PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES

16-May-22 2:50 PM 1
What is Pure Substances?
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout
is called a pure substance.
Example :Water, nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide
It can exist more than one phase.
Example :Ice & liquid water or steam and liquid water
.
A mixture of various chemical elements or compounds
also qualifies as a pure substance as long as the mixture is
homogeneous.
Example : Air

16-May-22 2:50 PM 2
PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES
OF PURE SUBSTANCES
The term phase refers to a quantity of matter that is homogeneous
throughout in both chemical composition and physical structure.
A system can contain one or more phases.
There are many practical situations where two phases of a pure substance
coexist in equilibrium.
Water exists as a mixture of liquid and vapor in the boiler and the condenser
of a steam power plant.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 3
PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES OF PURE SUBSTANCES
• Consider a piston–cylinder device containing liquid water at 200 C and
1 atm pressure. At 1 atm and 20°C, water
exists in the liquid phase
(compressed liquid).
State 1
Compressed liquid ( Subcooled liquid ):
Under these conditions, water exists
in the liquid phase, and it is called a
compressed liquid, or a subcooled
liquid, meaning that it is not about to
vaporize.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 4
State 2
Saturated liquid state : At 1 atm pressure and 100°C, water
exists as a liquid that is ready to
vaporize (saturated liquid).
As more heat is transferred, the temperature keeps rising
until it reaches 1000 C.

At this point water is still a liquid, but any heat addition

will cause some of the liquid to vaporize.

That is, a phase-change process from liquid to vapor is

about to take place

A liquid that is about to vaporize is called a saturated

liquid. Therefore, state 2 is a saturated liquid state.
16-May-22 2:50 PM 6
State 3
Saturated liquid–vapor mixture:
As more heat is transferred,
part of the saturated liquid
Temperature stops rising until the vaporizes (saturated liquid–
vapor mixture).
liquid is completely vaporized.
During a boiling process, the only the
volume increase

Midway about the vaporization

line (state 3, Fig. 3–7), the
cylinder contains equal amounts
of liquid and vapor.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 7
State 4 Saturated vapor :
• Continue transferring heat, the vaporization process
continues until the last drop of liquid is vaporized
• At this point, the entire cylinder is filled with vapor that
is on the borderline of the liquid phase.
• Any heat loss from this vapor will cause some of the
vapor to condense (phase change from vapor to liquid).
• A vapor that is about to condense is called a saturated
vapor.
• A substance at states between 2 and 4 is
referred to as a saturated liquid–vapor mixture
At 1 atm pressure, the
temperature remains constant at
100°C until the last drop of liquid
is vaporized (saturated vapor).
16-May-22 2:50 PM 8
 State 5 Superheated vapor: As more heat is transferred, the
temperature of the vapor starts
to rise (superheated vapor).
• Further transfer of heat results in an increase in both the
temperature and the specific volume.
• if we transfer some heat from the vapor, the temperature
may drop somewhat but no condensation will take place as
long as the temperature remains above
1000 C (for P = 1 atm).
• A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e., not a
saturated vapor) is called a superheated vapor.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 9
 • The temperature at which a pure
substance changes phase is called
the saturation temperature .
corresponding pressure is known as
saturated pressure.
• For water at 1 atm(1 bar) pressure
the saturation temperature is
99.670c or vice-versa.
• If the temp. of liquid is lower than
the saturation temp , for the existing
pressure is called as sub-cooled
liquid or compressed liquid.
• When the vapor is at a temp.
greater than the saturation temp, it
is called as super heated vapour.
A vapour that is not about to
16-May-22 2:50 PM
condensed. 10
 220.9 atm

373.95

16-May-22 2:50 PM 11
 •A state at which a phase change begins or
ends is called a saturation state.
•If all of the saturated liquid states are
connected, the saturated liquid line is
established.
• If all of the saturated vapor states are
connected, the saturated vapor line is
established.
• These two lines intersect at the critical point
• The region between the saturated liquid line
and the saturated vapor line is called by these
terms: saturated liquid-vapor mixture region,
wet region (i.e., a mixture of saturated liquid
and saturated vapor), two-phase region, or
just the saturation region.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 12
•The term critical point is
defined as a point at which
saturated liquid and vapor
state are identical.

•At critical pressure and

pressure above critical
pressure there is not a
distinct phase change
process and at all times
there is only one phase
present.
16-May-22 2:50 PM 13
 P2 = 1000 kPa

• The region to the left of

P1 = 100 kPa

the saturated liquid line

179.88oC and below the critical
temperature is called the
99.61oC compressed liquid region.
• The region to the right of
the saturated vapor line
is called the superheated
region.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 14
 A large amount of energy to melt a solid or vaporize a liquid. The
amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase-change
process is called the latent heat.
 The amount of energy absorbed during melting is called the latent
heat of fusion and is equivalent to the amount of energy released
during freezing.
 The amount of energy absorbed during vaporization is called the
latent heat of vaporization and is equivalent to the energy released
during condensation.
 Latent heats depend on the temperature or pressure at which the
phase change occurs.
 At 1 atm pressure,
• The latent heat of fusion of water is 333.7 kJ/kg
• The latent heat of vaporization is 2256.5 kJ/kg.
Steam Table
 Steam Tables
A steam table is an essential tool for any engineer working with steam.

