G eo Factsheet

April 2001 Number 114

The Three Gorges Project
Introduction
The Three Gorges dam under construction on the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) will, Control of the Chang has been a much debated issue. Sun Yat-sen, the
if completed, be China’s, and the world’s, largest dam. Approximately twice founder of modern China, proposed a dam at the Three Gorges site in
the size of Gezhouba, 40 kilometres downstream, this mega dam has become 1919. It was again discussed in the 1950s. Feasibility studies were
highly controversial worldwide. Although supporters of the scheme state undertaken in the 1980s but it was the devastating floods of 1991 which
unequivocally that the dam is essential to reduce escalating flood damage, were to trigger action. This multi-purpose scheme would not only control
water and power shortages, and hindrances to navigation, there is growing flooding but also provide hydropower, essential for further economic
concern amongst opponents about both the social and environmental impacts. development not only in the valley but in the Northern Plain, the eastern
seaboard and the south. Although both river and valley provide vital east-
Why build the dam? west communication in central China, navigation has always been
The Chang Jiang is China’s longest river. Its catchment covers one fifth of the hazardous and restricted, especially in the section between Chongqing
country and significantly is rich in both water resources and hydropower, two and Yichang (Fig. 1). Improvements to navigation, by raising water level,
resources vital for China’s economic development. It has long been a key would help promote economic growth of the valley from
region, accounting for 40% of China’s output. However, the most productive Shanghai–Pudong in the east and Chongqing in the west. The dam would
areas are the densely populated and highly urbanised middle and lower reaches also increase the viability of water transfer schemes from the Chang
of the valley which are prone to devastating floods, the costs of which are Jiang to the Northern Plain, which is very short of water.
escalating in terms of loss of life, livelihoods, revenue and infrastructure.

Fig. 1 The Chang Catchment

UPPER MIDDLE LOWER

EAST
CHINA
Plateau of
SEA
Tibet
R.
Da
n Danjiangkou
Key: Reservoir g
R. Jial

an
Catchment boundary
R.

g Ji
Three Gorges Shanghai
Han

an
R.

Dam
ing

Area of worst floods u

Ch
F
R.

R. Min

Yichang R. Ya ng R.
Ya

Jingjiang Reach
R. Qing tz
long

e
Reservoir (by 2001)
Chongqing Wuhan Hukou
0 100 200 Poyang
Dongting Lake
km R. Zi Lake
an
ang

Chang catchment: key facts u

R. W
R. G
. Xi

Total length of Chang Jiang: 6,380 km

Area of basin: 1.8 million km2 R
Average annual run-off: 1 million km3 Plateau of
Precipitation summer max Yunnan
Average annual sediment load: 521m tonnes

Source: 6600m; fed by glaciers and snow melt and summer rain Run off :450 km3 Run-off: 100 km3
Drainage area: 55% of the basin Summer rainfall Summer rainfall max
Average annual discharge: 45% of basin max (monsoon) Low flat land
Run off: 450 km3 Very little gradient Islands and sandbars in
Length: 4,529 km Flows across low, course
flat land in enormous Numerous lakes act as
Major tributaries from Sichuan province; serious flood threat meanders. stores
Steep sided valley cut through high mountains; vertical slopes in gorges Land 10m below
Steep gradient down to Chongqing river embankments.
Lakes (e.g. Dongting
& Poyang) provide
important storage
capacity

