d(a, c) < d(a, b)
Hence the unequal side has the shortest length.

In Euclidean geometry with the usual distance, collinearity is possible

with more than two point, but if we use the p−adic distance on Q, we see
that collinearity is impossible with more than two point.

Theorem : Given three points a, b and c ∈ Qp , d(a, c) < d(a, b) + d(b, c).

14
In other words, No three points in Qp are collinear.
Proof : Let △abc be a triangle. Let a, b and c be distinct points in Qp .
Then d(a, b), d(b, c) and d(a, c) are the lengths of the sides of the triangle
determined by those points.
By triangle inequality of p-adic distances on field Q, we have

d(a, c) ≤ d(a, b) + d(b, c) (1)

We have to prove that no three points are collinear.

i.e. d(a, c) < d(a, b) + d(b, c) (since three points a, b, c are collinear if and
only if d(a, c) = d(a, b) + d(b, c)), for this we use contradiction method.
Assume that these three points a, b and c are collinear this implies

d(a, c) = d(a, b) + d(b, c)

So we have d(a, c) > d(a, b) and d(a, c) > d(b, c)

Since d(a, c) > d(a, b) then | a − c |p > | a − b |p

i.e. p−vp (a−c) > p−vp (a−b) i.e., vp (a − c) < vp (a − b) (2)

Simillarly,
d(a, c) > d(b, c) i.e., vp (a − c) < vp (b − c) (3)

but vp (a − c) ≥ min{vp (a − b), vp (b − c)}, by property 3 of valuation

It means that either vp (a − c) ≥ vp (a − b) or vp (a − c) ≥ vp (b − c)
So its a contradiction to equations (2) and (3) .
Hence our assumption is wrong.
Therefore d(a, c) ̸= d(a, b) + d(b, c).
Thus by equation (1),
d(a, b) < d(a, c) + d(b, c).
Thus three points a, b and c are not collinear.

Example : Let a, b, c be the three points in Q3 .

Let a = 100, b = 75 and c = 93
By 3-adic metric, d(x, y) = | x − y |3
d(a, b) =| 100 − 75 |3 = | 25 |3 = 3−v3 (25) = 1;
d(a, c) =| 100 − 93 |3 = | 7 |3 = 3−v3 (7) = 1;
d(b, c) =| 75 − 93 |3 = | −18 |3 = 3−v3 (−18) = 3−2 = 1
32
.

15
We can see that d(a, c) ̸= d(a, b) + d(b, c).
Hence a, b, c are not collinear.

8 Completions
We are now ready to construct the p-adic field Qp . So first we need to recall
some important concepts from basic topology.

Definition : Let K be a field and let | | be absolute value on K.

(a) A sequence of elements xn ∈ K is called a Cauchy sequence if for every

ϵ > 0 there exists N ∈ N such that | xn − xm |< ϵ whenever n, m > N .

(b) The field K is called Complete with respect to the absolute value | | if
every Cauchy sequence of elements of K are convergent in K (i.e. it
has limit that is also in K).

The first useful thing to note is that the Cauchy sequences can be char-
acterized much more simply when the absolute value is non-archimedean.

Lemma : A sequence {xn } of rational numbers is a Cauchy sequence with

respect to non-archimedean absolute value | |p if and only if we have

lim | xn+1 − xn |p = 0
n→∞

We already know that Q is not complete with respect to the metric given
by the usual absolute value. Now here arises a question that whether Q is
complete with respect to the new distances or not ?
The answer is no. We will show this in the following lemma:

Lemma : The field Q of rational numbers is not complete with respect

to any of its nontrivial absolute values.
Proof : By Ostrowski’s theorem, any non-trivial absolute value on Q is ei-
ther | |∞ or | |p . In case of usual absolute value, i.e., | |∞ , we already know
Q is not complete, so we look for p-adic absolute values.
We take non-trivial absolute value to be | |p , for some odd prime p and try
to prove that Q is not complete with respect to | |p . To prove this, we need

16
to construct a Cauchy sequence in Q which does not have limit in Q.
(The idea for constructing such a Cauchy sequence is, we need to find a co-
herent sequence of modulo pn (p : prime) of an equation that has no solution
in Q.
Suppose p is a odd prime. Choose an integer a ∈ Z such that

• a is not a square in Q;

• p does not divide a;

• a is a quadratic residue modulo p, i.e., the congruence x2 ≡ a mod p

has a solution .

Now we can construct a Cauchy sequence ( with respect to | |p ) in the

following way:

• choose x0 to be any solution of x2 ≡ a mod p, i.e., x20 ≡ a mod p where

1 ≤ x0 ≤ p − 1 and x0 ̸= 0 as x0 should be invertible;

• choose another solution x1 such that x1 ≡ x0 mod p and x21 ≡ a mod p2

as x1 ≡ x0 mod p, we have x1 = x0 + pt now

x21 ≡ a mod p2

x21 = a + p2 k
(x0 + pt)2 = a + p2 k
x20 + 2px0 t + p2 t2 = a + p2 k
x20 + 2px0 t = a + p2 (k − t2 )
a + 2px0 t = a + p2 k ′ ,
(as x20 ≡ a mod p and here k ′ = k − t2 )

2x0 t = pk ′

pk ′
t= ,
2x0
value of t exist as we are in congruence modulo p. This proves the
existence of x0 .
Simillarly we can choose x2 such that x2 ≡ x1 mod p2 and x22 ≡ a mod