It's typically used to determine saturated steam temperature from steam pressure, or the vice versa
i.e pressure from saturated steam temperature.

In addition to pressure and temperature, these tables usually include other related values such as
specific enthalpy (h) and specific volume (v), specific entropy (s). .

The data found in a steam table always refers to steam at a particular saturation point, also
known as the boiling point.

This is the point where water (liquid) and steam (gas) can coexist at the same temperature and
pressure.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 17
 The subscript f is used to denote properties of a saturated liquid, and the subscript g to denote the
properties of saturated vapor. Another subscript commonly used is fg, which denotes the difference
between the saturated vapor and saturated liquid values of the same property.

These symbols are commonly used in thermodynamics and originated from German.

For example,

16-May-22 2:50 PM 18
16-May-22 2:50 PM 19
 vf Liquid phase and vg Vapor phase of Specific volume

16-May-22 2:50 PM 20
 Property Table

 For example if the pressure

and specific volume are
specified, there may be three
conditions: For the given
pressure,

16-May-22 2:50 PM 21
Temp., T Sat. Specific volume, Internal energy, Enthalpy, Entropy,
C Press., Psat m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK
kPa
Sat. liquid, Sat. Sat. Evap., Sat. Sat. Evap., Evap., Sat.
vf vapor, liquid, ufg vapor, liquid, hfg sfg vapor,
vg uf ug hf sg
0.01 0.6117 0.001000 206.00 0.00 2374.9 2374.9 0.00 2500.9 2500.9 0.0000 9.1556 9.1556

5 0.8725 0.001000 147.03 21.02 2360.8 2381.8 21.02 2489.1 2510.1 0.0763 8.9487 9.0249

10 1.228 0.001000 106.32 42.02 2346.6 2388.7 42.02 2477.2 2519.2 0.1511 8.7488 8.8999

15 1.706 0.001001 77.885 62.98 2332.5 2395.5 62.98 2465.4 2528.3 0.2245 8.5559 8.7803

20 2.339 0.001002 57.762 83.91 2318.4 2402.3 83.91 2453.5 2537.4 0.2965 8.3696 8.6661

25 3.170 0.001003 43.340 104.83 2304.3 2409.1 104.83 2441.7 2546.5 0.3672 8.1895 8.5567

30 4.247 0.001004 32.879 125.73 2290.2 2415.9 125.74 2429.8 2555.6 0.4368 8.0152 8.4520

35 5.629 0.001006 25.205 146.63 2276.0 2422.7 146.64 2417.9 2564.6 0.5051 7.8466 8.3517

40 7.385 0.001008 19.515 167.53 2261.9 2429.4 167.53 2406.0 2573.5 0.5724 7.6832 8.2556

45 9.595 0.001010 15.251 188.43 2247.7 2436.1 188.44 2394.0 2582.4 0.6386 7.5247 8.1633

50 12.35 0.001012 12.026 209.33 2233.4 2442.7 209.34 2382.0 2591.3 0.7038 7.3710 8.0748

55 15.76 0.001015 9.5639 230.24 2219.1 2449.3 230.26 2369.8 2600.1 0.7680 7.2218 7.9898

85 57.87 0.001032 2.8261 355.96 2131.9 2487.8 356.02 2295.3 2651.4 1.1346 6.4089 7.5435

90 70.18 0.001036 2.3593 376.97 2117.0 2494.0 377.04 2282.5 2659.6 1.1929 6.2853 7.4782

95 84.61 0.001040 1.9808 398.00 2102.0 2500.1 398.09 2269.6 2667.6 1.2504 6.1647 7.4151

100 101.42 0.001043 1.6720 419.06 2087.0 2506.0 419.17 2256.4 2675.6 1.3072 6.0470 7.3542

۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰

۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰

360 18666 0.001895 0.006950 1726.16 625.7 2351.9 1761.53 720.1 2481.6 3.9165 1.1373 5.0537

365 19822 0.002015 0.006009 1777.22 526.4 2303.6 1817.16 605.5 2422.7 4.0004 0.9489 4.9493

370 21044 0.002217 0.004953 1844.53 385.6 2230.1 1891.19 443.1 2334.3 4.1119 0.6890 4.8009

2015.8 0 2015.8 2084.3 0 2084.3 4.4070 0 4.4070

373.95 22064 0.003106 0.003106
16-May-22 2:50 PM 22
 Saturated water-Pressure table
Press. Sat. Temp., Specific volume, Internal energy, Enthalpy, Entropy,
P kPa Tsat C m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kgK

Sat. Sat. Sat. Evap., Sat. Sat. Evap., Sat. Sat. liquid, Evap., Sat.
liquid, vapor, liquid, ufg vapor, liquid, hfg vapor, sf sfg vapor,
vf vg uf ug hf hg sg

0.6117 0.01 0.001000 206.00 0.00 2374.9 2374.9 0.00 2500.9 2500.9 0.0000 9.1556 9.1556

1.0 6.97 0.001000 129.19 29.30 2355.2 2384.5 29.30 2484.4 2513.7 0.1059 8.8690 8.9749

1.5 13.02 0.001001 87.964 54.69 2338.1 2392.8 54.69 2470.1 2524.7 0.1956 8.6314 8.8270

