UNIT- 4

WATER CONSERVATION PRACTICES

IN-SITU MOISTURE CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES

In-situ moisture conservation is generally carried out through various agronomic

and engineering measures where the rainfall is collected where it falls. Some rain
water harvesting of the widely adopted techniques are bunding, terracing, contour
farming, broad bed furrow system, micro basins, ridge and tie ridging, mulching,
deep ploughing etc.

 Micro catchments:

Functions

 To conserve insitu moisture and reduce soil loss

 Circular basin of one meter diameter for level lands depending upon
infiltration and rainfall
 ‘ V’ ditches of size 5m x 5m with trees planted centre and height according
to the rainfall and slope of slopy lands
 Saucer basins / semi circular bunds with 2m diameter to a height of 15-20cm
across the slope

 Broad beds and furrows:

Function To control erosion and to conserve soil moisture in
the soil   during rainy days  
General information The broad bed and furrow system is laid within the
field boundaries. The land levels taken and it is laid
using either animal drawn or tractor drawn ridgers.  
Cost Approximate cost for laying beds and furrows is Rs.
1000/- per ha.  
Salient features Conserves soil moisture in dryland
Controls soil erosion.
Acts as a drainage channel during heavy rainy days.

 Contour bund:
Bunds are simply embankment like structures, constructed across the land
slope. When they are constructed on the contour of the area called as
contour bund and when a grade is provided to them then they are known
 as graded bund.

Function To intercept the runoff flowing down the slope by an

embankment.
General It helps to control runoff velocity. The embankment may
information be closed or open, surplus arrangements are provided
whenever necessary.

Cost Approximate cost for laying contour bund is Rs. 1500/-

per ha.
Salient features It can be adopted in light and medium textured soils.
It can be laid upto 6% slopes.
It helps to retain moisture in the field.

SPECIFICATION FOR BUND CROSS SECTION

 Base width Top width Height Side slope Area cross section
 Depth of soil (m)
(m) (m) (m) (m) (sq.m)
Shallow soils
2.67 0.38 0.75 1.5 : 1 1.14
(7.5 – 22.5 cm)
Medium soil
3.12 0.60 0.85 1.5 : 1 1.56
(22.5 – 45 cm)
Medium deep soils 4.25 0.60 0.90 2:1 2.18

Situations for various bunding options:

Bunding options Soil type Rainfall (mm) Slope (%)

Contour bund Light soil <600 >1.5
Graded bund All soils >600 1.5
Bench terraces Deep soil >1000 6.0
Graded boarder strip Deep alfisol and related >800 >1.5
red soil

In-Situ Moisture Conservation Techniques

Soil Type Rainfall In-Situ Moisture Conservation Techniques

Low Dead furrow at 3-6 m interval
Medium Sowing on flat bed and riding later with
Red soil
eventual cultivation
High Graded border strips
Low Contour cultivation
Medium Dead furrows at 3-6 m interval
Black soil
High Graded open furrow (0.2 to 0.3 m3) at 10 m
interval across the slope

IMPROVING SOIL MOISTURE STORAGE

Addition of silt, clay, organic matter etc., increases field capacity and also raises
wilting point to marginal increase in available moisture holding capacity.

EX-SITU MOISTURE CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES

In ex-situ moisture conservation the runoff is diverted and stored in a natural or
artificial reservoir for later use. This can be achieved through dugout ponds,
diversion bunds, tanks, khadins, and haveli system of rainwater harvesting.
Diversion of perennial surface/subsurface water source is practiced through check-
dams, nala-bunding, percolation tanks etc.
 Dug out ponds:

The dugout ponds are constructed by excavating the soil from the ground
surface. These ponds may be fed by ground water or surface runoff or by both. It
is suitable for land slope less than 4% and where water table lies within 1.5 to 2.0
meters depth from the ground surface. Design of pond is based on the several
constraints like desired storage capacity, water depth, catchment area, amount of
runoff yield form the area and its peak rate, subsoil conditions, stability of side
slopes, suitability of the site and economics of construction.

