Geometric

Dimensioning
& Tolerancing
(GD & T)
Level 1
Training
INDEX

Chapter

1. Introduction to Geometrical Product Specifications………………

Introduction to GPS
Requirements of GPS

2. Datums……………………………………………………
Datum’s
Reference frames
Axis
Plane
Target

3. Form Tolerances………………………………………………
Circularity(Roundness)
Straightness
Flatness
Cylindricity

4. Location Tolerances……………………………………………
Location
Regardless of Feature size
Maximum Material Condition (Maximum Material Reference)
Concentricity / Coaxiality
Symmetry

5. Orientation Tolerances……………………………………………………….
Parallelism
Perpendicularity
Angularity

6. Profile Tolerances………………………………………….
Profile of a line
Profile of a surface

7. Runout Tolerances…………………………………………..
Runout
Circular Runout
Total Runout

8. Appendix…………………………………………..
Further MMC options
Basic Symbols

2
Geometrical Product 1
Specification (GPS)

IN THIS CHAPTER

➢ Introduction to GPS
➢ Requirements of GPS

3
 At the first design stages of component parts, the designer imagines the product
to be an ideal, perfect object. All component parts are assumed to be of perfect
form and size.

During the manufacturing processes component parts vary in many different

ways, form errors and changes to the surface parameters become apparent when
using different manufacturing methods.

These errors and parameter changes can have a great effect on the functionality
of the component.

It is therefore critical that these definitions are standardised and understood, so

that the variation that is inherent to manufacturing processes can be taken into
account to minimise waste products and assemblies.

To be able understand the geometrical variations within component parts a set of

requirements have been produced.

These are known as Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS), covering

requirements on sizes and dimensions, geometrical tolerances and geometrical
properties of surface

Form of line and surface

➢ Independent of datum
➢ Dependent on datum

➢ Orientation
➢ Size ➢ Location
➢ Distance
➢ Circular run-out
➢ Radius GPS
➢ Angle ➢ Total run-out
Model
➢ Datum

➢ Roughness profile
➢ Waviness profile
➢ Primary profile
➢ Surface imperfections

Extracted from the DTI National Measurement Good Practice guide No 80 Fundamental Good
practice in Dimensional Metrology. (Available from the National Physical Laboratory NPL
Teddington, Middlesex, United Kingdom

4
 The GPS standard technical rules are organised into six chain links for any given
characteristic

1. The rules, symbols and how to understand the specifications of product

documentation
2. Theoretical definitions of tolerances and their numerical values.
3. Geometry of a non-ideal, real workpiece defined in relation to tolerance
symbols on the drawing.
4. The conformance, non conformance of real workpiece deviations to
specification taking into account measurement uncertainty
5. General approach to measurement equipment types and requirements
6. Calibration standards, procedures and requirements of the measuring
equipment used and there link to National and international Standards

Extracted from the DTI National Measurement Good Practice guide No 80 Fundamental Good
practice in Dimensional Metrology. (Available from the National Physical Laboratory NPL
Teddington, Middlesex, United Kingdom)

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) is a universal language of

symbols, much like the international system of road signs that advise drivers how
to navigate the roads.

GD&T symbols allow a Design Engineer to precisely and logically describe part
features in a way they can be accurately manufactured and inspected. To do this
use is made of an engineering drawing or CAD model to provide the information

An Engineering Drawing and CAD model has a purpose to show the required
design function and therefore allow all parties involved to interpret the design
requirements

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD & T) is used in conjunction with

standard dimensioning to describe the geometry of products and their relationship
between various functional parts or assemblies

The interpretation of the Technical Drawings using GD & T is done in various

ways. The designer will make use of various symbols linked to different
categories. Each option available to the designer should be defined by utilising
some of the following;

➢ Feature Control Frames

➢ Geometric Characteristics (Symbols)

➢ Geometric References (Datum’s)

➢ Tolerance Shapes

➢ Tolerance Zones (Values)

5
6
Feature Control
Frames and Datum 2
Definitions

IN THIS CHAPTER

➢ Feature Control Frames

➢ Datum’s
➢ Axis
➢ Plane
➢ Target

7
 Geometric tolerances are normally expresses by using a combination of feature
control frames and datum reference symbols. Normally GD & T symbols will only
be part of the dimensioning shown on the drawing or CAD model. Remember
standard bilateral and unilateral tolerances will be shown along with other
parameters about the surface texture requirements and material specifications.