2.0 17.50 0.001001 66.990 73.43 2325.5 2398.9 73.43 2459.5 2532.9 0.2606 8.4621 8.7227

2.5 21.08 0.001002 54.242 88.42 2315.4 2403.8 88.42 2451.0 2539.4 0.3118 8.3302 8.6421

3.0 24.08 0.001003 45.654 100.98 2306.9 2407.9 100.98 2443.9 2544.8 0.3543 8.2222 8.5765

4.0 28.96 0.001004 34.791 121.39 2293.1 2414.5 121.39 2432.3 2553.7 0.4224 8.0510 8.4734

5.0 32.87 0.001005 28.185 137.75 2282.1 2419.8 137.75 2423.0 2560.7 0.4762 7.9176 8.3938

7.5 40.29 0.001008 19.233 168.74 2261.1 2429.8 168.75 2405.3 2574.0 0.5763 7.6738 8.2501

10 45.81 0.001010 14.670 191.79 2245.4 2437.2 191.81 2392.1 2583.9 0.6492 7.4996 8.1488

15 53.97 0.001014 10.020 225.93 2222.1 2448.0 225.94 2372.3 2598.3 0.7549 7.2522 8.0071

20 60.06 0.001017 7.6481 251.40 2204.6 2456.0 251.42 2357.5 2608.9 0.8320 7.0752 7.9073

25 64.96 0.001020 6.2034 271.93 2190.4 2462.4 271.96 2345.5 2617.5 0.8932 6.9370 7.8302

30 69.09 0.001022 5.2287 289.24 2178.5 2467.7 289.27 2335.3 2624.6 0.9441 6.8234 7.7675

40 75.86 0.001026 3.9933 317.58 2158.8 2476.3 317.62 2318.4 2636.1 1.0261 6.6430 7.6691

50 81.32 0.001030 3.2403 340.49 2142.7 2483.2 340.54 2304.7 2645.2 1.0912 6.5019 7.5931

75 91.76 0.001037 2.2172 384.36 2111.8 2496.1 384.44 2278.0 2662.4 1.2132 6.2426 7.4558

100 99.61 0.001043 1.6941 417.40 2088.2 2505.6 417.51 2257.5 2675.0 1.3028 6.0562 7.3589

125 105.97 0.001048 1.3750 444.23 2068.8 2513.0 444.36 2240.6 2684.9 1.3741 5.9100 7.2841

۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰

۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ ۰

20,000 365.75 0.002038 0.005862 1785.84 509.0 2294.8 1826.59 585.5 2412.1 4.0146 0.9164 4.9310

21,000 369.83 0.002207 0.004994 1841.62 391.9 2233.5 1887.97 450.4 2338.4 4.1071 0.7005 4.8076

22,000 373.71 0.002703 0.003644 1951.65 140.8 2092.4 2011.12 161.5 2172.6 4.2942 0.2496 4.5439

0.003106 0.003106 2015.8 0 2015.8 2084.3 0 2084.3 4.4070 0 4.4070

22,064
16-May-22373.95
2:50 PM 23
EXAMPLE 1 Pressure of Saturated Liquid in a Tank
A rigid tank contains 50 kg of saturated liquid water at 90oC.
Determine the pressure in the tank and the volume of the tank.

SOLUTION A rigid tank contains saturated liquid water. The pressure and
volume of the tank are to be determined.

Analysis The state of the saturated liquid water is shown on a T-v diagram.
Since it is Saturated Liquid conditions exist in the tank so the state should
be state 2, and the pressure must be the saturation pressure at 90oC .

So we have to search in the temperature based steam table at 90oC

P = Psat @ 90oC = 70.104 kPa (pressure in the tank)

The specific volume of the saturated liquid at 90oC is 0.001036

v = vf @ 90oC = 0.001036 m3/kg

Then the total volume of the tank becomes V = mv = (50 kg)(0.001036 m3/kg) = 0.0518 m3
16-May-22 2:50 PM 24
EXAMPLE2: Temperature of Saturated Vapor in a Cylinder
A piston–cylinder device contains 0.056 m3 of saturated water vapor at
350 kPa pressure. Determine the temperature and the mass of the vapor
inside the cylinder.
SOLUTION A cylinder contains saturated water vapor. The
temperature and the mass of vapor are to be determined.
Analysis The state of the saturated vapor is shown on a T-v diagram.
Since it is Saturated Vapor conditions exist in the tank so the state should be
state 4, and the Temperature must be the saturation Temperature at 350 kPa .
So we have to search in the pressure based steam table at 350 kPa

T = Tsat @ 350 kpa = 138.87 oC (Temperature in the tank)

The specific volume of the saturated vapor at 350 kPa is = vg = 0.5241 m3/kg

𝑉 0.056
Then the mass of water vapor inside the cylinder = m= = = 0.106 𝑘𝑔
𝑣 0.5241
16-May-22 2:50 PM 25
EXAMPLE 3–3 Volume and Energy Change during Evaporation
A mass of 200 g of saturated liquid water is completely
vaporized at a constant pressure of 100 kPa. Determine
(a)Temperature in the tank
(b) the volume change
(c) the amount of energy transferred to the water.
SOLUTION Saturated liquid water is vaporized at constant pressure. The
volume change and the energy transferred are to be determined.