1
The Three Gorges Project Geo Factsheet

In 1992 the Three Gorges project was approved. In the same year the But the 1998 floods highlighted the role of human activity in increasing
Chang Jiang valley was designated an Economic Growth Region which flood risk. It was not flood flow but the flood level raised by siltation on
would now compete with the prosperous south east. the river bed which was the main cause of damage that year. In the upper
catchment, on the main stream and its tributaries, although geology in
Is a mega dam at Sandouping the best solution? certain sub basins results in siltation, soil erosion is a major cause of
The site at Sandouping (see Fig. 2) is near the eastern end of the Three flooding. In the past, economic development without regard for the
Gorges just before the deep, narrow valley gives way to wide flat plains. environment led to the cultivation of slopes in excess of 35°.
Supporters of the scheme argue that this is the best solution. In their
opinion that one megadam is the most cost effective way of addressing Much of this land was not terraced, nor was it contour ploughed. Equally
the four key issues, whilst any environmental and social problems that disastrous has been the practice of excessive logging, drastically
may arise can be overcome. Opponents however, feel that a series of reducing forest cover which has been reflected in reduced infiltration
smaller dams would be more effective in terms of flood control, more rates, loss of water storage and soil cover resulting in massive downslope
efficient in power transmission, cost less, and have fewer negative social transport of soil and water. Siltation has thus led to the raising of both
and environmental impacts. river and lake beds by nearly 2 metres in 30 years with the loss of
valuable natural storage capacity in the middle and lower reaches.
Flooding: the causes
For over 2000 years disastrous floods have affected the middle and lower Population pressure in these reaches has resulted in loss of land needed
reaches of the valley. Every decade they have caused serious loss of life for flood control. Farmers have encroached onto the flood prone areas of
and livelihoods. But flooding is becoming more frequent and population river beds and wetlands, areas which should be reserved for flood
growth has resulted in higher flood damage costs. In 1995 these were put retention. Rapid urban growth has reduced infiltration. Moreover lack of
at £2.9 billion. investment has resulted in poor maintenance of vital dikes. The
strengthening of dikes should be a priority for urban protection as
Table 1 Major flood events witnessed by the concern for Wuhan in the 1998 floods. Many dikes are
only able to withstand a 1 in 10, or 1 in 20 year flood event, compared
Date Comments with European standards of 1 in 50 or 1 in 100 year flood.

1870 Largest flood in 800 years. Affected most of basin. Flood control
Especially severe upstream of Yichang but not high at Hankou So what are the possible options?

• As flooding in the upper catchment is a major cause, opponents of the

1931 145,000 killed. Very high level at Hankou. dam advise the construction of a number of smaller reservoirs in the
upper reaches of the tributaries and main river but supporters point
1935 High level at Hankou, the result of a local rain event out that those already in place have not been effective so a major dam
is needed.
affecting the Hanjiang
• Furthermore, tributaries below Yichang also have heavy sediment
1954 Worst flood of 20 century. 1 in 100 year flood.
th loads which lead to flooding downstream, and there are plans for a
dam also due for completion in 2009, on the Qingjiang.
300,000 killed. 18.9 million suffered from flood damage.
Highest flood on record at Hankou. Occurred after the • The 1998 floods reinforced the need to reduce soil erosion and a
completion of the Jingjiang flood diversion project logging ban was subsequently introduced although a sustainable
approach to forest management had already been adopted in Sichuan.

1998 Worst since 1954. Hankou experienced 75 days above • In 2000 pilot projects were introduced to convert slopes in excess of
danger warning level; run off 50% above average in July, 20° to forest, compensation being given to farmers involved.
70% above average in August 4,000 killed; millions
In the middle and lower reaches the increase in discharge capacity would
displaced. Dams weakened increasing flood hazard. Many appear to afford improved flood control but population growth makes
lessons learnt from flood event alternative measures difficult to implement. Supporters of the megadam
solution point out that flood diversion routes would require massive
resettlement, greater than will be necessary for reservoir inundation and
that higher dikes would reduce much needed farmland.
The flood regime is complex because of the sheer size of the catchment.
Although it is rainfall events in the Sichuan basin and the upper
Exam Hint: This is a complex case study so you need to put the
Yunnan Plateau which are the major cause of floods, localised rain
essential facts on case study summary cards under headings
events can also lead to flooding. Furthermore, timing and amount of such as for and against the Megadam. Learn a simple sketch
rainfall in each sub basin varies. In 1998 flooding was made worse by a map.
combination of extremely heavy winter snows on the Tibetan plateau and
heavy rains from June to mid August which affected the middle and
lower reaches of the valley. The intensity of these rainstorms was such
that 1000mm fell in three days. The heaviest rainfall (2000mm) for that
period fell in the catchment of the Lou Shui which flows into Dongting
Lake but the Han catchment received only 600mm.