Dug out pond

 Embankment type reservoir:

This type of reservoirs are constructed by forming the dam or embankment

around the valley or depression of the catchment area called as reservoir. The
runoff water is collected into these reservoirs. The storage capacity of the
reservoir is determined on the basis of water requirement for various demands
and available surface runoff from the catchment.
Embankment type reservoirs are again classified according to the purpose for which
they are meant.

Embankment type
a. Irrigation dam:
The irrigation dams are mainly meant to store the surface water for irrigating
the crops.these dams have the provision of gated pipe spillway for taking out the
water from the reservoir. Spillway is located at the bottom of the dam.
b. Silt detention dam:
This dam detains the silt load coming along the runoff from the catchment
area. The location of the dam is at the lower reaches of the catchment. There is a
provision of outlet for taking out the water for irrigation purposes.
c. High level bund:
Such dams are located at the head of the velley to form a shape of water
tank or pond. The stored water is used to irrigate the areas lying below it.
d. Farm pond:
Farm ponds are constructed for multipurpose objectives, such as for
irrigation, livestock, water supply to the cattle feed, fish productions etc.
e. Water harvesting ponds:
The farm ponds can be considered as water harvesting ponds. They must
be dugout or embankment type. Their capacity depends upon the size of
catchment area.
f. Percolation dam:
These dams are generally constructed at the valley head, without the
provision of checking the percolation loss. The growing crops on downstream
side of the dam, receive the percolated water for their growth.
Afforestation Principles
Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area
where there was no forest. Reforestation is the reestablishment of forest
cover, either naturally (by natural seeding, coppice, or root suckers) or
artificially (by direct seeding or planting). Many governments and non-
governmental organizations directly engage in programs of afforestation to create
forests, increase carbon capture and sequestration, and help to anthropogenically
improve
biodiversity.

Afforestation

Afforestation means massive program of social forestry to meet demands to

local people for fuel, fodder, timber etc.

Afforestation restores ecological balance of all ecosystems, maintain

biological diversity, and act as catchments for all soil and water, conservation,
prevent floods and future of tribal people.

Afforestation shall assist in achieving 33% of land to be covered by forest in

future. Massive afforestation program help fast in growing indigenous and exotic
species for production and protection of forestry on suitable land including waste
land.

Nowadays afforestation is very much necessary in India to maintain the

biodiversity in the environment. There are two ways i.e. afforestation and
reforestation, the development of new forest on a non-forest land is called
afforestation but reforestation means the reestablishment of the forest cover by
either naturally or artificially (manual planting of trees).

Considering the need of afforestation in India, many government, private

and NGOs are engaged to create new forests through afforestation method to
maximize the carbon capture or control the soil erosion.
 The total forest area was 40.48 million hectare in 1950 and then it was increased to
67.47 million hectare forest area in 1980. And finally 69 million hectare area was under
forest had been reported in 2006. So massive 70.5% increase of area under cover forests
had been seen between the periods of 1950 to 2006 due to afforestation.

In India, 23% of overall land is under forest areas which are grouped into 5 major
categories i.e.

1. Subtropical Dry Deciduous (38.2%)

2. Tropical Moist Deciduous (30.3%)
3. Subtropical Thorn (6.7%)
4. Tropical Wet Evergreen forests (5.8%)
5. Other categories ( Pine, Temperate and Alpine, Tropical semi evergreen) –
17.5%

Micro Catchment Water Harvesting

Micro-catchment water harvesting (MCWH) is defined as the method of collecting

surface runoff from a contributing area (CA) over a flow distance of less
than100m and storing it for consumptive use in the root zone of an adjacent
infiltration basin (IB).
 Plantation of tree crops is a major activity under watershed developmental programmes, the
success of which largely depends on proper care and maintenance of the plants by
creating a favourable water regime in their root zone depth during the establishment
stage. This is often not addressed properly.