17
 p3 .
.
.
.
continuing like this in general we can choose xn ≡ xn−1 mod pn and
x2n ≡ a mod pn+1 .
We can see that such a sequence xn do exist as the initial element x0 exists.
Now we check that the sequence obtained above is Cauchy sequence. It is
clear from the construction that xn+1 ≡ xn mod pn+1
This implies that xn+1 = xn + λpn+1

| xn+1 − xn |p = | λpn+1 |p ≤ p−(n+1) → 0

Hence by previous lemma we see that the sequence of xn is indeed Cauchy

sequence. We also know that x2n ≡ a mod pn+1 ,
We get that x2n = a + µpn+1

| x2n − a |p = | µpn+1 |p ≤ p−(n+1) → 0

Thus we get x2n converges to a.

i.e., | x2n − a | < ϵ implies x2n = a, which is contradiction as a is not a square
in Q.
Hence Q is not complete with respect to | |p , where p is odd prime.

Now for completion we emphasize p and Q. For this we need to add more
points to Q as completion of Q depends on the metric used and is based on
the notion of Cauchy sequences.

Definition : Let | |p be a non-archimedean absolute value on Q.We denote

by C, or by Cp (Q), the set of all Cauchy sequence of elements of Q.
C = Cp (Q) = {(xn ) : (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence with respect to | |p }.
Proposition : By defining

(xn ) + (yn ) = (xn + yn )

(xn )(yn ) = (xn yn ),

18
the set C is a commutative ring with unity.
Proof : Note that the addition and multiplication be commutative and as-
sociative as well as distributive, as Q forms a ring itself. Now only remains
to show that the set C contains unity. For this we take the constant Cauchy
sequence (xn ) = (1, 1, 1, ...) which is converges to 1.
Consider (xn )(yn ) = (1, 1, 1, ...)(yn ) = (yn ) = (yn )(1, 1, 1, ...) = (yn )(xn ).

Now we only need to check that the sum and product of two Cauchy se-
quences, as defined in above proposition, are also Cauchy sequence.

Let (xn ) be a Cauchy sequence in Q with respect to | |p .

by definition, for some ϵ > 0, ∃N ∈ N such that | xn − xm |p < 2ϵ , for all
n > N.
Simillarly, let (yn ) be a Cauchy sequence in Q with respect to | |p .
by definition, for some ϵ > 0, ∃M ∈ N such that | yn − ym |p < 2ϵ , for all
n > M.
choose n > max{N, M }
Consider for ϵ > 0 and n > max{N, M },

| (xn + yn ) − (xm + ym ) |p ≤ | xn − xm |p + | yn − ym |p
ϵ ϵ
+ =ϵ
<
2 2
This implies | (xn + yn ) − (xm + ym ) |p < ϵ, for all n > max{N, M }.
Thus (xn + yn ) is a Cauchy sequence in Q with respect to | |p .
Further, for multiplication we have

| xn yn − xm ym |p = | xn yn − yn xm + yn xm − xm ym |p

= | yn (xn − xm ) + xm (yn − ym ) |p
≤ | yn |p | xn − xm |p + | xm |p | yn − ym |p
ϵ ϵ
< | yn |p + | xm |p
2 2
1ϵ 1ϵ 1 ϵ ϵ 1
< + = ( + ) = ϵ < ϵ,
k2 k2 k 2 2 k

19
as Cauchy sequence (xn ) and (yn ) is bounded by some 1/k, where k > 0.
This implies | xn yn − xm ym |p < ϵ, for all n > max{N, M }.
Thus (xn yn ) is also a Cauchy sequence in Q with respect to | |p .
Hence the sum and product of two Cauchy sequences is also a Cauchy se-
quence. Therefore closure property is also satisfied under addition and mul-
tiplication.
Thus the set C forms a commutative ring with unity.

Now we have a set of all Cauchy sequences C which forms a commutative

ring with unity. Then, we can ask the question that “can a ring C forms a
field too?”

Let (xn ) ∈ C, where (xn ) ̸= 0 = {0, 0, 0, ....}. If any term in (xn ) equals
zero (for example, {1, 0, 1, 0, ...}), then (xn ).(yn ) ̸= 1 = {1, 1, 1, ...} for any
(yn ) ∈ C, also 0 is not invertible, and so (xn )−1 does not exist, for any
(xn ) ∈ C.

Hence we conclude that the ring C does not form a field, because not all
non-zero elements are invertible. Moreover, it contains zero divisors as the
product of the non-zero two sequences in C (for example {0, 1, 1, 1, ...} and
{1, 0, 0, 0, ...}) is clearly 0 = {0, 0, 0, ...}.

Now we define f : Q → C by constant sequence f (x) = {x, x, x, ...} denoted

by (x). Note that f is 1-1 and f (Q) ⊂ C. So, we say there is an inclusion of
Q into C denoted Q ,→ C.

We say two Cauchy sequences are equivalent when they share the same limit
and we define the set N ⊂ C of sequences that tends to zero.
Definition : We define N ⊂ C to be the ideal
N = {(xn ) : xn → 0} = {(xn ) : lim | xn |p = 0}
n→∞

of sequences that tend to zero with respect to absolute value | |p .

Now, we will show that N is an ideal of C.