Geometric tolerances are defined within feature control frames. These frames are
specifically designed. Some are relative to a datum reference, some are relative
to themselves. The feature control frame is like a basic sentence that can be read
from left to right. Examples of feature control frames are shown below;

Feature Control frames

Geometric
Tolerance Primary
Symbol of Control
Zone and Datum
shape

Secondary
Datum
Tertiary
Datum

No Datum Reference One Datum Reference

Two Datum References

Three Datums References

8
 The geometric symbol of control is specified on the left hand side. This will vary
depending on the requirement and functionality required from the feature and
component part

The shape and tolerance within the feature control frame determine the limits of
production variability.

Datum examples
The Primary Datum can be defined by a minimum of 3 point contact on a surface
or by the generation of a 3D Axis through a minimum of 2 features.

The Secondary Datum can be defined from a minimum of 2 points, of an edge or

through an axis relative to the Primary datum

The Tertiary Datum can be defined by a minimum of one point in relation to the
Primary and secondary datum’s

Technical Drawing showing the datum definitions (Measurement terms:

alignment or co-ordinate system)

9
Technical Drawing showing the datum relationships

Feature Control Frames Definitions

No Datum Reference

0.035
Single Datum Reference

0.085 A
Multiple Datum Reference

0.145 A-B

10
 Two Datum Reference

0.200 A B
Three Datum Reference

0.145
Tolerance zones over a specified length

0.01/100

0.01 mm over any 100 mm length

Combined Tolerance Zone

0.2
0.05/190

Overall tolerance 0.2 mm,

0.05 mm over any 190 mm length

11
 Theoretically exact dimensions
Dimension defining the theoretical exact position are defined in a box. Each of
these dimensions should have a feature control frame attached at some stage to
define a tolerance otherwise these dimensions should be produced perfectly to
these sizes with no variation.

38° 156

Ø 6.2
Datum symbols

The datum symbols used are normally specified as below. The use of a letter is
the convention used of specified within the ASME and ISO standards

A B

The datum symbols can be positioned in different places on a drawing to define

the requirements of the component part. Each time the datum symbols are used
this should tell the manufacturing and measurement departments how to set up
the part. It is critical that the interpretation of this is correct to avoid any errors in
the set up of both the machine tool and the measurement equipment used.

12
 Datum Axis

Datum Plane
or extension
Feature Outline Feature Extension

A A

Drawing examples of both axis and plane

13
 Axis and plane with the alternative option of specifying a datum

14
 Datum Targets

Datum’s can be defined for manufacturing purposes as targets. Often used in the
casting industry. They could be used to create the final datum’s of the component
part. These targets are normally categorised as on of the following;

➢ Point

➢ Line

➢ Area

Point
Datum target point from the corner is defined as below. This could be located on
the component by the use of a predefined fixture

Line
Datum target line from the corner is defined as below. This could be located on
the component by the use of a predefined fixture

B1
B1

90

15
 Area
Datum target areas from the corner are defined as below. These could be either
circular or boxed as shown. This could be located on the component by the use of
a predefined fixture

Ø9 2x2
A1 A2

7 12

7 12

Three datum target areas specifying the primary datum ‘A’

16
 Two lines specifying the secondary datum ‘B’ and a point specifying the
Tertiary datum ‘C’

Two diameters defining the Datum through a common axis

17
 Primary and secondary datum’s as checked by a gauge

18
Form Tolerance
3

IN THIS CHAPTER

➢ Circularity (Roundness)
➢ Straightness
➢ Flatness
➢ Cylindricity

19
 Circularity

Circularity also known as Roundness — in this example the shape of the

diameter to be produced and measured should be round within a tolerance zone
of 0.040

The tolerance is specified by a zone

bounded by two concentric circles 0.040

The measurement of circularity can be achieved by

different methods normally by a specific
roundness measuring machine or by utilising
Co-ordinate measuring machine software

Diameter varying within tolerance of size and form

20
Circularity on a Taper

Circularity measurement example taken using a dial indicator, stand and vee
block

21
Circularity measurements taken using a roundness measuring machine

22
 Straightness

Straightness can be defined as the maximum allowable deviation away from a

straight line or axis within the tolerance zone

Definition of tolerance zones

One direction Two directions,

different values

One direction,
tapered diameter

One direction,
cylindrical zone

One direction, possible

shapes of part

23
 Flatness

Flatness can be defined as the maximum allowable deviation on a surface within

the tolerance zone

Tolerance zone across three surfaces

24
Flatness definition

Measurement on surface table using 3 location supports and a dial indicator

and stand

25
 Cylindricity

Cylindricity can be defined as the maximum allowable deviation of all points on a

surface of revolution equi distant from a common axis within the a tolerance zone
defined by two cylinders

0.025

0.040

0.040

Measurements taken using a roundness measuring machine

26
Location Tolerances
4

IN THIS CHAPTER

➢ Location
➢ Regardless of Feature size
➢ Maximum Material
Condition(Maximum Material
Requirement)
➢ Concentricity/Coaxiality
➢ Symmetry

27
 True Position
Location tolerances are also known as true positional tolerances. Either defined
as a cylindrical zone or parallelepiped (Boxed/rectangular)

Establishing dimensions

28
 Regardless of Feature Size (RFS)
Regardless of Feature Size (RFS) The symbol S was used next to the
tolerance, within the feature control frame in a previous ANSI standard

Cylindrical zone example

29
Positional tolerance on an edge at a specific angle

30
Bi directional positional tolerance of holes

Cylindrical tolerance zone on a pattern of holes

31
Positional tolerance on a surface at a specific angle

Drawing example relative to three Datums

32
Position of surface relative to Datums ‘A’ and ‘B’

RFS Calculation

33
 Actual centre position relative to the nominal centre position

Actual position calculation expressed as a diameter output

34
 Maximum Material Condition principle M
Maximum Material Condition (MMC); A product feature has the most amount of
material within the allowed tolerance zone
➢ Internal feature is the smallest size allowable within the allowed tolerance
zone
➢ External feature the largest size allowable within the allowed tolerance zone
.
The MMC symbol can be positioned within the tolerance frame either next
M
to the tolerance or any datum symbol

Maximum Material Condition (MMC) is a basis used for the assembly of different
products – for example a pin fitting into a hole or a manifold fitting onto studs.

MMC provides the combination of the smallest hole and the largest pin, so as to
fit together as an assembly.

Once this has been established it is known as the Virtual Condition – the worst
condition for the pin and hole to assemble.

At virtual condition the two features would just fit and change from this could
result in an easier fit between the two features.
Virtual Condition is a boundary that is generated by the effects of combining
the MMC and the Geometric Tolerance.

Internal: MMC Condition value minus the geometric tolerance

External: MMC condition value plus the geometric tolerance
➢ Note; This is dependent on the features remaining within tolerance
of size.

Note; MMC can be applied to other symbols such as the following; Straightness
Circularity Angularity, Symmetry, Parallelism, Perpendicularity, Concentricity/ Co-
axiality and Position

35
 Least Material Condition principle

Least Material Condition (MMC); A product feature has the least amount ofmaterial
within the allowed tolerance zone
➢ Internal feature is the largest size allowable within the allowed tolerance zone
➢ External feature the smallest size allowable within the allowed tolerance zone
.
The LMC symbol L can be positioned within the tolerance frame either next
to the tolerance or any datum symbol

36
 Maximum Material Condition calculation on an actual feature

37
 Maximum Material Condition calculation on a datum Feature

38
 Maximum Material Condition calculation on both the actual and datum
Features

39
 Projected Tolerance Zone P where the positional tolerance is projected
out from the feature by a specified amount (40 and 60 in this example)

40
Concentricity or Co-axiality

Concentricity or Coaxiality is defined by the same symbol. All sectional features taken
are defined as being common to the datum axis feature. As a simple explanation of
the difference consider the geometric elements circle and cylinder, these can be
defined as two dimensional and three dimensional features. Both Concentricity and
Coaxiality can be thought of in the same terms.

Concentricity

Co-axiality of an axis to a multiple datum axis

41
 Co-axiality of axis D2 to axis D1 (cylindrical zone around axis)

Concentricity of outside diameter centre to datum A centre

42
 Deviation as calculated from and axis to axis

Measurement of concentricity on a roundness measuring machine

43
Measurement of co-axiality on a roundness measuring machine

44
Symmetry

Symmetry also known the middle off or equal/equal about the centre. In the example
the tolerance is applied to the median plane created by the two inside surfaces of the
slot to datum ‘A’ created from the median plane of the two out side surfaces

Tolerance zone in one direction applied to the centre (median plane)

45
The tolerance applied to the cross hole centre line is to the centre of datum axis ‘A’

Hole is on centre to multiple datum axes in two directions with different

tolerances

46
Hole is on centre to median plane created from two surfaces and slot is on
centre to datum axis ‘A’

Measurement of slot on centre using

Dial indicator, stand, vee blocks, surface
plate and gauge block inserted into the
slot

47
48
Orientation 5
Tolerances

IN THIS CHAPTER

➢ Parallelism
➢ Perpendicularity
➢ Angularity

49
 Parallelism

Parallelism can be defined in many ways as shown below, whether applied

to an axis or a surface

Tolerance zone defined by two parallel planes or lines relative to defined

datum face A

50
 Tolerance zone defined by a cylindrical tolerance zone elative to the datum
axis as defined by datum diameter ‘A’

Combining Flatness and Parallelism

51
 Effects of flatness when dealing with parallelism

Parallelism of a surface on centre line to a multiple datum defined by ‘A’ and

‘B’ (single direction)

Datum

Parallelism of a diameter to an axis defined by ‘A’ (two tolerances in each

direction)

Datum

52
Parallelism of a diameter to an axis defined by ‘A’ (cylindrical tolerance zone)

Datum

Parallelism of an edge to a surface defined by ‘A’ (single direction)

Datum
Parallelism of a surface to a diameter defined by ‘A’ (single tolerance across
surface)

Datum

53
Parallelism of a surface to a surface defined by ‘A’ (single tolerance across
surface)

Datum

Parallelism of an edge to a surface defined by ‘A’ (single tolerance across

surface and parallelism of and axis to an axis of two pins (cylindrical zone)

54
Measurement of the parallelism of a diameter using a dial indicator, stand and
surface plate

Measurement of the parallelism of a surface using a dial indicator, stand and

surface plate supported of the axis of datum ‘A’

55
Perpendicularity

Perpendicularity can be defined in many ways as shown below, whether

applied to an axis or a surface

Perpendicularity tolerance applied to a surface or edge where the feature is

to be at 90 degrees to datum face ‘A’

0.200 A

Perpendicularity tolerance applied to the axis defined by both sides or a

diameter

56
 Perpendicularity of an axis to a surface with the tolerance in two directions

Datum axis

Datum surface

Perpendicularity of an axis to a surface with the tolerance in one directions and

surface to a surface

Datum axis

Datum surface

57
Perpendicularity tolerance applied to an axis to a surface with different
tolerances in two directions.

Datum surface

Perpendicularity of an axis to a surface (cylindrical tolerance zone)

Datum surface

58
Drawing example of deviation

Perpendicularity Measurement of the actual surface with a precision or

cylindrical square

59
Perpendicularity Measurement of the actual axis to the datum surface using a
dial indicator, stand and surface table

An alternative method of measuring Perpendicularity is by means of a laser or

auto collimator. Calibration of CMM’s is often done by the laser method

60
 Angularity

Angularity is a method of checking the deviation of a surface or an axis at a

specified angle

Angularity specified as a surface to a surface or a surface to an axis

61
 Measurement of angularity using a dial indicator, stand, surface plate and
an angle gauge. An alternative measurement method is to use a Sine Bar

Angularity of a centre line to an axis

62
 Angularity of a surface to an axis

Angularity of a surface to a surface

Measurement of angularity using a protractor or clinometer

63
64
Profile 6

IN THIS CHAPTER

➢ Profile of a line
➢ Profile of a surface

65
 Profile

Profile tolerances fall into two main categories

➢ Profile of a Line

➢ Profile of a surface

These tolerances are normally applied to irregular or normal edges, surfaces or,
arcs. The tolerance can be applied either side of the nominal profile (Bi-lateral) or
to one side (unilateral) only. The uniform boundary can be applied relative to the
profile only or alternatively can be applied relative to the datum reference system
as well as the profile.

Nominal profile

Total Tolerance
Nominal profile
Uni-Lateral (Internal or External)

Tolerance of form only

Tolerance of form and location

66
 Profile of a line tolerance on the form only as indicated

Profile of a surface tolerance on the form of the spherical radius

67
68
Runout Tolerances 7
IN THIS CHAPTER

➢ Runout
➢ Circular Runout
➢ Total Runout

69
 Runout
Runout is applied to control any circular feature surfaces rotated through 360
degrees. This could apply to a diameter or a surface at any position across that
surface of revolution

Circular runout is applied the surface around the datum axis, included within the
tolerance are any effects of concentricity and circularity. Axial runout is applied to
the surface adjacent to the axis around the datum axis, included within the
tolerance are the effects of flatness and Perpendicularity at the position where the
results are obtained

70
 Circular Runout example

Axial Runout example

71
 Runout tolerance applied to both datum ‘A’ and ‘B’ unable to generate an
axis from datum ‘B’

Runout of surface rotated around the axis through datum diameter ‘A’

Runout of tapered surface rotated around the axis through datum diameter
‘A’

72
Runout of curved surface rotated around the axis through multiple datum
diameters ‘A’ and ‘B’

Runout of outside diameter rotated around the axis through multiple datum
diameters ‘A’ and ‘B’

73
Runout of the surface rotated around the common axis datum diameters ‘A’ ,
where datum ‘A’ is defined by locating the component part between centres

Measuring Runout using centres or vee block and dial indicators

74
Measuring Runout of a tapered diameter a using centres or vee block and dial
indicators

Runout of a diameter to a multiple datum defined through the axis of datum

diameters ‘A’ and ‘B’ where ‘A’ and ‘B’ are at a set distance as defined by the
boxed dimension

75
 Total Runout
Total Runout controls the surfaces around the axis of 360 degrees revolution. The
difference from runout is that this tolerance is applied across the complete surface
as one tolerance. As a composite tolerance total runout includes the effects of
circularity, Cylindricity, concentricity Coaxiality Perpendicularity, Parallelism, and
Flatness

Total runout applied to a Plane surface around an axis of revolution

76
 Total runout applied to a cylinder around an axis of revolution

77
 Total circular Runout of outside diameter along its length to the axis created
through multiple datum diameters ‘A’ and ‘B’

Total Runout across the surface to the axis created through datum diameter
‘D’

78
Appendix 8
IN THIS CHAPTER

➢ Further MMC options

➢ Basic Symbols
➢ References

79
MMC applied to Straightness

MMC applied to Perpendicularity

80
Maximum Material Condition (MMC) and Least Material Condition (LMC)

81
Maximum Material Condition (MMC) applied to two diameters floating

If the two diameters are at their maximum size then the centre position can
vary as shown applying a 0.1 tolerance around each diameter

82
If the two diameters are at their minimum size then the centre position can vary
as shown applying a 0.1 tolerance around each diameter plus the 0.2 tolerance
of size (0.1/side on each diameter)

83
Basic Symbols
Form Symbol
Circularity
Basic Dimension
Straightness
38° 156
Flatness
Ø 6.2
Cylindricity

Location
True Position

Datum Reference
Maximum Material Condition
M
Least Material Condition
L

Projected tolerance
P A
Orientation
Parallelism
Feature Control Frame
Perpendicularity

Angularity

Concentricity/Co-axiality

Symmetry References;
More detailed information is
Profile and Runout available from various standards
throughout the world.
Profile of a line
As an example
➢ ASME Y14.5
Profile of a surface ➢ BS8888:2004 Technical
Product Specifications (TPS)
Runout
Examples of ISO standards used
➢ ISO:1101
Total Runout ➢ ISO 2692

84
85