 Further, the recent trend of crop diversification programme in the rainfed system is towards
horticultural crops. This is because of the fact that the demand of horticulture produce in
the country is on the rise due to increasing demand of horticulture produce in the country
is on the rise due to increasing population, changing food habits, realization of high
nutritional value of horticultural crops and greater emphasis on value addition and
export.

 In the high rainfall humid region, about 75 to 80% of the rainfall occurs during 4 months
period of monsoon season. In the remaining eight months the crop suffers from moisture
stress due to water shortage.

 Thus, micro-catchment water harvesting sounds to be an appropriate solution for rain water
conservation in horticultural and tree crops.

 Little research has been done on micro-catchment rain water harvesting to suit to the
predominant horticultural fruit species grown in the humid areas taking into account the
prevailing climatic and soil characteristic. The shape, size, catchment to cultivated area
ratio etc. of micro-catchment also need to be standardized. To address some of these
problems, a research project has been formulated. It envisaged in devising suitable
micro- catchments rain water harvesting technique for growing horticultural crops
(Mango & Sapota) in high rainfall areas.

 Deciding the micro-catchment area to cultivated area is of paramount importance. Micro-

catchment area is function of active root depth, water holding capacity of the soil, runoff
coefficient, cultivated area, rainfall and actual evapotranspiration.
Ground Water Recharge

 Groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process,

where water moves downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the
primary method through which water enters an aquifer. This process usually occurs in
the vadose zone below plant roots and, is often expressed as a flux to the water table
surface.
 Groundwater recharge also encompasses water moving away from the water table
farther into the saturated zone.
 Recharge occurs both naturally (through the water cycle) and through anthropogenic
processes (i.e., "artificial groundwater recharge"), where rainwater and or reclaimed
water is routed to the subsurface.
Processes
 Groundwater is recharged naturally by rain and snow melt and to a smaller extent by
surface water (rivers and lakes). Recharge may be impeded somewhat by human
activities including paving, development, or logging. These activities can result in loss
of topsoil resulting in reduced water infiltration, enhanced surface runoff and reduction
in recharge.
 Use of groundwaters, especially for irrigation, may also lower the water tables.
Groundwater recharge is an important process for sustainable groundwater
management, since the volume-rate abstracted from an aquifer in the long term should
be less than or equal to the volume-rate that is recharged.
 Recharge can help move excess salts that accumulate in the root zone to deeper soil
layers, or into the groundwater system. Tree roots increase water saturation into
groundwater reducing water runoff.
 Flooding temporarily increases river bed permeability by moving clay soils
downstream, and this increases aquifer recharge.

Estimation methods
Rates of groundwater recharge are difficult to quantify since other related processes, such as
evaporation, transpiration (or evapotranspiration) and infiltration processes must first be
measured or estimated to determine the balance.

Physical
Physical methods use the principles of soil physics to estimate recharge. The direct physical
methods are those that attempt to actually measure the volume of water passing below the
root zone. Indirect physical methods rely on the measurement or estimation of soil physical
parameters, which along with soil physical principles, can be used to estimate the potential or
actual recharge.
Chemical
Chemical methods use the presence of relatively inert water-soluble substances, such as an
isotopic tracer or chloride,moving through the soil, as deep drainage occurs.

Numerical models
Recharge can be estimated using numerical methods, using such codes as Hydrologic
Evaluation of Landfill Performance, UNSAT-H, SHAW, WEAP, and MIKE SHE. The 1D-
program HYDRUS1D is available online. The codes generally use climate and soil data to
arrive at a recharge estimate and use the Richards equation in some form to model
groundwater flow in the vadose zone.

Methods of Groundwater Recharge

Method 1. Spreading Basins:

This method involves surface flooding of water in basins that are excavated in the
existing terrain. For effective recharge highly permeable soils are suitable and
maintenance of a layer of water over the highly permeable soil is necessary.