Let (xn ), (yn ) ∈ N =⇒ xn → 0 and yn → 0
i.e. limn→∞ | xn |p = 0 and limn→∞ | yn |p = 0, (By definition of N)

20
Consider,
(xn − yn ) = (xn + (−yn )) = (xn ) + (−yn ) = (xn ) − (yn ) → 0 − 0 = 0
Hence (xn − yn ) ∈ N
Now, for (zn ) ∈ C and (xn ) ∈ N
Consider,
limn→∞ | xn .zn |p = limn→∞ (| xn |p . | zn |p )
= limn→∞ | xn |p . limn→∞ | zn |p = 0. limn→∞ | zn |p = 0
Simillarly, limn→∞ | zn .xn |p = 0
Hence (xn ).(zn ) ∈ N and (zn ).(xn ) ∈ N
Therefore, N is an ideal of C.

Now, we will show that N is maximal ideal of C.

Lemma : N is a maximal ideal of C

Proof : Let (xn ) ∈ C be a Cauchy sequence that does not tend to zero (i.e.,
does not belong to N).
Let I be the ideal generated by (xn ) and N, i.e., I = ⟨x, N⟩.
We get N ⊂ I ⊂ C, we have to prove that N is maximal ideal, i.e., I = N or
I = C.
So we want to show that I must be all of C. We will do that by showing that
the unit element (1) (i.e., the constant sequence corresponding to 1) is in I.

This is enough, because any ideal that contains the unit element must be
the whole ring.

Now, since (xn ) does not tend to zero and is a Cauchy sequence, it must
“eventually” be away from zero, that is, there must exist a number c > 0
and an integer N such that | xn | ≥ c > 0, whenever n ≥ N . Now in particu-
lar this means that xn ̸= 0 for n ≥ N , so that we may define a new sequence
(yn ) setting yn = 0 if n < N and yn = x1n if n ≥ N .

The first thing to check is that (yn ) is a Cauchy sequence. But that is
clear because if n ≥ N we have
 
 1 1  | xn+1 − xn |p | xn+1 − xn |p
| yn+1 − yn |p = 
 −  = ≤ → 0,
xn+1 xn p | xn xn+1 |p c2

21
as (xn ) is Cauchy sequence.
It shows that (yn ) is Cauchy sequence, i.e., (yn ) ∈ C.

Now notice that, (

0, if n < N
xn yn =
1, if n ≥ N

This means that the product sequence (xn )(yn ) consists of a finite number
of 0’s followed by an infinite string of 1’s.
i.e., (xn )(yn ) = {0, 0, · · · , 0, 1, 1, · · · }. In particular, if we subtract it from
the constant sequence (1), we get a sequence that tends to zero.
i.e., {1, 1, · · · } − {0, 0, · · · , 0, 1, 1, · · · } = {0, 0, · · · }
In other words
(1) − (xn )(yn ) ∈ N

It means that
(1) ∈ (xn )(yn ) + N

This says that (1) can be written as a multiple of (xn ) plus an element of N.
Hence (1) belongs to I, as we had claimed.
Thus N is maximal ideal of C.

Now by taking the quotient of the ring C by the ideal N ,we make things
even nicer i.e., the taking a quotient of the a ring by a maximal ideal gives
us a field. Momentarily, we define this field:

Definition: We define the field of p−adic numbers to be the quotient of

the ring C by its maximal ideal N:

Qp = C/N.

The Field Of p-adic Numbers Qp

For any two Cauchy sequences {xn } and {yn } , if | xn − yn |p → 0 as n → ∞

22
then the two Cauchy sequences are equivalent.
Then we say the set of equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences, Qp , the
p-adic numbers.

Note : The p-adic absolute value of an equivalence class x is limn→∞ | xn |p ,

where {xn } is any sequence which represents x.
i.e. | x |p = limn→∞ | xn |p

Now we define addition , multiplication , multiplicative inverse and addi-

tive inverse on Qp .

Let x and y be the two equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences with repre-
sentatives {xn } and {yn } respectively, i.e. x , y ∈ Qp

We show that x.y to be the equivalence class ,which is represented by the

Cauchy sequence {xn yn }. i.e. x.y ∈ Qp .
If we have another two Cauchy sequence {x′n } and {yn′ } which also represents
x and y respectively then we would have,

| x′n yn′ − xn yn |p = | x′n yn′ − x′n yn + x′n yn − xn yn |p

= | x′n (yn′ − yn ) + yn (x′n − xn ) |p

≤ max{| x′n (yn′ − yn ) |p , | yn (x′n − xn ) |p }
= max{| x′n |p | yn′ − yn |p , | yn |p | x′n − xn |p }

The limit of terms in right hand side of above expression is

| x |p limn→∞ | yn′ − yn |p = 0 and | y |p limn→∞ | x′n − xn |p = 0, (since x
and y are equivalence classes.)
This implies that limn→∞ | x′n yn′ − xn yn |p = 0
Therefore {x′n yn′ } ∼ {xn yn }
This implies that x.y ∈ Qp , it means that multiplication is defined on Qp .

Now we want to define multiplicative inverse on Qp .

