SUMMARRY

aduction It is the process ot producing new organisms of r a r s

Reproduction

h eexisting organisms of the same species. It is vital

Human Reproductive System The systern Caled
for Tequired for the process of sexual
reproduction 19
from hce and continuity of the species. Living organisms
h e e x i s t e n c e

roduce mainly through asexual reproduction reproductive system.

or sexual Male Reproductive System It includes
It p r i I E
lying in scroturn.
reproduction

Asexual Reproductic It is the production of offspring by Testes A paired structure

parent without the formation and fusion of gamete. e.g. sperms and hormone (Testosterone)
hich oing
in Amoeba, budding in Hydra, etc. Vas deferens A duct arises from testes
binary
fission
Sperms to urinary bladder.
The splitting of a unicellular organism into two or
a cormmon tube
alled
Fission Urethra Vas deferens opens into
two separate daughter cells. urine, which runs
more than urethra which carries sperms as well as
Binary Fission Parent organism divides into two identical
through the penis.
organisms with definite orientation, e.g. Amoeba, vith thick
ughter Penis lt is an external male genital organ
Euglena muscular walls to help in copulation.
Parent organism divides into many identical
Multiple Fission Accessory glands Include paired seminal vesicles
e.g. Plasmodium
daughter organisms, prostate and urethral glands.
in which
Fragmentation It iS a form of asexual reproduction Female Reproductive System It consists of
small
multicellular organisms break up into two
or more
cavity near
Ovaries Paired ovaries located in the abdominai
fragments or preces, e.g. Spirogyra. (ovum or egg
the kidney which produce female gamete
is formed from a small
Budding In this, a daughter organism and hormones (oestrogen and progesterone)
which develops as an outgrowth
projection known as bud,
f
the ovum not
Fallopian tube It is a tube carrying
cell division on the parent body, e.g. yeast
due to repeated the zygote (if fertilised) to the uterus. It aiso
fertilised) or
Hydra can give rise to
acts as the site of fertilisation.
Regeneration A fully differentiated organism Uterus The two Fallopian tubes unit into an elastic bag-like
new individual organism
from its body part, e.g. Hydra.
structure known as uterus.
are obtained from a part
Vegetative Propagation New plants Vagina Uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix
leaves without the
of the parent plant like root, stem and It is also called the birth canal.
method involves
involvement of reproductive organs. This
Fertilisation in Humans After copulation,
the sperms reach
Cutting, layering, grafting, tissue culture, etc and fertilisation
the Fallopian tube where the ovum is present
Spore Formation Spores ability to germinate and
have the
forma zygote which starts dividing for a periobd
give rise toa new colony, e.g. Rhizopus.
takes place to
of nine months.
in which contraction in the uterus
Sexual Reproduction It is a type of reproduction sexes
involved. Both
Then a strong rhythmic muScular
the two sexes, i.e. male and female are lead to child birth.
and female take place then the
produce gametes, namely, male gamete or sperm Menstruation If fertilisation does not
1.e.
gamete or it involves two major processes,
ova. Thus, menstruation occurs in temales. it s the
process of
TOrmation of gametes and fusion of gametes (fertilisation). breakdown and removal of the thick, spongy lining
of the

'Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants The flowering uterus in the form of vaginal bleeding.
located
reproductive parts Humans These are all those aspects
gants or angiosperms bear special in a fruit, formed after Reproductive Health in
flower and seeds enclosed person to lead a normal, safe
of general health which help
a
nthe
polination and fertilisation. life.
and satisfying reproductive
from the anther of of methods or techniques have been
nation The transfer of pollen grains termed as pollination.
It Birth Control number A These methods
to prevent and control pregnancy.
EStamen to the stigma of a flower is Cross-pollination.
developed
O main types: Self-pollination and
Two
are
out of pollen grain intra-Uterine Contraceptive
ertlisation in Plants A tube grows Barrier Condom, Diaphragm,
travels through the style to Device (IUCD)
iing two male gametes and ovule in the ovary. Out or
in
th ne female gamete present with the female gamete to Hormonal Oral contraceptive pills
male gamete fuses Chemical Spermicide
forrone
torrm a Zygote. This fusion is Afterwards,
called fertilisation.
the and ripens to Surgical Vasectomy, tubectomy
o urns into a seed and the ovary grows
form
form a fruit. (STDs) These are diseases
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
contact torm an intected person to a
Sexua Reproduction iin Humans In human beings, sexual lt is
which spread by
sexual
The most common ones are gonorrhoea
onset of puberty. healthy person.
reproduction
the ton
can
can occur only after the
and the warts and HIV-AIDS.
time perio when our body begins to develop syphilis, genital
maturity.
females attains
Ve organs in males and
 SUMMARY
Environment It comprises the in which
lives. physical surrounding, living organisms and climatic cO an
organism
Biodegradable Substances
n e s e can be broken down into simple harmless forms
naturally, by the action of microorganis
oeenvironment, when present in huge quantities.
eg. Livestock waste, left over food articles, etc.
Non-biodegradable Substances
These cannot be broken down into
simpler harmless forms by microorganisms.
Pollute the environment majorly. e.g plastic, heavy metals, etc.
Ecosystem It was introduced by Tansley in 1935. All the interacting in an area togener win the
components of the environment. organisms non-living
Types of Ecosystem Ecosystems are of two types
() Natural ecosystem
Artificial ecosystemn
Components Ecosystem An ecosystem is made-up of two main
of
components
(Abiotic Components Non-living features of ecosystem on which an organism depends. It includes physical factors as
light, temperature, wind, etc.
( Biotic Components Include all the living orgainsms present in the ecosystem. Also include mainly three categories of
organisms.
Producers (make their own food), e.g. plants.
Consumers (depend on producers for their nutritional requirements), e.g. grazing animals, humans.
Decomposers organisms of decay, feed on decaying and dead matter, e.g. bacteria, fungi.
Food Chain It is the linear network of
organisms through which energy is transferred in the form of food by the process of one
organism consuming the other. There is unidirectional flow of energy taking place from one organism to another.
Trophic Levels The transfer of food or energy in the various steps in the food chain forms trophic level.
Each food chain is composed of three to four trophic levels:
()Firsttrophic level Autotrophs/producers (in Second trophic level Herbivores/primary consumers
(in Third trophic level Small carnivores/secondary consumers
(iv Fourth trophic level Large carnivores/tertiary consumers
Energy Flow Food chain shows how food and energy pass from one organism to another in a habitat. Also only 10% energy is
available to the next trophic level in a food chain.
Food Web Each organism is generally eaten by two or more other kinds of
organisms, which in turn are eaten by several other
organisms. So, a food web consists of a series of branching networks of various food chains being interconnected at various
trophic levels.
Biological Magnification It is a phenomenon of progresSIve increase in the concentration of toxicant at each successive trophic
level. e.g. pesticides like DDT, sprinkled on plants enter the body of human
beings through the food chain.
Ozone Depletion
( Ozone (O) is a molecule formed by three atoms of oxygen.

O O+O. O+ O2 O3
(Ozone)
(i) It shields the surface of the earth from UV rays of the sun.
(in Use of CFCs have led to the depletion of ozone layer.
. Waste Substances The left over or discarded SuDstance IS calied waste. It can be in
solid, liquid or gaseous form.
Waste Management
.The household waste is called garbage.
.The Naste should be disposed off in a scientiic wdy Dy
e segregating waste into dable

materials, etc. biodearadable. non-biodega0o

Methods include recycling, composting, incinetau , SEwage treatment, biogas production etc
SUMMARY
autosomeS and one pair
of
There are 22 pairs
Heredity The transmission of characteristics or traits from
chromosomes
one generation to another (from parents
to offsprings)is of s e x chromosome , 1.e
imperfect pair XY
known inheritance M a l e s have an pair, i.e. XX.
as or heredity. have similar perfect
while females
Variations
traits
It refers to the differences in the characters or
In a woman, all eggs carry only
X-chromosome.

among the individuals of a species Sex of a child depends

on the type
of sperm which .
fuses
Genetics It is the branch of biology which deals with heredity
and variations with the egg.
oarries
X-chromosome, a girl child will
Causes of Variations: I f the sperm Y chromosome .
the sperm carrying uses
produced and if
Environmental variations will result in
birth of a baby boy.
with the egg, it
Diet, pollution, radiations, chemicals, etc. Evolution It is the sequence of gradual changes from mple
Genetic variations: life forms. It oCCurs because of errore in
Mutation, sexual reproduction, meiosis, etc. life forms to complex
DNA cOpying and as a result of sexual reproduction. Als
Significance of Variations called organic evolution.
It forms the basis of heredity. are characteristics or traits that ara
Acquired Traits: These
It causes adaptability to adverse conditions. lifetime of an individual, but are not
developed during the
Accumulation of variations forms the basis of evolution. so they do not pass on to the net
genetically controlled,
InheritedTraits These are traits or characteristics, which are generation.
passed on from parents to their offsprings generation to Charles Darwin proposed that evolution of species occured
generation and are controlled by genes. not know the underlying
by natural selection, but he did
Gene It is the basic unit of heredity present on chromosome, mechanism because he was unaware of the significance of
composed of DNA and codes for one polypeptide (protein). the experiments of Mendel at that time.
inheritance of Traits (Mendelism) Gregor Johann Mendel
(1822-1884) was the first one to keep count of individuals
Speciation It is the development of one or more new

species from an existing species, i.e. it is evolution of

exhibiting a particular trait in each generation to study reproductive isolation among once interbreeding population
inheritance pattern in pea plants. He is regarded as the father natural
of genetics. He used a number of contrasting. visible
Causes of speciation are genetic drift, selection anc
geographical isolation.
characters like round/wrinkled seeds, tall/short plants,
Classification It is the arrangement of organisms into a
white/violet fiowers, etc
series of groups based on physiological, biochemica.
Genetic Crosses Performed by Mendel anatomical or other relationships.
Monohybrid cross it is a cross between two parents
of Evolution There are various evidences which
taking the alternative traits of one single character, Evidences
indicate that living organisms have evolved from common
e.g a cross between tall and dwarf pea plant gives
ancestors. Some of these important evidences are:
in F -generation-100% hybrid
Homologous organs are the organs which have
the sane
in Fz -generation-phenotypicratio 3: 1and genotypic ratio structure (or same basic design), but different
1 2 :1.
basic
functions. e.g. the forelimbs of vertebrates.
Dihybrid cross It is a cross between two parents taking Analogous organs have different basic structui
into consideration alternative trait of two different different basic design), but have
characters, e.g. a cross between two pea plants, one similar appearance
perform similar functions, e.g. wings of an insect
having round green seeds and other having winkled yellow
Fossils are remains of dead
andlived
a in
seeds gives animals or plants
thata
the remote past. Fossils help in tracins evolutionan
In F-generation-100% hybrid type. pathways. The age of fossils can be estimated by coarbon
dating and digging of earth to the deepest layer.
InFa-generation-phenotypic ratio 9: 3:3:1. Evolution
Mendels Laws of Inheritance On the basis of Mendel's versus
Progress Evolution cannot D said

progress from lovwer forms olution

genetic cross, the following laws of inheritance were made seems to have given rise to higher forms. Rather
to
while
Law of dominance, Law of segregation and Law of complex
independent assortment.
the simpler
body designs continue to body designs ev
flourish.
Human Evolution All same

Sex Determination human

of the individual is determined species, Homo sapiens and allbeings,
i.e. belong toAfrica
of them originated
I n human beings the sex
Then, they migrated to and

genetically. dominate different parts of the wo

today's life forms.