Method 2. Recharge Pits and Shafts:

Conditions that permit surface flooding methods for artificial recharge are relatively
rare. Often lenses of low permeability lie between the land surface and water table.
In such situation artificial recharge systems such as pits and shafts could be effective
in order to access the dewatered aquifer. The rate of recharge has been being found
to increase as the side slope of the pits increased.

Method 3. Ditches:

A ditch is described as a long narrow trench, with its bottom width less than its
depth. A ditch system is designed to suit topographic and geological condition that
exists at the given site. A layout for a ditch and flooding recharge project could
include a series of trenches running down the topographic slope.

Method 4. Recharge Wells:

Recharge or injection wells are used to directly recharge the deep-water bearing
strata. Recharge wells could be dug through the material overlaying the aquifer and
if the earth materials are unconsolidated, a screen can be placed in the well in zone
of injection.
Method 5. Harvesting in Cistern from Hill Sides:

In this method construction of small drains along contours of hilly area are done so
that the runoff in these drains are collected in a cistern, which is located at the
bottom of a hill or a mountain. This water is used for irrigation or for drinking
purpose and the water is of good quality.

Method 6. Subsurface Dams:

Ground water moves from higher-pressure head to lower one. This will help in semi-
arid zone regions especially in upper reaches where the ground water velocity is
high. By exploiting more ground water in upper reaches more surface water can be
utilized indirectly, thereby reducing inflow into lower reaches of supply.

Method 7. Farm Ponds:

These are traditional structures in rain water harvesting. Farm ponds are small
storage structures collecting and storing runoff waste for drinking as well as
irrigation purposes. As per the method of construction and their suitability for
different topographic conditions farm ponds are classified into three categories such
as excavated farm ponds suited for flat topography, embankment ponds suited for
hilly and ragged terrains and excavated cum embankment type ponds.

Method 9. Check Dams:

Check dams are small barriers built across the direction of water flow on shallow
river and streams for the purpose of rain water harvesting. The small dams retain
excess water flow during monsoon rains in a small catchment area behind the
structure.
Percolation Pond

Percolation ponds are small water harvesting structures artificially

constructed across small natural streams and water courses to collect and impound
the surface runoff during monsoons so as to facilitate the impounded water to
infiltrate into the land and percolate through the substrata there by recharging the
ground water reservoir. The recharge area downstream should have wells and
cultivable land in order to benefit from the natural flow of augmented
groundwater

The objectives of percolation ponds:

 To impound surface runoff coming from the catchment and to
facilitate percolation of stored water into the sub soil strata with a view
to raise the ground water level in the zone of influence of the percolation
tank.
 To hold the silt flow, which would otherwise reach the multipurpose
reservoirs and reduce their useful life.
Site Selection Criteria For Ponds
 Percolation tank is an artificially created surface water body, submerging in
its reservoir a highly permeable land, so that surface runoff is made to
percolate and recharge the ground water storage.
 Percolation tank should be constructed preferably on second to third
order streams, located on highly fractured and weathered rocks, which have
lateral continuity down stream.
 They should not be located in heavy soil or in impervious strata. The
size of the percolation pond varies according to the runoff. It will usually be
located upstream of the cultivated lands.
 Deep ponds are preferred because evaporation is minimum as also the
area of land submerged.
 The recharge area down stream should have sufficient number of wells and
cultivable land to benefit from the augmented ground water.
 The size of percolation tank should be governed by percolation capacity of
strata in the tank bed. Normally percolation tanks are designed for storage
capacity of 0.1 to 0.5 MCM. It is necessary to design the tank to provide
a ponded water column generally between 3 & 4.5 m.
 The percolation tanks are mostly earthen dams with masonry structure only
for spillway. The purpose of the percolation tanks is to recharge the ground
water storage and hence seepage below the seat of the bed is permissible. For
dams upto 4.5 m height, cut off trenches are not necessary and keying and
benching between the dam seat and the natural ground is sufficient.