2
The Three Gorges Project Geo Factsheet

The Project Current impacts include:

It is a massive project by any standard: * Chongqing was created a municipality in 1997 (pop. 30 million) so
• the size of the dam that it could better handle the resources of the reservoir region.
• the area of impact • It is already a boom town taking on its new role as the key city in
• the number of people affected both directly and indirectly (400million opening up the southwest, a region of some 300m but one of the
live in the valley) lowest per capita incomes in China. The docks are being rebuilt
• the economic, social and environmental costs ready to handle larger vessels.
• Flood defences along the river banks have been raised and new
Although it is a multipurpose dam, its prime function is flood control. elevated roads, on the top of the river embankments, are under
Fig. 2 below summarises the main features. construction. A new Expressway links Chongqing to Chengdu.

Assessing the impacts * Within the reservoir area frenzied activity is also evident in the
The impacts of the scheme need to be assessed in terms of the direct and provision of new infrastructure. High level bridges across the
indirect effects both in the reservoir area as well as upstream and numerous tributaries link the sections of road being hewn out of the
downstream of it (spatially) and over time (temporally). This is a valley sides. Two bridges now span the Chang, a third is still under
complex task especially with regard to social and environmental impacts, construction. Multi-storey apartments rise from hill tops as towns are
but it is the massive scale of every aspect of the project which makes relocated above the 175m contour. For Fuling, for example, it means
evaluation so difficult. The estimated financial cost is $24 billion but is partial relocation to elevations between 350 and 400m.
likely to escalate. Whatever the financial cost of any scheme it must be
weighed against the cost of flood damages. Perhaps the main concern is The main perceived long term benefits and disadvantages are
now the social impact. China’s has a poor reputation because of its summarised below, but some are potential and difficult to predict at this
displacement of people for other dam projects. stage. It will be noted that the disadvantages mainly affect the reservoir
area whilst the benefits are reaped in the area downstream (see Table 2
on page 4).
Fig. 2 The Three Gorges Project (Reservoir area; dam)

Reservoir Area Lesser The reservoir will submerge:

Three • 13 cities
KEY:
Gorges • 140 towns
Provincial boundaries • 1,300 villages
Reservoir • lower ends of tributaries
Gorges
New location of towns Wushan Wu Three Gorges
& cities Fengjie Zigui dam site
0 km 100 Qutang Badong
Wanxian Sandouping
(57,000) Xiling
N Yichang
H U A Gezhouba Dam
C
S I
r
ve
Ri
g
an
Ch

Fengdu Reservoir: Sandouping Dam site

Jialin

(65,000) • in steep-sided valley

Changshou 5 stage flight lock for
g

• length 66 km
• storage capacity 39.3km3 large vessels
Fuling (79,000)
• level +145km June to Sept Vertical
(wet season) to store flood s
hip lift
for sma
Chongqing water. Will be raised to vessels ll
G
Jiangjin Q I N T Y +175m by October.
G L I
H O N I P A Left bank
C C power house
N I
M U
Spill way
Chang Jiang
(level will vary from 62m - 83m)
Right bank
power house
Dam crest at +185m,
length = 1,983m Construction:-
1st phase. 1974 - 97: preparatory work
2nd phase. 1998 - 2003: ship lock & 1st generator
3rd phase. 2004 - 9: 25 more generators