Analysis (a) The process described is illustrated on a T-v diagram in. The
volume change per unit mass during a vaporization process is vfg, which is
the difference between vg and vf. Reading these values from pressure
based Table at 100 kPa

T = Tsat @ 100 kpa = 99.63 oC (Temperature in the tank)

3
𝑣𝑓𝑔 = 𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 = 1.6941 − 0.001043 = 1.6931 𝑚 𝑘𝑔

(b) ∆𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓𝑔 = 0.2 ∗ 1.6931 = 0.3386 𝑚3

16-May-22 2:50 PM 26
(c) The amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit mass of a substance at a given pressure is
the enthalpy of vaporization at that pressure, which is ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 2257.5 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔
for water at 100 kPa. Thus, the amount of energy transferred is

𝑚ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 0.2 ∗ 2257.96 = 451.59 kJ

16-May-22 2:50 PM 27
 Now Let we have to find the state at 100 kPa and 99.63 oC

As the saturation temp of 100kpa is 99.63 oC the state lies at any

point between state 2 and state 4.

So the quality of the mixture is needed to determine the state.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 28
 Conditions with the given specific volume (𝑣)
𝑖𝑓 𝑣 < 𝑣𝑓
 The state is in the compressed liquid region, and the compressed liquid table is
used to find the properties. (or using saturation temperature table) or saturation
pressure table and all vf data can be used.
𝑖𝑓 𝑣𝑓 < 𝑣 < 𝑣𝑔
 The state is in the saturation region, means its a mixture and either the saturation
temperature table or the saturation pressure table is used.

𝑖𝑓 𝑣𝑔 < 𝑣
 The state is in the superheated region and the superheated table is used.

𝑖𝑓 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓
 The state is in the saturated liquid.

𝑖𝑓 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣
 The state is in the saturated vapor.
16-May-22 2:50 PM 29
Quality and Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture :
During a vaporization process, a substance exists as part liquid and part
vapor. That is, it is a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor. To
analyze this mixture properly, we need to know the proportions of the liquid
and vapor phases in the mixture. This is done by defining a new property
called the quality x as the ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the
mixture (it is also known as ( Dryness fraction of the steam )
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑔
𝑥= =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑓

• Quality has significance for saturated mixtures only. It

has no meaning in the compressed liquid or
superheated vapor regions.
• Its value is between 0 and 1.
• The quality of a system that consists of saturated
liquid is 0 (or 0 percent),
• The quality of a system consisting of saturated vapor
is 1 (or 100 percent).

16-May-22 2:50 PM 30
Consider a tank that contains a saturated liquid–vapor mixture. The volume occupied by saturated liquid is Vf,
and the volume occupied by saturated vapor is Vg. The total volume V is the sum of the two:
V  V f  Vg
m  m f  mg
V  mv , V f  m f v f , Vg  mg v g

mv  m f v f  mg v g
mf v f mg v g
v 
m m
Recall the definition of quality x
mg mg
x 
m m f  mg
Then mf m  mg
  1 x
m m
Note, quantity 1- x is often given the name moisture. The specific volume of the
saturated mixture becomes v  (1  x)v f  xvg

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 ) ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥(ℎ𝑔 − ℎ𝑓 )
16-May-22 2:50 PM 31
Calculate the mass of 15m3 of water (mixed phase liquid-vapor) at
500kPa and quality of 50%.
𝑉 = 15 𝑚3 Quality of 50%. = dryness fraction = x = 0.5 ( its a mixture )

𝑣𝑓 & 𝑣𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 500 𝑘𝑝𝑎 = 0.001093 𝑚3 & 0.3748 𝑚

3
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

3
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 ) = 0.001093 + 0.5(0.3748 − 0.001093) = 0.188 𝑚 𝑘𝑔

𝑉 15
Then the mass of liquid−vapor mixture inside the cylinder = m= = = 80 𝑘𝑔
𝑣 0.188

16-May-22 2:50 PM 32
Calculate the specific volume and the specific enthalpy of steam at 35%
quality and pressure of 20kPa.
P=20 kPa = 0.2bar , x=0.35 Quality of 35 %. = dryness fraction = x = 0.35 ( its a mixture )

𝑣𝑓 & 𝑣𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 20 𝑘𝑝𝑎 = 0.001017 𝑚3 & 7.65 𝑚

3
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

ℎ𝑓 & ℎ𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 20 𝑘𝑝𝑎 = 251.31 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔& 2609.96 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔

3
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 ) = 0.001017 + 0.35(7.65 − 0.001017) = 2.69 𝑚 𝑘𝑔

𝑘𝐽
ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥(ℎ𝑔 − ℎ𝑓 ) = 251.31 + 0.35(2609.96 − 251.31) = 1078 𝑘𝑔

16-May-22 2:50 PM 33
EXAMPLE 4 Pressure and Volume of a Saturated Mixture
A rigid tank contains 10 kg of water at 90oC. If 8 kg of the water is in the liquid
form and the rest is in the vapor form, determine (a) the pressure in the tank
and (b) the volume of the tank.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 34
Another way or Method 2
A rigid tank contains 10 kg of water at 90oC. If 8 kg of the water is in the liquid
form and the rest is in the vapor form, determine (a) the pressure in the tank
and (b) the volume of the tank.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 35
 Determine the saturated pressure, specific volume, internal
energy and enthalpy for saturated water vapor at 45oC and 50oC.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 36
 Determine the saturated pressure, specific volume, internal energy and enthalpy for
saturated water vapor at 47⁰ C.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 37
 Solution:

 Extract data from steam table

T Psat v u h
45 9.5953 15.251 2436.1 2582.4 Interpolation Scheme for Psat

47 Psat v u h  Interpolation for Psat

Psat  9.5953 47  45
50 12.352 12.026 2442.7 2591.3 
12.352  9.5953 50  45
Psat @ 47  10.698 kPa

38
16-May-22 2:50 PM
Example Is v  v f ? No  Find the quality
Determine the enthalpy of 1.5 Is v f  v  v g ? Yes
kg of water contained in a v  v f  x (v g  v f )
volume of 1.2 m3 at 200 kPa. Is v g  v ? No v  vf
x
vg  v f
Solution:
0.8  0.001061
 Specific volume for water 
0.8858  0.001061
Volume 12 . m3 m3  0.903 (What does this mean?)
v   0.8
mass 15
. kg kg  The enthalpy
 From table @ 200kPa or 2 bar h  h f  x h fg
v f  0.001061 m
3
 504.7  (0.903)(2201.6)
kg
kJ
vg  0.8858 m3
kg  2492.7
kg

39
16-May-22 2:50 PM
 P (bar) T 0C v (m3/Kg) X(%) Degree of h( KJ/Kg) s (KJ/Kg K) Status
Super Heat(0C)

Q1 35 25.22

Q2 0.001044 419.04

Q3 212.42 90

Q4 1 6.104

Q5 10 320

Q6 5 0.4646

Q7 4 143.63 0.44

Q8 20 50

Q9 500 3445.3

Q 10 15 7.2690

16-May-22 2:50 PM 40
 P (bar) T 0C v (m3/Kg) X(%) Degree of h( KJ/Kg) s (KJ/Kg K) Status
Super Heat(0C)

Q1 0.05628 35
35 25.22
25.22 100 ________ 2565.3 8.353 Saturated
Vapor
Q2 1.0135 100 0.001044
0.001044 0 __________ 419.04
419.04 1.3069 Saturated Liquid

Q3 20 212.42 0.089785 90 ____________ 2610.42 5.95155 Sat. liq. vapor

mixture
Q
Q 44 1
1 99.63 1.34254 79.24 _________ 2206.7 6.104
6.104 Sat. liq. vapor
mixture

Q
Q55 10
10 320
320 0.2678 Undefined 140.09 3093.9 7.1962 Super Heated
Vapor
Q
Q66 5
5 240 0.4646
0.4646 undefined 88.14 2939.9 7.2307 Superheated

Q7 4 143.63 0.44 95.123 _______ 2634.47 6.6462 Sat. liq. vapor

mixture

Q8 20 262.42 0.11505 Undefined 50 2933.653 6.60416 superheated

Q9 40 500 0.08643 undefined 249.6 3445.3 7.0901 superheated

Q 10 15 400 0.20300 Undefined 201.68 3255.8 7.2690 superheated

16-May-22 2:50 PM 41
 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑔 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑔

16-May-22 2:50 PM 42
Q2
Dry and saturated steam at 10 bar is cooled at constant volume
until the pressure becomes 1 bar. What is the quality of steam P = 10 bar
after cooling? What are the initial and final temp of the steam?
SOLUTION :
P = 1bar
Initial Condition : Dry and saturated steam ( saturated Vapor )
Pressure 10 bar
Process : cooled at constant volume
Final Condition : pressure becomes 1 bar.
Findings : the initial and final temp of the steam
The initial specific volume = 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑔 @ 10 bar = 0.1944 m3/kg
𝑣𝑔
The final specific volume = 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 = 0.1944 m3/kg
We have to check the specific volume with 𝑣𝑓 & 𝑣𝑔 @ 1𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑠 .

𝐴𝑡 1𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑣𝑓 = 0.001043 m3/kg
𝑣𝑔 = 1.694 m3/kg 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 ) initial temp =179.91o c @ saturation temp 10bar
𝑥 = 0.1142= 11.42%,
Final temp =99.63o c @ saturation temp 1 bar
𝑣𝑓 < 𝑣 < 𝑣𝑔 so the final condition will be a mixture.
16-May-22 2:50 PM 43
16-May-22 2:50 PM 44
Saturated steam at 10 bar is cooled at constant pressure until it’s
dryness fraction becomes 50%. What are the change in temp.
P = 10 bar
and specific vol.