Function
To augment the ground water recharge
 In addition to runoff water collection, the percolation ponds are helpful
in recharging the ground water in the area and stabilising irrigation.
 It is estimated that the pond may be effective up to a distance of 1000
metres, depending on the strata in that area.
 Despite all the care, if there is still excess water, it is led into the
nallas. Through vegetative cover, the nallas courses are stabilised. Gully
checks with vegetative or brushwood dams help control the speed of flow
of water in the nalla.
Components of Percolation pond

The catchment yield and basin configuration drawn from topographic

surveys at site determine the height of the percolation tank. The top of dam wall
is normally kept 2-3 m wide. Upstream and downstream slopes of the dam wall
are normally taken as 2.5:1 and 2:1 respectively

Tank Bund: The tank bund, for all practical purposes, is a small-sized earthen
dam and its design and construction should be carried out in accordance with
the principles applicable to earthen dams.
The bunds of a percolation pond may be of three types, i.e.
1. Type A: Homogeneous embankment type
2. Type B: Zoned Embankment Type
3. Type C: Diaphragm Type

Tank bunds in India are mostly of Type A and are constructed with soils
excavated from pits in the immediate vicinity of the bund and transported to the
bund.
The Common Types of Bunds of Percolation Ponds are shown below

Type A- Homogeneous Type

 Type B-Zoned Type

Type C-Diaphragm Type

Difference between Percolation pond and Farm pond

Percolation pond Farm Pond

Catchment area is large and both cropped and Catchment area is few hectare of cropped area
hilly area only
Constructed on permeable beds Constructed on impermeable bed
Generally of impounding type located outside Generally of dug out type located within the
farm farm
Percolation ponds are not lined Farm pond surface is lined to arrest seepage
loss
Stored water is used for recharging ground Stored water is used for irrigation or any other
water and indirectly assist well irrigation farm use
Benefitted area lies below the pond. Benefitted area is mostly its own catchment.
 Benefits of percolation pond

 The wells in the zone of influence gets additional supply

 The farmers are influenced to change to commercial crops which they had
not ventured earlier

 The economic status of the farmer is improved

 The silting of down stream reservoirs minimized

 Cattles get drinking water

 Villagers also use stored water for washing clothes, bathing, etc.,

FARM PONDS
Farm ponds are small tank or reservoir like constructions are constructed
for the purpose of storing the surface runoff, generated from the catchment area.
The farmponds are water harvesting structures, solve several purposes of farm
needs such as supply of the water for irrigation, cattle feed, fish production etc.

Types of farm pond

Two general categories of farm pond

1. Embankment type

2. Excavated type or dugout type

1. Embankment type:

Farm ponds are generally constructed across the stream or water course.
Such ponds consists of an earthen dam, which dimensions are evaluated on the
basis of volume of water to be stored etc. these farm ponds are usually built in that
area where land slope ranges from gently to moderately steep and also where
valleys are sufficiently depressed to permit a maximum storage volume with least
earthwork.
2. Dug out type

Farm ponds are constructed by excavating the soil from the ground,
relatively in level areas. The depth of pond is decided on the basis of its desired
capacity which is obtained almost by excavation. The use of this pond is suitable
where a small supply of water is required.
Farm ponds also divided into two more types
(based on the sources of water available for feeding the farmpond)

1. Spring or creck fed – the spring or creck fed ponds are generally found
in hilly areas, where natural crecks or springs are available to supply the
water.
2. Off stream storage pond – off stream storage ponds are constructed in
the side of ephemeral streams, in which water flow seasonally. This
seasonal water is stored in these ponds.
To design a dugout pond, the rainfall, runoff, evaporation and seepage data
are essentially required
Seepage is counted as one of the main factor for pond design. E.g in the
areas of high gypsum the seepage loss is much more, causing construction of
farmpond impractical. Normally
It is advised to allow the seepage loss as 1 m depth of water per year,
when estimating minimum storage.
Design of dug out farm pond steps:

1. Collect the basic data of area concern

a. Rainfall, evaporation, temperature etc.

b. Topography

c. Live stock etc.