3
The Three Gorges Project Geo Factsheet

Table 2 Cost benefit analysis

BENEFITS DISADVANTAGES
Socio-economic Socio-economic
Flood control in middle and lower reaches is the key benefit: Re-location: will involve at least 1.2m
* will afford protection from 1 in a 100 year flood • some settlements will be completely submerged e.g. Fengdu
* will save lives and livelihoods in the densely populated Jingjiang and • some displaced people will have to be re-settled in physically
Dongting Lake plains, the area most prone to devastating floods different and distant regions
• within the valley re-location involves movement to higher
Economic altitudes with steeper slopes, poorer soils and climate -
Flood control below Yichang losses will only be incurred in the event consequently poorer quality of life.
of a greater than 1 in 100 flood event • new settlements will impact on residents of hill villages; will
Hydropower 18,200MW capacity; sale will fund project cost occupy large areas of land and loss of former land use
• will provide about 10% of China’s current needs Loss of farmland:
• well placed to transmit to Beijing and to east and SE coastal provinces • most fertile cropland and areas of citrus groves will be submerged
• will create jobs and promote economic growth in valley and other • will result in urban migration for many, some of whom will lack
regions necessary skills and mind set to cope with new jobs
Navigation improvements important in area where communication by Loss of cultural heritage:
land restricted: • over 1200 sites will be drowned; only a few have been saved
• will enable 5,000 t vessels to reach Chongqing at all times of year, • removal of people from ancestral home – believe in living in same
10,000 t. vessels for 6 months It will become a major port of area as born
China Loss of social tradition: belief in living in same area as born
• will boost growth of Pudong and valley upstream to Chongqing decreased tourism as Three Gorges will not be so spectacular
• other major growth points will be Wuhan-Yichang and Chongqing
Water: Environmental
• water supply for towns in the valley Increased pollution from sewage and industrial effluent in reservoir area
• will facilitate transfer of water to water short Northern Plain via as flow will be reduced. Chongqing particularly concerned - toxic pollution
Danjiangkou Reservoir to Beijing (middle route) from chemicals from drowned factories will also reduce water quality.
Siltation of reservoir
Environmental Increased scour below the dam; larger bank protection works may be
Reduced air pollution as hydropower replaces thermal power. At needed in middle reaches.
present coal fired stations produce 80% of the country’s electricity. Landslips in reservoir area: slope stabilisation necessary in some
Reduced siltation in lakes in middle and lower reaches areas of new settlement e.g. Zigui
Earthquake threat large dams can cause earthquakes
Ecosystems some habitats may well be affected e.g. River Dolpin

Political
War: dam a vulnerable target

Conclusion Agriculture: ( many points here)

This case study provides information which addresses issues raised in units on • effect of soil erosion
the hydrological cycle, river management, river environments, environmental • farming wetlands and alluvial lowlands
issues, managing rural environments, challenge of human environments. Re-read Forestry:
the case study, writing down key points under headings given in the guidance • effect of soil erosion
notes of your particular specification. Exam questions can therefore focus on • infiltration loss
several aspects of the Three Gorges project. An example is shown below. • reduced storage

Exam Question Conclusion:

Explain how human activities affect the flow of rivers, with reference to As population pressure increases and economic development progresses
one or more river catchments you have studied. in the Chang valley, human activity will impact increasingly on river flow.

Answer (using Chang Jiang) Web site

Introduction: http://www.dams.org This is a very useful site with much information about
Human activities may either increase or decrease discharge [define] both the issue of large dams. There is also information relating to dams in China.
temporally and spatially. The 1998 floods highlighted the role of human
Further reading
activity. In the Chang Jiang, with the completion of the reservoir, further
Jones J.A.A. Global Hydrology (1997, Longman) Chapter 7: 7.4 to end
changes will occur. Examine the impact of each of the following activities
(impact of human activities) Chapter 9; chapter 10: 10.1 and 10.2
showing how each affects (if appropriate) surface run-off sediment load and
(managing runoff, includes dams and diversions)
channel efficiency:
Acknowledgements;
Settlement/urbanisation:
This factsheet was researched by Carol Goddard who visited the Three Gorges site
• effect of loss of land due to reservoir as well as urbanisation on a China Study tour.
• effect of low infiltration surfaces Geo Press. Unit 305B, The Big Peg, 120 Vyse Street, Birmingham B18 6NF
• storm drains; Geopress Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students,
• water abstraction for domestic, industrial and agricultural uses provided that their school is a registered subscriber.
• water transfer – E. Route – to N. Plains No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
Reservoir: effect of seasonal regulation of releasing water transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission
Flood protection: role of channel modification of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136
4