SOLUTION :
Initial Condition : Dry and saturated steam ( saturated Vapor )
Pressure 10 bar
Process : cooled at constant Pressure
Final Condition : until it’s dryness fraction becomes 50%
Findings : change in temp. and specific vol.
𝑣 𝑣𝑔

The initial specific volume = 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑔 @ 10 bar = 0.1944 m3/kg

The final specific volume = 𝑣2

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 )
x= 0.5
𝑣 = 0.001127 + 0.5 0.19444 − .001127 = 0.0977m3/kg
𝐴𝑡 10 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑣𝑓 = 0.001127 m3/kg change in specific vol = 0.19444 − 0.0977= 0.09674 m3/kg
𝑣𝑔 = 0.19444 m3/kg

change in temp. = 0
16-May-22 2:50 PM 45
 Q4
Water at 1200C with a quality of 25% has its temperature raised 200C in a constant volume process. What
is the new quality and pressure?
SOLUTION :
Initial Condition : its a mixture x = 0.25
Process : heated at constant volume process
Final Condition : until temperature raised 200C that means final temp. T = 140oC
is 140oC
Findings : new quality and pressure.
Tsat = 120oC
𝐴𝑡 1200C
𝑣𝑓 = 0.001060 m3/kg
𝑣𝑔 = 0.8919 m3/kg 𝑣

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 )
𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 0.001060 + 0.25 0.8919 − .001060 = 0.22377m3/kg
As it’s a constant volume process initial sp. vol = final sp. vol= 0.22377m3/kg
𝐴𝑡 1400C
𝑣𝑓 = 0.001080 m3/kg 𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 )
𝑣𝑔 = 0.5089 m3/kg 𝑥 = 0.4385= 43.85%,
𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 0.22377m3/kg so final state is also a mixture Pressure= Psat= 3.613 bar @ 1400C
16-May-22 2:50 PM 46
16-May-22 2:50 PM 47
Water at 1200C, 200 kPa with a quality of 25% has its temperature
raised 200 C in a constant pressure process. What is the new
quality and volume?

16-May-22 2:50 PM 48
 Q9
A rigid tank with a volume of 2.5 m3 contains 15 kg of saturated
liquid- vapour mixture of water at 750C. Now the water is
slowly heated. Determine the temperature at which the liquid
in the tank is completely vaporized. TFinal
SOLUTION :
Initial Condition : saturated liquid- vapour mixture Tsat = 75oC
Temperature 750C
Process : heated at constant Volume (rigid tank)
Final Condition : liquid in the tank is completely vaporized.
𝑣 = 0.166
Findings : liquid in the tank is completely vaporized.

At 750C
𝑣𝑓 = 0.001026 m3/kg 𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝. 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑣𝑔(𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙) = 𝑣 = 0.166
𝑣𝑔 = 4.131m3/kg
2.5
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑔 data to find 0.166
𝑣= = 0.166 m3/kg
15
So at temp 187oc (ANS)

16-May-22 2:50 PM 49
Q 20
A 0.3 –m3 rigid vessel initially contains saturated liquid –
vapor mixture of water at 1500 C. The water is now
heated until it reaches the critical state. Determine the
mass of the liquid water and the volume occupied by the
liquid at the initial state. Ans: 96.10 kg, 0.105 m3

16-May-22 2:50 PM 50
Q 10
A 0.15 m3 rigid tank contains 2 kg of water at 150 kPa. Determine
(a) the temperature
(b) (b) the mass of each phase of water.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 51
Q 23
A 4 – L rigid tank contains 2 kg of saturated liquid – vapor mixture of water at 500 C. The water is now slowly
heated until it exists in a single phase. At the final state, will the water be in the liquid phase or the vapor
phase? What would your answer be if the volume of the tank were 400 L instead of 4 L?

16-May-22 2:50 PM 52
Water is being heated in a vertical piston-cylinder device. The
piston has a mass of 20 kg and and a cross-sectional area of
100 cm2. If the local atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.
Determine the temperature at which the water starts boiling.
Ans : 104.70C

16-May-22 2:50 PM 53
Q 12
Saturated water vapor at 200 kPa is in a constant pressure piston
cylinder. At this state the piston is 0.1 m from the cylinder bottom.
How much is this distance moved by the piston if the temperature is
changed to (a) 2000C and (b) 1000C. Ans: 0.12 m. (b) 0.00011 m

16-May-22 2:50 PM 54
 Q 13
You want a pot of water to boil at 1050C. How heavy a lid should you put
on the 15 cm-diameter pot when Patm = 101 kPa? Ans: 35.7 kg.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 55
Q 17
A piston – cylinder device contains 0.1 m3 of liquid water and 0.9 m3 of water vapor
in equilibrium at 800 kPa. Heat is transferred at constant pressure until the
temperature reaches 3500C.
(a) What is the initial temperature of the water? 170.410C
(b) Determine the total mass of the water. 93.45 kg
(c) Calculate the final volume. 33.12 m3
(d) Show the process on a p-v diagram with respect to saturation lines.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 56
16-May-22 2:50 PM 57
Q 18
A piston-cylinder device contains 0.8 kg of steam at 3000C and 1 MPa.
Steam is cooled at constant pressure until one-half of the mass
condenses.
(a)Show the process on a T-v diagram.
(b) Find the final temperature. 179.880 C
(c) Determine the volume change. –0.1282 m3

16-May-22 2:50 PM 58
Q 19
Superheated water vapor at 1.4 MPa and 2500 C is allowed to
cool at constant volume until the temperature drops to 1200C.
At the final state. Determine (a) the pressure (b) quality: Show
the process on a T-v diagram with respect to saturation lines.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 59
Q 22
A pressure cooker (closed tank) contains water at 1000 C with
the liquid volume being 1/10 of the vapor volume. It is heated
until the pressure reaches 2.0 MPa. Find the final temperature.
Has the final state more or less vapor than the initial state?