2. Estimate the required storage of pond. It is determined based on live stock
water requirement. The volume of probable water to be lost through
evaporation and seepage, plus about 10% more to adjust some unforeseen
water losses from the pond are also added to determine pond storage.

3. Determine the catchment area of the farm pond

4. Select a desirable pond depth.

5. Locate the possible sites of pond with their catchment area. The pond sites
are identified by using topographic map or aerial photographs of the locality

6. Make field investigations of the various sites, selected.

 7. Determine the dimensions of the pond, compute the maximum depth of farm
pond

8. Fix the crest of pipe spillway. To avoid the prolong use of the emergency
spillway, the pipe spillway should be large enough to carry the base flow.

9. Determine the size of emergency spill way. It is performed by computing

the difference in elevation between the spillway crest and the maximum
pond surface which should be about 60 cm during the spillway flow. The
discharge of spillway is calculated usually for
25 years rainfall frequency. The side slope should be 1.5:1

Components of farm pond

A farm pond consists of following components

1. Pondage or storage area

2. Earthen embankment

3. Mechanical and emergency spillways

The mechanical spill way is used for letting out the storage water from the pond.
It acts as an outlet for safe disposal of water from the storage area of the pond.

The emergency spillway is used as safeguard for earthen dam against

overtopping, when volume of inflow water becomes greater than the pondage
capacity of the farm pond.

Design of farm pond

Design of farmpond consists of following parameters for determination

1. Site selection

2. Pond capacity

3. Design of embankment

4. Design of mechanical spillway

5. Design of emergency spillway and

6. Arrangements for seepage control from storage area of the pond

1. Site selection for farm pond
Important features for site selection of a farm pond are,
1. From an economic point of view, a pond should be located at that site
where the largest storage volume can be obtained with least amount of
earthwork.
2. If ponds are constructed for the purpose of live stock storage the
transportation distance of water will not be more than one quarter mile in
rough areas.
3. Water can be conveyed fro various uses such as for irrigation or fire
protection very easily
4. Ponds to be used for fishing or other forms of recreation should be readily
accessible by transportation facilities.
5. For selecting the pond site, a check should also be made to ensure that
there is no buried pipe lines or cables at the construction site.
2. Pond capacity:
The capacity of farm pond is determined with the help of contour map of
the watershed area, contributing the runoff to the site of pond construction. From
the contour plan of the site, the capacity of pond is computed for different stages,
using area estimating formula. Generally Trapezoidal and Simpson‟s rules are used
for the purpose. The Simpson rule gives more accurate value than the Trapezoidal
rule.
For determination of pond‟s capacity, the area enclosed by each contour
line is measured with the help of planimeter and by using Trapezoidal or
Simpson rule the pond‟s capacity is determined. According to the
Trapezoidal rule, the volume (V) formed by two successive contour lines
spaced at distance (H) with the area A1, A2 is given by,
Trapezoidal Rule:

H
V  A  A2 
2 1
Simpson’s rule computes the volume as

H
V 2 x The area of odd contours 4 x The area of even contours Sum of area of first and last
contours
3

The simpson‟s rule is also known as Prismodial rule. For using

Simpson rule, the number of contours should be in odd numbers or the
number of contour intervals should be in even number.