For this we have to prove that 1/x to be the equivalence class with the
representative {1/xn }, i.e. 1/x ∈ Qp

23
Let {1/x′n } be another Cauchy sequence which also represent x.
Then we would have,
xn − x′n
| 1/x′n − 1/xn |p = | ′
|p = | xn − x′n |p | (x′n )−1 (xn )−1 |p
x n xn
= | xn − x′n |p | 1/(x′n xn ) |p

Taking limit as n tends to infinity on both the side,

limn→∞ | 1/x′n − 1/xn |p = limn→∞ | xn − x′n |p limn→∞ | 1/(x′n xn ) |p

But limn→∞ | xn − x′n |p = 0, (as x is equivalence class)

This gives that limn→∞ | 1/x′n − 1/xn |p = 0

Hence {1/x′n } ∼ {1/xn }

It implies that 1/x ∈ Qp , i.e multiplicative inverse is defined on Qp

Now we define x + y to be equivalence class that is represented by the

Cauchy sequence {xn + yn } , i.e. x + y ∈ Qp .
Once again if we have another two Cauchy sequences {x′n } and {y} which
also represents x and y respectively then we would have:
| (x′n + yn′ ) − (xn + yn ) |p = |x′n − xn + yn′ − yn |p
≤ max{| x′n − xn |p , | yn′ − yn |p }

Then limit of right hand side of above expressions is limn→∞ (| x′n −xn |p ) = 0
and limn→∞ (| yn′ − yn |p ) = 0 (since x and y are in Qp )
This implies that limn→∞ | (x′n + yn′ ) − (xn + yn ) |p = 0
Hence {x′n + yn′ } ∼ {xn + yn }
This implies that x + y ∈ Qp , it means that addition is defined on Qp .

Now define −x to be equivalence class that is represented by Cauchy

sequence {−xn }, i.e. {−x} ∈ Qp
If we have {−x′n } which also represents −x then we have
| (−x′n ) − (−xn ) |p = | −x′n + xn |p

24
 =| −(x′n − xn ) |p = | x′n − xn |p

As x is in Qp , limn→∞ | x′n − xn |p = 0
Therefore by above expression we have limn→∞ | (−x′n ) − (−xn ) |p = 0
Hence {−x′n } ∼ {−xn }
It means that −x ∈ Qp , i.e. additive inverse is also defined on Qp .

With addition, multiplication and inverses as defined above now we show

that the set of equivalence classes of Cauchy sequence Qp , is a field.

Let the Cauchy sequences {xn },{yn },{zn } be representatives of x, y, z ∈ Qp .

Now let us check for the distributive law; x(y + z) is the equivalence class of,

{xn (yn + zn )} = {xn yn + xn zn }

So xy + xz is also an equivalence class. Hence x(y + z) = xy + xz, so the

distributive law holds.

Now the associative law; x + (y + z) is the equivalence class of,

{xn + (yn + zn )} = {xn + yn + zn } = {(xn + yn ) + zn }

So (x + y) + z is also an equivalence class.

Hence x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z, so the associative law holds.

Now commutative law; x + y is the equivalence class of,

{xn + yn } = {yn + xn }

So y + x is also an equivalence class.

Hence x + y = y + x, so the commutative law holds.
Thus by all above defined properties we can conclude that Qp is a field.

25
 Notice that the two different constant sequences never differ by an element
of N (their difference is just another constant sequence...). Hence we still have
an inclusion
Q ,→ Qp
by sending x ∈ Q to the equivalence class of the constant sequence (x).
To check we have indeed obtained the completion, we must now check the
remaining two requirements: that Q is dense in Qp , and that Qp is complete.
The first is easy:

Proposition : The image of Q under the inclusion Q ,→ Qp is a dense

subset of Qp .
Proof : Given the inclusion of Q into Qp denoted Q ,→ Qp , therefore we
have f (Q) ⊂ Qp . We have to show that f (Q) is dense in Qp . That is we
have to show, intersection of any open ball in Qp with f (Q) is non-empty.
i.e., we need to show that any open ball around an element in Qp contains an
element of (the image of) Q, i.e., a constant sequence, so fix a radius r > 0.
Let λ = (xn ) ∈ Qp be a Cauchy sequence and let ϵ be a number slightly
smaller than r. By Cauchy property, for ϵ > 0, ∃ an natural number N such
that | xn − xm |p < ϵ whenever n, m ≥ N .
Let x = xN and consider the constant sequence (x).
Claim: f (Q) ∩ B(λ, r) ̸= ∅, for every λ ∈ Qp and for fix r > 0.
i.e., for (x) ∈ f (Q), (x) ∈ B(λ, r).
i.e., | λ − (x) |p < r.
Consider, | λ − (x) |p = | (xn ) − (x) |p = | (xn − x) |p = limn→∞ | xn − x |p
= limn→∞ | xn − xN |p < ϵ < r.
Thus constant sequence of (x) ∈ f (Q) belong to B(λ, r) for λ ∈ Qp and for
some fix radius r > 0. Hence we are done.

Now, it remains to check the completion of the field of p-adic numbers Qp .

Proposition : The field of p-adic numbers Qp is complete with respect

to | |p .
Proof : Let xn be a Cauchy sequence in Qp .
therefore for given ϵ > 0, there exist an N such that | xn − xm |p < when
n, m ≥ N . (1)

26
Take ϵ = p1k , where k ∈ Z
therefore equation (1) becomes,
1
| xn − xm |p <
pk
this implies
1
p−vp (xn −xm ) <
pk
this gives us
1 1
<
pvp (xn −xm ) pk
i.e.,
pvp (xn −xm ) > pk
i.e.,
vp (xn − xm ) > k

But this implies that the first k terms of xn and xm are the same, and this
is the same as making the sequence terms arbitrarily close to some p-adic
number.
So any sequence in Qp that is Cauchy with respect to | |p will converge.
Thus the field Qp is complete.