16-May-22 2:50 PM 60
Q 21
A piston – cylinder device initially contains steam at 3.5 MPa,
superheated by 50 C, Now, steam loses heat to the
surroundings and the piston moves down hitting a set of stops
at which point the cylinder contains saturated liquid water. The
cooling continues until the cylinder contains water at 2000 C.
Determine (a) the initial temperature, (b) the enthalpy change
per unit mass of the steam by the time the piston first hits the
stops and (c) the final pressure and the quality (if mixture).
Ans : 247.60 C, – 1771 kj/kg, 1555 kPa, 0.0006.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 61
Q 16
Saturated water vapor at 600C has its pressure decreased to
increase the volume by 10% keeping the temperature constant.
To what pressure should it be expanded? Ans: 18.9 kPa

16-May-22 2:50 PM 62
Q 11

Saturated liquid water at 600C is put under pressure to

decrease the volume by 1% keeping the temperature constant.
To what pressure should it be compressed? Ans: 23.8 MPa

16-May-22 2:50 PM 63
Q 15
Two tanks are connected as shown in
Fig. both containing water. Tank A is at
200 kPa. vA = 0.5 m3/kg. VA = 1 m3 and
tank B contains 3.5 kg at 0.5 MPa. 4000C.
The valve is now opened and the two
come to a uniform state. Find the final
specific volume.
Ans: 0.5746

16-May-22 2:50 PM 64
6. A sealed rigid vessel has volume of 1m3 and contains 2kg
of water at 1000 C. The vessel is now heated. If a safety
pressure valve is installed at what pressure should the
valve be set to have a maximum temperature of 2000C?
Ans: 431.3 kPa

16-May-22 2:50 PM 65
7. A 1.8 m3 rigid tank contains steam at 2200C. One third of
the volume is in the liquid phase and the rest is in the
vapor form. Determine (a) the pressure of the steam, (b)
the quality of the saturated mixture and (c) the density of
the mixture. Ans : (a) 2320 kPa (b) 0.0269 (c) 287.8

16-May-22 2:50 PM 66
• A water storage tank contains liquid and vapor in equilibrium at
1100C. The distance from the bottom of the tank to the liquid level is
8 m. What is the absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank?

16-May-22 2:50 PM 73
16-May-22 2:50 PM 74
16-May-22 2:50 PM 75
 Pure substance (normal
substance) other than
water:

16-May-22 2:50 PM 76
 Pure substance water:

16-May-22 2:50 PM 77
16-May-22 2:50 PM 78
16-May-22 2:50 PM 79
 P-T Diagram

16-May-22 2:50 PM 81
 0.6113
kPa

0.01oc

16-May-22 2:50 PM 82
PHASE CHANGE PROCESSES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AT CONSTANT PRESSURE

Consider 1 kg of ice (solid) at −10°C contained in a cylinder, say under 1 atmospheric pressure
This state of ice is shown by state ‘A’ on T-V diagrams in Fig. **, respectively. Now let heat be
supplied to the cylinder continuously and slowly. During heating, the pressure inside the
cylinder is kept constant at 1 atmospheric pressure. During heating at constant pressure,
various processes along with change of states are observed and plotted on T-V diagrams in Fig.
***, respectively.
At the beginning of heating, the temperature of ice rises from -10°C and approaches to 0°C as
shown in Fig.. The warming process is represented by process ‘AB’ in Fig.***. At state ‘B’, Pure substance (normal
the temperature is 0°C. substance) other than
water:
On further heating, the ice starts melting (a change of phase takes place from solid to liquid
state) but the temperature remains constant at 0°C. The two phases (i.e. mixture of ice (solid)
and water (liquid)) exist in equilibrium as shown in Fig 18.3 (b-c). This process is shown by
process ‘BC’ in Fig.. At point ‘C’ all the ice has melted and there is only one phase i.e. water
(liquid). The quantity of heat required to transform ice into water (process BC) at constant
temperature (i.e. 0°C) is called latent heat of fusion or enthalpy of fusion. The latent heat at
1 atmospheric pressure is numerically equal to 335 kJ/kg. There is a decrease in volume
during this melting process, as shown in Fig.

Pure substance water:

16-May-22 2:50 PM 83
With further addition of heat the temperature of water rises till temperature of vaporization (i.e. boiling) is reached as
shown in Fig. 18.3 (d). This process is represented by CD in Fig. 18.4 and 18.5. The point ‘D’ corresponds to the
boiling (vaporization or saturation) temperature which is 100°C at 1 atmospheric pressure. This boiling temperature is a
function of pressure. The state of water at point ‘D’ is called the saturated liquid state because any further addition of
heat causes vaporization to start. The heat required to raise water temperature from 0°C to 100°C (Process ‘CD’) is
called the sensible heat. During this process, from 0°C to 4°C, the volume slightly decreases but after that from 4°C to
100°C it increases as shown in Fig. 18.5.
When more heat is added, the liquid water starts evaporating and once again another change of phase (from liquid to
vapor state) occurs at constant 100°C temperature at the same pressure. This process is called vaporization and is
represented by ‘DE’ in Fig. 18.4. In this process there exists a two phase mixture of water (liquid) and steam (vapor) as
shown in Fig. 18.3 (d-e) and the resulting mixture of water and steam is called the wet steam. There is a considerable
increase in volume during the vaporizing process as shown in Fig. 18.5. The rate of evaporation depends upon the rate
of heat supply. At point ‘E’ all the water has vaporized and the state of steam at this point is called dry and saturated
steam (vapor) as shown in Fig. 18.3(e) and its corresponding temperature (100°C) is called saturation temperature.
The heat required to vaporize liquid to vapor state during Process ‘DE’ at constant temperature is called the latent heat
of vaporization. The numerical value of latent heat or vaporization for water at 1 atmospheric pressure is equal to
2256.9 kJ/kg.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 84
With further addition of heat to the saturated steam, the temperature of the steam rises from 100°C and is
represented by process ‘EF’. There will be also an increase in volume. This process ‘EF’ is called the
superheating of steam and the resulting steam is called the superheated steam (vapor).
Now, if heat is rejected from the cylinder continuously and slowly all the above processes will be reversed. That
is, saturated vapor at state ‘E’ will start liquefying (condensing) at constant 100°C temperature till the state ‘D’ is
reached. This process ‘ED’ is then called liquefaction/condensation process. Similarly Process ‘CB’ will
be solidification process.

Pure substance (normal substance) other than water:

For normal substance, the behavior in T-v diagram is the same as that of water. However, at low temperature,
the behavior on T-v diagram is different from water,. It can be seen from the process ‘BC’ in T-v diagram that
water contracts while other pure substances (normal substance) expand during melting.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 85
16-May-22 2:50 PM 86
If the pure substance is heated at low pressure until its triple point (pressure and temperature at which three phases of a pure
substance coexist) is reached and while heating the vapor pressure of a solid is measured at various temperatures and then
plotted on a p-T diagram, shown in Fig. These plotted points represent the coexistence of solid and vapor and the line through
these points is called sublimation curve.
If the pure substance at triple point is further heated until the critical point is reached and while heating the vapor pressure of a
liquid is measured at various temperatures and then plotted on a p-T diagram, the results will appear as shown in Fig.. The
results of these plotted points represent the coexistence of liquid and vapor and the line through these points is
called vaporization curve.
On the other hand, if the substance at the triple point is compressed until
there is no vapor left on the resulting mixture of solid and liquid phase and
the pressure on the resulting mixture of solid and liquid is increased further,
the temperature will have to be changed for equilibrium to exist between
the solid and the liquid. Measurements of these pressures and temperatures
give rise to a third curve on the p-T diagram, starting at the triple point and
continuing indefinitely. This is fusion curve

TRIPLE POINT
The pressure and temperature at which three phases of a pure substance coexist is called triple point. The triple point
is merely the point of intersection of the sublimation and vaporization curves, It has been found that on a ‘p-T’ diagram
the triple point is represented by a point (Fig. 19.6) and on a ‘p-v’ diagram it is a line, and on a ‘u-v’ diagram it is a
triangle. In the case of ordinary water, the triple point is at a pressure of 4.58 mm Hg and a temperature of 0.01OC.
16-May-22 2:50 PM 87
 P-v diagram for water (solid-liquid-vapor region)

16-May-22 2:50 PM 88
p-V diagram for water (solid-liquid-vapor region)
If we heat ice at different vapor pressures and note down the corresponding change in volumes, the saturation state points
for solid, liquid and vapor (state from which a change of phase may occur without change of pressure and temperature)
for different pressures may be obtained on a p-V diagram.
By joining the saturated solid states at various pressures, a saturated solid line ‘ECA’ is obtained. Similarly, by joining
all the saturated liquid states with respect to solidification and by joining all the saturated liquid states with respect to
vaporization, saturated liquid lines ‘FG’ and ‘HG’ are obtained. Finally, by joining all the vapor states at various
pressures saturated vapor line ‘HB’ is obtained and a phase equilibrium diagram of water on p-v co-ordinates will be
formed as shown in Fig.
The horizontal portion ‘AB’ of constant pressure or temperature in Fig.
19.1 represents the transition from saturated solid directly into saturated
vapor called sublimation. There is obviously one such line ‘CGD’ in this
figure, the part ‘CG’ of which is the boundary between the liquid-vapor
region (L+V) and the solid-vapor region (S+V) and the remaining part
‘GD’ of which is boundary between the solid-liquid region (S+L) and the
solid-vapor region (S+V). This ‘CGD’ line is called the triple
point. Triple point is the only point at which three phases of a pure
substance coexist. In the case of ordinary water , the triple point is at a
pressure of 4.58 mm of Hg and a temperature of 0.01OC, and the line
extends from a volume of 1 cm3/g (saturated liquid) to a volume of
206000 cm3/g (saturated vapor)
16-May-22 2:50 PM 89
 The State Postulate

The state of the system is described by its properties.

Once a sufficient number of properties are specified, the rest of the properties assume some values
automatically.
The number of properties required to fix a state of a system is given by the state postulate

The state of a simple compressible system is completely

specified by two independent, intensive properties.

The state postulate requires that the two properties specified be independent to fix the state.

Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while the other one is held constant.

Temperature and specific volume, for example, are always independent properties, and together they can fix the
state of a simple compressible system.

Thus, temperature and pressure are not sufficient to fix the state of a two-phase system.

Otherwise an additional property needs to be specified for each effect that is significant.

16-May-22 2:50 PM 90