The depth capacity curve of the pond is also prepared for different
stages of water level, using the depth-capacity data. This curve helps in
deciding a suitable embankment height with respect to the capacity of the
pond. Fig shows the depth capacity curve of the pond.
3. Design of Ponds embankment
Data required

1. Hydrologic data

a. Stream flow, flood data, ground water table, water requirement

and various losses such as conveyance, seepage, evaporation

2. Climatic data

a. Rainfall, temperature, Evaporation, Humidity, Sunshine hour, wind

velocity

3. Geologic data

a. Types of aquifer, exposed gravel, geological cross sections,

topography of the area

The embankment design suitable to farm pond consists of following

parameters for design purposes

4. Seepage through embankment

The loss of water from the pond mainly occurs due to seepage phenomena from
the section of embankment. It should be controlled not only to remove the water
loss but also to ensure the safety of the embankment. When water is filled in the
pond, a seepage or phreatic line is established in the dam section.
5. Design of mechanical spill way
A pond having watershed area less than 4 hectares, the vegetative spill way can
be used for the purpose.
If the water shed area is from 4 to 12 hectares a combination of vegetative
and mechanical spillway is preferred.
If watershed area is more than 12 hectares then the mechanical spillway is
preferred.

If the drop height is less than 4 meter and there is less possibility of silt
deposition, then drop spillway may be used
When drop height exceeds 4 meter and there is chance of silt accumulation, then
drop inlet type spillways are mostly preferred
When a drop structure is used in embankment in farm pond then it is also referred
by the name of
Surplus weir.
6. Emergency spillway
The main function of emergency spillway is to protect the embankment from
overtopping action due to unexpected increase of inflow into the pond storage.
The emergency spillway should be located at one end of the embankemet. The
bottom of the emergency spillway should be fixed at the maximum expected
flood level for the selected frequency of runoff used for design of the pond.
The peak flow rate for the design of emergency spillway are determined on the
basis of runoff rate to be disposed through it.

Q = CLH m

Where,
Q – discharge rate, m3/s

C-coefficient of discharge
Advantages of Farm Ponds

 They provide water to start growing crops, without waiting for rain to fall.
 They provide irrigation water during dry spells between rainfalls. This
increases the yield, the number of crops in one year, and the diversity of crops
 that can be grown.
 Bunds can be used to raise vegetables and fruit trees, thus supplying the farm
household with an additional source of income and of nutritious food.
 Farmers are able to apply adequate farm inputs and perform farming
operations at the appropriate time, thus increasing their productivity and their
confidence in farming.
 They check soil erosion and minimizes siltation of waterways and reservoirs.
 They supplies water for domestic purposes and livestock
 They promote fish rearing.
 They recharge the ground water.
 They improve drainage.
 The excavated earth has a very high value and can be used to enrich soil in
the fields, leveling land, and constructing farm roads.

Limitations of Farm Ponds

 They reduce the water flow to other people‟s tanks and ponds situated in
lower-lying areas.
 They occupy a large portion of farmers‟ lands. However, this can be
compensated for by rearing fish in the pond, effectively utilizing the bunds
for vegetable and/or tree plantations, etc.

SUPPLEMENTAL IRRIGATION

Supplemental irrigation (SI) can be defined as the addition of small amounts of

water to essentially rainfed crops during times when rainfall fails to provide
sufficient moisture for normal plant growth, in order to improve and stabilize
yields. SI in areas with limited water resources is based on the following three
premises:

 Water is applied to a rain-fed crop which would normally produce some

yield without irrigation.

 Since precipitation is the principal source of moisture for rain-fed crops, SI

is only applied when precipitation fails to provide essential moisture for
improved and stabilized production.

 The amount and timing of SI are not scheduled to provide moisture-stress-

free conditions throughout the growing season, but to ensure that the
minimum amount of water required for optimal (not maximum) yield is
available during the critical stages of crop growth.
Supplemental irrigation is the opposite of full or conventional irrigation (FI). In the
latter, the principal source of moisture is fully controlled irrigation water, and
highly variable limited precipitation is only supplementary. SI is dependent on the
precipitation of a basic source of water for the crop.
 
Water for supplemental irrigation comes mainly from surface sources, but shallow
groundwater aquifers increasingly are being used. Among non-conventional water
resources that have potential for the future, such as treated sewage water-
harvesting is also important.