?????????
Proof : Let λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn , · · · be a Cauchy sequence of elements of Qp (so
that each λi , for i = 1, 2, · · · , n, · · · is a Cauchy sequence of elements of Q,
taken upto equivalence.)
As we know that the image of Q is dense in Qp so we can find rational num-
bers y (1) , y (2) , · · · , y (n) , · · · such that Cauchy sequence λn and the constant
sequence y (n) are arbitrarily close. i.e., we have
limn→∞ | λn − (y (n) ) |p = 0
This shows that (λn − y (n) ) is zero sequence in Qp .
We can write y (n) = λn − λn + y (n) = λn − (λn − y (n) )
As (λn ) is a Cauchy sequence in Qp and (λn − y (n) ) is zero sequence hence
cauchy sequence.
We get that (y (n) ) is a Cauchy sequence in Q as well as Qp .
i.e., the rational numbers y (1) , y (2) , · · · , y (n) , · · · themselves form Cauchy se-
quence in Q.

27
Let λ denote the element of Qp corresponding to this sequence, i.e., λ =
y (n) + N.
Now we can write λ − λn = (λ − y (n) ) + (y (n) − λn ).
Because of denseness of Q in Qp , λ − y (n) converges to zero and (y (n) − λn )
also converges to zero as it is a zero sequence.
Hence λ − λn converges to zero in Qp .
i.e., limn→∞ λn = λ.
We get that a Cauchy sequence λn in Qp converges to λ ∈ Qp .
Thus Qp is complete with respect to | |p because every cauchy sequence in
Qp is convergent.
????????

Hence it allows us to continue without paying attention to the details of

the completion. The field of p-adic numbers is unique, meaning no other field
shares its established properties, and so we concentrate on these properties
to give a concrete description of p-adic number.

Now we begin to explore the structure of the field Qp . Since Qp is the

field with non-archimedean valuation, we can consider the corresponding
valuation ring. The resulting ring has a name of its own:

9 p-adic Integers
Definition : The ring of p-adic integers is the valuation ring

Zp = {x ∈ Qp : | x |p ≤ 1}.

Examples : For p = 2, | 3 |2 = 2−v2 (3) = 2−0 = 1

For p = 2, | 4 |2 = 2−v2 (4) = 2−2 = 1/4 < 1
Remark:
• Here we observe that all p-adic absolute value of integers Z is always
less than are equal to 1 hence all integers lies in Zp .
• Also Note that Zp is closed unit ball with centre 0, therefore it is a
closed set in Qp , as every closed ball is closed set.
Now we discuss more about Zp ...

28
Proposition: let R be a commutative ring with unity and If M ̸= (1)
be any ideal of commutative ring R with unity such that every x ∈ R \ M is
an unit of R. Then, R is local ring and M is its maximal ideal.

Proof: We prove that M is the unique maximal ideal of R

We first prove that M is an maximal ideal of R.
This is easy because for every x ∈ R \ M, the ideal generated by M and x
contains an unit and hence the ideal generated by M and x becomes unit
ideal (1).
Thus we proved M is maximal.
Now we prove M is unique with the above property, i.e., every element of M
is unit.
Suppose there exits M ′ an maximal ideal of R with the same property on
above, i.e., every element of M ′ is unit.
CASE I: M ⊊ M ′
Then every x ∈ M ′ \ M is an unit.
This implies M ′ = R
i.e., M ′ can not be a maximal ideal of R.
Thus we get M ⊂ M ′

CASE II: M ′ ⊊ M
This implies every element outside M ′ is an unit, we get that 1 ∈ M , which
is a contradiction as M is proper ideal of R.
Thus M ′ ⊂ M .
Hence by cases I and II we get M = M ′
i.e., M is the unique maximal ideal of R.
Thus R is a local ring.

Lemma : The valuation ring Zp is local ring with unique maximal ideal
pZp = {x ∈ Qp : | x |p < 1}
Proof : We will prove it by using proposition “If M ̸= (1) be any ideal of
commutative ring R with unity such that every x ∈ R \ M is an unit of R.
Then, R is local ring and M is its maximal ideal.”
For this first we will show that pZp is ideal.
Let x, y ∈ pZp , this implies | x |p < 1, | y |p < 1, for x, y ∈ Qp . So we get
max{| x |p , | y |p } < 1.
Therefore we get | x − y |p ≤ max{| x |p , | −y |p } = max{| x |p , | y |p } < 1

29
,as | −1 |p = 1.
Thus x − y ∈ pZp .
Now for r ∈ Zp , | r |p ≤ 1 and x ∈ pZp , | x |p < 1.
We consider | rx |p = | r |p | x |p ≤ 1 | x |p < 1.
This implies rx ∈ pZp .
Similarly, we get xr ∈ pZp
Hence pZp is an ideal of Zp .
Further , only we have to prove that every x ∈ Zp /pZp is an unit of Zp .
if x ∈
/ pZp but x ∈ Zp =⇒ | x |p = 1 , x ∈ Qp .
Thus | 1/x |p = 1 as Qp is field.
This implies x−1 ∈ Zp and x is invertible element.
Hence we get for x ∈ Zp ,there exists x−1 in Zp such that x.x−1 = 1.
Since x is arbitrary , therefore we get every element in Zp outside pZp is an
unit of Zp .
Hence Zp is local ring and pZp is its maximal ideal.

???????????
Proposition : The ring Zp of p-adic integers is a local ring whose maximal
ideal is the principal ideal pZp = {x ∈ Q : | x |p < 1}. Furthermore,
i) Q ∩ Zp = Z(p) = { ab ∈ Q : p ̸ | b}
i) Q ∩ Zp = Z(p) = { ab ∈ Q : p ̸ | b}
ii)The inclusion Z ,→ Zp has dense image. In particular, given x ∈ Zp and
n ≥ 1, there exist α ∈ x ∈ Z, 0 ≤ α ≤ pn − 1, such that | x − α |≤ p−n . The
integer α with these properties is unique.
iii)For any x ∈ Zp , there exists a Cauchy sequence αn converging to x, of
the following type:
• αn ∈ Z satisfies 0 ≤ αn ≤ pn − 1
• for every n we have αn ≡ αn−1 (mod pn−1 ).
The sequence (αn ) with these properties is unique.
Proof : Let I be the valuation ideal of the valuation ring Zp .
To see that the valuation ideal is indeed generated by p,

30
Let x ∈ I ⊂ Zp ,
This implies | x |p ≤ 1
By definition of p-adic absolute value of Qp ,
| x |p = p−vp (x) , where vp (x) ∈ Z
1
implies | x |p = pvp (x)
< p1 , (as pvp (x) > p for vp (x) ∈ Z)
x
Similarly, | x
|
p p
= p−vp ( p ) = p−(vp (x)−vp (p)) = p−vp (x)+vp (p)
= p−vP (x)+1 = p−vp (x) × p = | x |p ×p < 1
p
×p=1
Thus, | xp |p < 1
This implies xp ∈ Zp , i.e., x ∈ pZp
Hence I ⊂ pZp , i.e., valuation ideal is contained in pZp .
But pZp is maximal ideal and pZp ̸= Zp .
Hence by definition of maximal ideal, I = pZp .

Further i) Q ∩ Zp = Z(p) = { ab ∈ Q : p ̸ | b}
Let x ∈ Q ∩ Zp .
i.e., x ∈ Q and x ∈ Zp , by definition of p-adic , x = pn a/b , p ̸ | a, b
We can write x = a′ /b, where a′ = pn a with p ̸ | b.
This implies x ∈ Z(p) .
Hence Q ∩ Zp ⊂ Z(p) .
Now to prove that Z(p) ⊂ Q ∩ Zp .
Let x ∈ Z(p) , this implies x = a/b ∈ Q; p ̸ | b, by definition of Zp .
a |a|p |a|p
Now | |
b p
= |b|p
= p−0
, as p ̸ | b.
|a|p
= 1
=| a |p , but as a ∈ Zp , | a |p ≤ 1.
a
Hence | |
b p
≤ 1, this implies | x |p ≤ 1.
Hence x ∈ Zp , thus we get x ∈ Q ∩ Zp .
Therefore Z(p) ⊂ Q ∩ Zp .
Hence we can conclude that Q ∩ Zp = Z(p) .

ii)The inclusion Z ,→ Zp has dense image. In particular, given x ∈ Zp

and n ≥ 1, there exist α ∈ x ∈ Z, 0 ≤ α ≤ pn − 1, such that | x − α |≤ p−n .
The integer α with these properties is unique.
We choose x ∈ Zp and n ≥ 1.

31
Since Q is dense in Qp , one can certainly find a/b ∈ Q which is close enough
to x so that
a
| x − | ≤ p−n ≤ 1.
b

The point is show that we can in fact choose an integer. But notice that for
a ̸ | b as above, we will have
a a
| |≤ max{| x |, | x − |} ≤ 1,
b b

which say that a/b ∈ Z(p) , i.e., p ̸ | b. Now recall that, from the elementary
theory of congruences, if p ̸ | b there exits an integer b′ ∈ Z such that bb′ ≡
1(modpn ), which implies that
a
| − ab′ |≤ p−n ,
b

and of course ab′ ∈ Z. Finally, we need to check that we can find an inte-
ger between zero and pn − 1, but this is clear from the connection between
congruences modulo powers of p-adic absolute value: choosing α to be the
unique integer such that
0 ≤ α ≤ pn − 1
and
α ≡ ab′ (modpn )

gives | x − α |≤ p−n

iii)
???????????

We shall devote this section to the p-adic integers which we denote by Zp .

These are of particular interest to us, especially as they lie in sharp contrast
with the P
ring of integers Z. The p-adic integers consist of all expansion of
the form ∞ n
n=0 an p for a prime p and an = {0, 1, ..., p − 1}.

Definition: Let p < ∞ be a prime.PWe define the p-adic integers,denoted

Zp , to be the collection of all sums: ∞ n
n=0 an p , with an ∈ {0, ..., p − 1}.
In other words, Zp consists of all numbers with no negative powers of p in
its expansion.

32
 Here we consider the system of congruence x2 ≡ 2 mod 7n and we try
to show that 7-adic expansion number

x = 3 + 1 × 7 + 2 × 49 + 6 × 343 + · · ·

, satisfies x2 = 2 in Q7 .
For this , we first compute the solution for x2 ≡ 2 mod 7 , which is 3 and 4.
therefore, we get x ≡ 3 mod 7 and x ≡ 4 mod 7 ≡ −3 mod 7.
Now we compute the solution for x2 ≡ 2 mod 7j ,for this we lifting our
solution from modulo 7 to modulo 72 to modulo 73 , until we get to the 7j
that is our target.
Let us see this,
For j = 2, i.e.
x2 ≡ 2 mod 72
x2 ≡ 2 mod 49

Now to find solution , note that their reductions module 7 must be solution
for j = 1.
Hence we set x = 3 + 7k or x = 4 + 7k , for some k ∈ Z
Now solve for k ,
Consider
x = 3 + 7k
(3 + 7k)2 ≡ 2 mod 72
9 + 42k ≡ 2 mod 49
7 + 42k ≡ 0 mod 49
7(1 + 6k) ≡ 0 mod 49
1 + 6k ≡ 0 mod 7
6k ≡ −1 mod 7
6k ≡ 6 mod 7
36k ≡ 36 mod 7
k ≡ 1 mod 7

We get k = 1

33
Therefore x = 3 + 7k gives x = 3 + 7 = 10
Thus,
x ≡ 10 mod 49

For j = 3, i.e.
x2 ≡ 2 mod 73
x2 ≡ 2 mod 343

Now to find solution , note that their reductions module 72 must be solution
for j = 2.
Hence we set x = 10 + 49k
Solve for k ,
(10 + 49k)2 ≡ 2 mod 343
100 + 980k ≡ 2 mod 343
98 + 980k ≡ 0 mod 343
49(2 + 20k) ≡ 0 mod 343
2 + 20k ≡ 0 mod 7
20k ≡ −2 mod 7
6k ≡ 5 mod 7
36k ≡ 30 mod 7
k ≡ 2 mod 7

We get k = 2
Therefore x = 10 + 49k gives x = 10 + 49 × 2 = 10 + 98 = 108
Thus,
x ≡ 108 mod 343

Similarly for j = 4,
we have x = 108 + 343k and we get that

x ≡ 2166 mod 2401

34
We can easily see that this process can be continued indefinitely.
Hence we get,
For j = 1, x ≡ 3 mod 7
For j = 2, x ≡ 10 = 3 + 1 × 7 mod 49
For j = 3, x ≡ 108 = 3 + 1 × 7 + 2 × 49 mod 343
For j = 4, x ≡ 2166 = 3 + 1 × 7 + 2 × 49 + 6 × 343 mod 2401
and so on.
We obtain a sequence
x0 , x1 , · · · , xj , · · · ,

satisfying the condition

xj ≡ xj−1 mod 7j

Thus 7-adic expansion of the solution x = 3 + 1 × 7 + 2 × 49 + 6 × 343 + · · · =

3 + 1 × 7 + 2 × 72 + 6 × 73 + · · · .
Thus given value of x satisfies x2 = 2 in Q7 .
Now we compute a solution to x2 ≡ 2 mod 7j+1 ( the induction step).
Here we explain the induction step:
Assume that we have a solution x0 such that x2 ≡ 2 mod 7j .
Then we look for a lift of x0 mod 7j to x1 mod 7j+1 that satisfies x21 ≡ 2 mod
7j+1 .
Here the lifting equation,
x1 = x0 + 7j y0
(1)
,where y0 is unknown
ensures that x0 mod 7j+1 is a lift of x0 mod 7j .
And
x21 ≡ 2 mod 7j+1
(2)
is the equation we are trying to solve.
For this plugging equation (1) into equation (2) gives,

2 ≡ x21 mod 7j+1

2 ≡ (x0 + 7j y0 )2 mod 7j+1

35
 2 ≡ x20 + 72j y02 + 2 x0 y0 7j mod 7j+1
2 ≡ x20 mod 7j+1

We get,
x20 ≡ 2 mod 7j+1

Here we can see that the variable y0 has completely disappeared from the
equation so we cannot solve for it.
Hence by induction hypothesis, equation x2 ≡ 2 mod 7n has solution for all
n.

We now note the interesting fact that the 7-adic field Q7 is strictly bigger
than the field Q.
Clearly Q is contained in Q7 , as we know that Q is 7-adic expansion of Q.
Now only remain to√show that Q7 is strictly bigger than Q.
For x2 = 2 , x = ± 2 ∈ /Q
i.e. x2 = 2 has no solution in Q.
But it has solution in Q7 , as we have seen above.
Hence the field Q7 is strictly bigger than Q.

As we saw above that the x2 = 2 has solution in Q7 but now we will see
that x2 = 2 has no solution in Q5 .
For proving this we use contradiction.
We consider the system of congruence

x2 ≡ 2 mod 5n .

Suppose it has solution in Q5 , i.e. that solution will have 5-adic expansion.
i.e. it is of the form a0 + a1 5 + a2 52 + · · ·

Therefore by our assumption x2 ≡ 2 mod 5 has solution a0 .

i.e. a0 must satisfy a congruence module 5.

For finding a0 , the possible values of a0 is 0, 1, 2 , 3 and 4.

For a0 = 0, 02 = 0 ̸≡ 2 mod 5 as 5 ̸ | 2 ;
a0 = 1, 12 = 1 ≡
̸ 2 mod 5 as 5 ̸ | 1 ;

36
a0 = 2, 22 = 4 ̸≡ 2 mod 5 as 5 ̸ | 2 ;
a0 = 3, 32 = 9 ̸≡ 2 mod 5 as 5 ̸ | 7 ;
and a0 = 4, 42 = 16 ̸≡ 2 mod 5 as 5 ̸ | 14.

Observe that any value of a0 doesn’t satisfy congruence x2 ≡ 2 mod 5. It

means that a0 is not solution.
i.e. x2 ≡ 2 mod 5 has no solution of the form x ≡ a0 mod 5
As a0 is not solution then 5-adic expansion a0 +a1 5+a2 52 +· · · is not solution
of system of congruence x2 ≡ 2 mod 5n .
Our assumption is wrong. Hence x2 = 2 has no solution in Q5 .

Hensel’s Lemma :

Let F (x) = ao + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + ... + an xn be a polynomial whose

coefficients one in Zp . Suppose that there exists a p−adic integers α1 ∈ Zp
such that
F (α1 ) = 0(modpZp )
&
F ′ (α1 ) = 0(modpZp )
where F ′ (x) is the derivative of F (x). Then there exists a p−adic integer
α ∈ Zp ) such that α ≡ α1 (modpZ) & F (α) = 0.

Proof : We need to find a p−adic integers α such that α ≡ α1 (modpZ)

i.e. for all n F (α ≡ 0(modpn ) & F (α) = 0
We need to construct a sequence of integers α1 , α2 , . . . , αb , . . . such that for
all n ≥ 1 we have

(1) F (αn ) ≡ 0(modpn )

(2) αn ≡ αn+1 (modpn )

By assumption in the given lemma α1 exists.

To find we use condition (2)
⇒ α2 = α1 + b1 p for some b1 ∈ Zp
putting this expression into the polynomial F (x) & expanding we get

37
 i=n
X
F (α1 ) = F (α1 + b1 p) = ai (α1 + b1 p)i
i=0
i=n
X
= (ai αii + iai α1i−1 b1 p + terms divisible by p2 )
i=0
i=n
X Xi=n
≡ ai α1i ( iai α1i+1 )b1 p(modp2 )
i=0 i=0

≡ F (α1 ) + F (α1 )b1 p(modp2 )

To show that one can find α1 , we have to show that

F (α1 ) + F ′ (α1 )b1 p ≡ 0(modp2 )

Now, we know that F (α1 ) ≡ 0(modp2 ) so that F (α1 ) = px for some x, the
equation then becomes px + F ′ (α1 )b1 p ≡ 0(modp2 )
⇒ x + F ′ (α1 )b1 p ≡ 0(modp) (divide by p)
Note that F ′ (α1 ) is not divisible by p
∴ It’s inverse exists in Zp (invertible) we get

b1 = −x(F ′ (α1 ))− 1(modp)

such that 0 ≤ b1 ≤ p − 1
for this choice of b1 , we get

α2 = α1 + b1 p

Continuing with the Induction, Suppose we already have found α1 , α2 , . . . , αn−1 , . . .

that satisfies (1), (2). We want to find αn that satisfies (1) & (2)
So, αn = αn−1 + bn−1 pn−1 with bn ∈ Zp
We expand
F (αn−1 + bn−1 pn−1 ))
≡ F (αn−1 ) + F ′ (αn−1 )bn−1 pn−1 (modpn )

We know that F (αn−1 ) ≡ 0(modpn−1 ) So, we can write by the Induction

38
assumption F (αn−1 ) ≡ 0(modpn−1 )
⇒ F (αn−1 ) ≡ ypn−1 for some y, the equation becomes

F (αn ) ≡ ypn−1 + F ′ (αn−1 )bn−1 pn−1 ≡ 0(modp)

⇒ y + F ′ (αn−1 )bn−1 ≡ 0(modp)

Note that, F ′ (αn−1 ) is not divisible by p

$ ∴ F ′ (αn−1 ) is invertible
∴ we get bn−1 ≡ −y(F ′ (αn−1 ))−1 modp such that 0 ≤ bn−1 ≤ p − 1 for this
choice og bn−1 , we get
αn = αn−1 = bn−1 pn−1 & F (αn ) ≡ 0(modpn )
i.e. F (αn ) ≡ 0(modpn ) & αn ≡ αn+1 (modpn )

Hence, by the Mathematical Induction we can construct a sequence of in-

tegers α1 , α2 , . . . , αn−1 , . . . such that
for all n ≥ 1 we have

(1) F (αn ) ≡ 0(modpn )

(2) αn ≡ αn+1 (modpn )

Example

(1) Let f (x) = x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 4

Let us look for 5-adic solution.You will notice that x0 = 3 is the solution
to f (x0 ) ≡ 0(mod5)
i.e. f (3) = 27 + 18 + 6 + 9 = 55
⇒ f (3) ≡ 0(mod5)
Also f ′ (x0 ) = 3x20 + 4x0 + 2 = 41 ̸≡ 0(mod5)
So f (x) = 0 satisfies Hensel’s lemma
⇒ that ∃ a unique 5-adic numbers solves x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 4 = 0 and
x ≡ 3(mod5)
therefore x = 3 + c1 + c2 52 + c3 53 + ..., where ci ∈ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.

(2) Let f (x) = x2 + 7

then f (1) = 1 − 7 = −6 ≡ 0(mod3)
& f ′ (1) = 2(1) = 2 ̸≡ 0(mod3)

39
So ∃ a unique 3-adic integer x
such that x2 = 7 and x ≡ 1(mod3)
therefore x = 1 + c1 3 + c2 32 + c3 33 + ... where ci ∈ {0, 1, 2}

40