EVAPORATION SUPRESSION

Evaporation suppressing monolayers are materials that when applied to the

air/water interface, will spread (or self-assemble) and form a thin film across the
surface of the water. The purpose of these materials is to reduce evaporative water
loss from dams and reservoirs.

1. By Keeping Free Water Surface Area Minimum:

Reservoirs and lakes are the water bodies with large surface area.

It is possible to reduce the surface area by adopting following measures:

(a) The reservoir site may be selected in such a way that area to storage ratio is
minimum.

(b) To avoid water loss water could be stored below ground.

(c) When there are number of reservoirs on one river the water may be stored in
one large reservoir when possible rather than in several small reservoirs.

2. By Spreading Surface Films on the Reservoirs and Lakes:

 Though still under experiment stage this method when used will prove to be
most economical and of practical utility. The method is based on the
principle that a thin layer of oil film when spread on the water surface is
capable of reducing evaporation to significant extent.
  Experiments have shown that a compound called hexadeconal or cetyl
alcohol derived from tallow, sperm oil or coconut oil is capable of forming
monomolecular film on the water surface. This material is white, waxy,
crystalline, solid and is generally available in flakes or powder form.
 It is relatively tasteless and odorless. It is pervious to oxygen and carbon
dioxide. It is also nontoxic to living being. It is a polar compound in which
one end of the molecule is hydrophilic and therefore, shows great affinity for
water whereas the other end is hydrophobic and repels water.
 Because of this property it forms a monomolecular film on the water surface.
The film so formed is only about 15 x 10 -4 mm thick but it is tight enough to
prevent water molecule from escaping the water body. It is flexible and
moves with the motion of water surface without breaking. The film is
penetrable by rain drops but the film again closes after allowing rain drops to
enter.
 It is estimated that such a film may reduce evaporation by one-third.
Theoretically only 25 gm of hexadeconal is sufficient to spread a mono-
molecular film on one hectare of water surface. In practice, however, due to
working problems as much as 100 times of theoretically required quantity
may be necessary. Even then it is quite economical and promising.
Combination of hexadeconal and octadeconal was also used for better
results.

3. By Providing Mulch on the Land Surfaces:

 To reduce evaporation from land surface it is a common practice to spread
mulch on the land surface. The mulch is nothing but some waste material
used to cover the land. By mulch one generally understands a mixture of
straw, leaves etc.
  It restricts air movement, maintains high water vapour pressure near the soil
surface and shields the soil from the solar energy and as a result of all these
factors reduces evaporation.
 Considering that the mulch is nothing but a protective blanket sometimes
dust mulch of loose dry earth, pebble mulch etc., can be used to suppress
evaporation.

SEEPAGE REDUCTION

 Seepage-control measures are undertaken to reduce water losses to seepage

from irrigation canals when irrigation system performance is lower than the
desired or canals run through soils with high permeability coefficient (more
than 0.1 m/day).
 The following means are used for controlling canal water seepage: seepage-
control lining of canals made from cast-in-situ concrete, reinforced-
concrete slabs, asphalt, rock, clay; watertight barriers beneath canals
made from polymer films (film-ground, concrete-film, etc.), clay and
loam, bentonitic clays, etc.; decrease of permeability coefficient in the
result of natural and artificial mud fill of canal, deep and shallow soil
compaction, petrolization, alkalinization, gleization, mechanical dispersion
of soil, etc.
 Seepage-control measure type is selected depending on the combination of
hydrogeological conditions, canal extension, soil filtration characteristics,
size of required enhancement of losses and presence of locally available
material. Accepted seepage-control measures are to be substantiated by
feasibility study.
Basic considerations

 Seepage-reduction methods make use of impermeable cutoffs, grout

curtains, and upstream blankets, which consume energy at locations within
cross sections where large water pressures and seepage forces have no
detrimental effects.
 The net result of these methods is that water pressures and seepage forces
are reduced in the downstream region. These seepage-reducing features are
usually combined with properly designed filters and drainage features, since
seepage reduction can only be partially effective by itself.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams