Unity University College

School of Architecture and Urban Planning

Arch. 201
Basic Design I

Course Instructors: Atnatewos Melake-Selam

(a) Objective

As the first of the eight semester courses in Design, its scope will be limited to introducing the
student to the fundamental elements principles and language of design. The course heavily
depends on creative exercises that are designed to assess and record each student’s progress with
regard to new things learned, and development of skill and imagination by challenging the student’s
creative dimension.

(b) Description

The course follows the following general format:

Introduction to Abstraction and Modeling in design

Introduction to the Course Approach and the Design Process
Introduction to basic principles of Perceptual Organization of our Environment
Abstract Theories of Form
The Structure of Composition
Proportion and Scale
Texture and Pattern
Principles of Light and the Mechanics of Vision
Principles of Color

It starts by introducing the student to the principles that explain how we tend to mentally organize the
world of objects we experience through the senses. The student then learns how we can use the
fundamental principles of design as a means of organizing the perceptual world that is a collection of
objects in reality.

The study of the fundamentals of design therefore will follow a model that decomposes objects in
reality into basic elements that can be combined using certain rules that can bring about a pre-
determined reaction from the audience at large.

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 Table of Contents

Modular Course Organization ......................................................................................................................................2-4

Module One: Introduction to the Basics of Design ....................................................................................................2-5

Module Two: Understanding the Perceptual Process: An Architects Perspective .................................................2-8

Module Three: A New Approach: Understanding the Language of Design ...........................................................3-23

Module Four: Understanding Form as a Design Element........................................................................................4-30

Module Five: Operations on Solids ...........................................................................................................................5-40

Module Six: Towards Defining the Principles of Composition................................................................................6-45

Module Seven: Types of Composition.......................................................................................................................7-50

Module Eight: Grouping Tendencies in Composition ..............................................................................................8-52

Module Nine: Understanding Proportion and Scale.................................................................................................9-54

Module Eleven: Check Point One ............................................................................................................................10-57

Module Ten: Surface Qualities of Forms.................................................................................................................11-62

Module Twelve: Principles of Light & the Mechanics of Vision ............................................................................12-68

Module Thirteen: Understanding and Using Color.................................................................................................13-79

Module Fourteen: Form and the Elemnt of Space .................................................................................................14-91

Module Fifteen: Putting the Semester in Perspective: A Summary of Design Basics ......................................15-102

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Article I. Modular Course Organization
Modules in Basic Design

Module Series One References

Introduction to the Basics of Architecture: Form,

Design Space and Order,
Francis D.K. Ching
Understanding the Perceptual
Process Design Fundamentals,
Robert Gilliam Scott
The Language of Design
Design through
Discovery. Marjorie
Elliot Belovin
Understanding the Elements of
Shape and Form Elements of the Arts of
Architecture, William
Operations on Forms Muchenhein

Principles of Composition

Types of Composition

Grouping Tendencies in
Composition

Understanding Proportion and

Scale

Check Point One

Module Series Two

Surface Qualities of Forms

Principles of Light and

Mechanics of Vision

Understanding and Using Color

Module Series Three

Form and the Element of Space

A Summary of the Course

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 Module One: Introduction to the Basics of Design

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 Section 1.01: Introduction:
Architecture is a work of art that employs the sciences to put up structures that draw emotional
responses from users and observers. Outstanding works of architecture hence leave big
impressions in the form of mental images in our.

It should come as no surprise then that the education of the architect aims to produce individuals
that are well versed with the language of the arts. This course is hence designed to introduce the
student to the principles and approaches of design from the perspective of the output, the actual
process, the person undertaken the activity and the person(s) who will be experiencing the work.

We should therefore have a common understanding and a working knowledge of the following
concepts.

Section 1.02: Object

Objects in reality possess three distinct qualities that we can recognize about them. They have an
image, the element that we see; a name by which we can identify and recall it; and a description that
elaborates the object based on a certain criteria such as its visual feature or function.

The object that we create is an abstract representation of an idea that is formed in the mind of the
designer.

Section 1.03: The Design

The objective of a design is to create new objects for the mind to feast upon. The key word here is
new, as design is understood to be an activity that produces an original work.

Our definition of design should highlight the major characteristic features that we need to
understand. In our study, we define design by considering that it is a process, an activity undertaken
to solve a particular problem and requires the designer to be creative and skillful.

Let us consider each of the three in detail

(a) Process
Any process is expected to have a definite beginning that sets it in motion and a definite end where
the motion stops. A design activity is therefore triggered by some stimuli that starts a process.

(b) Problem Solving

The trigger that sets things in motion is usually the need to solve a problem. This in turn implies that
the activity that we call design starts by identifying a problem to be solved and tries to use inputs
from the human mind, the designer, to come up with possible solutions

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 (c) Creative Activity
There might be more than one possible solution to our problem. As designers, we are expected to
explore possibilities and use our power of imagination to generate the best solution that is unique
and original at the same time. To come up with such a solution, we have to be creative.

Section 1.04: The Designer

Each one of us can become designers. A designer is an individual that produces an original work of
creation. For the student, it is important for you to understand what it takes to undertake a design
activity. We therefore try to define the designer in the process as a person that is equipped with the
following:

Knowledge: Set of accumulated information

Imagination: Power of visualizing various layers, sides, Dimension & Possibilities of

information

Skill: The ability to execute our ideas

Section 1.05: The Observer’s Perspective

The ultimate goal of any design work is to stimulate the observer and get an emotional response.
The success of our design hence largely depends on how we make an observer react to it. We have
to understand the observer from this perspective.

As an observer, we use the mental power that we possess to assimilate information about the
design that we are seeing. The world around us can only have some sort of meaning to us if we are
able to organize the amount of sensory information that we pick up and store in the mind. This set of
information becomes knowledge, a data bank of sets of objects that have been created by
associating a name to an image and to our understanding of them to the extent that we can assign a
description to what we see.

The design that was born of an Idea in the designer’s mind is developed until it becomes an object in
reality. The mental picture that we are creating becomes an object of reality that is there to transmit
the content that helped crate it.

Section 1.06: Understanding our Approach

Clearly, we can two different processes that create two images of the same object. The first process
is the process of design that has created an object in reality. The second process creates a mental
image of the same object, an image that is formed in the human mind.

The course basic design is designed to help the student have a better understanding of both
processes. The student will first learn about how the mind forms images from data collected by the
sensory organs. Following the study of perception as a process, the student will learn a language
specifically designed for studying and developing objects for the perceptual world.

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 Module Two: Understanding the Perceptual Process: An
Architects Perspective
One of the things that we take for granted is the perceptual process. Apart from reacting to the world
of experience that we call the perceptual world, we seldom ask questions like:

“Why do things look as they do to us? “

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Module Objective:
At the end of this section, you should be able to:

Understand the process of perceptual organization of the world of experience

Have Sufficient Understanding of the Process of Perception to Distinguish the Perceptual Process
from the Sensory Process
Understand the Basic component of object recognition
Understand and apply characteristics of Perception in Design

Lecture Synopsis:

A. Conceptual Definition of Terms

a. Perception verses Sensation

b. Perception as a Process

B. The World as Experienced through the Sensory Organs

a. Understanding the Steps in the Organization of Visual Data

b. Location and Type of Data to be Processed
c. Understanding Associations in the Process
d. Defining the Content of the Stored Image

C. Modeling the Interaction with Stimuli, and the Attention Process

a. Defining Steps and Components of the Process

b. Graphic Representation of the Process

D. The Characteristics of Perception

a. Selectivity
b. Organization
c. Constancy of Experience in spite of varying inputs
d. Dimension of Depth
e. Movement
f. Influence of Context within which Events or Objects are Perceived
g. Importance of Relationships as Opposed to Absolute Difference
h. Effects of learning and Motivation

E. Summary

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 Section 2.01: Conceptual Definition of Terms
Perception: Refers to the world of experience, the world as seen, heard, felt, smelt or tasted by a
person. Man uses the power of perception to assimilate information about his world.

Perception is therefore the organization and interpretation of sensory experiences. The

understanding of the process hence should start from defining both Sensory Experiences and the
Organization of Sensory Data

Section 2.02: The World as Experienced

through the Sensory Organs

(i) Understanding the Steps in the Organization of Visual Data

Data that enters our mind is organized in a two step process. There is the sensory part were we are
interacting with stimuli through the sensory organs. Then, the information collected is assimilated in
the mind, compared to existing sets of information and the resultant forms the outlines of what we
understand about the stimulant. At this level, we are making an experience of the object of our
attention and store our interpretation of the facts about that object.

Perception is the process of making sense of information resulting in not only distinguishing the
object of attention, but understanding what the object is about in terms of its meaning based on past
experience.

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(ii) Location and Type of Data to be processed

In the entire process, the eye becomes a tool that supplies all visual information:

1. a difference in color implies two distinct objects (or different parts of the same object)
2. a difference in scale suggests one object is further from us than the other,
3. a difference in texture (one is more blurry) enforces this idea, and so on.

Once we have an understanding of the relationships between elements, we can piece together the
whole story and understand what we are seeing.

We therefore concentrate on data that enables us to determine what we are looking at. These set of
data are called features of objects. We therefore concentrate in part on features of objects to help us
recognize the stimulant in the visual field. But this is not enough to recognize an object. We must
have a previously defined object in our memory to compare to in order to determine the name and
be able to describe the image that we have recognized.

(iii) Understanding Associations in the Process

Therefore, understanding the manner in which we group visual information must be combined with
prior knowledge to be able to understand the object of attention fully. We therefore always refer to
what we know to understand and define new experience. This process is an associative one, where
we try to form an understanding of new experience by relating or looking at it with regards to prior
information stored in our memory.

(iv) Defining the Content of the Stored Image

Objects in reality are always communicating a specific message to us. In addition to giving us clues
about their visible components, they also tell us of the subject matter they were created to address.
It is this relationship that exists between the object, as the communicator and us as observers that
we need to understand in trying to define the object from different aspects.

Section 2.03: Modeling the Interaction with

Stimuli, and the Attention Process
Understanding visual relationships and being able to use it to our advantage is an essential
component of perception fueled by the drive to know what makes each object unique. In storing the
image of an object in the visual field, we tend to pay attention to its visible properties to determine
what the object signifies. It is this in formation, the content that helps us to organize information in a
manner that can be recalled for immediate reference in determining similarities and differences
between objects that we have been and will be encountering in the past and the future.

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 Section 2.04: Characteristics of Perception
i) The process of perceptual organization of the world is not a visible process that one can
observe or study. Yet owing to its significance in the education of the architect, it has to
be understood so that it can be modeled in a graphic format. To be able to define the
process, we are going to discuss instances where occurrences of perceptual activities
are sensed by us. We are able to relate to these occurrences, making the study easier,
and exciting.

ii) We will be studying eight different instances, defined in Psychology as Characteristics of

Perception.

I. SELECTIVITY
Selectivity refers to the concept of choosing from variety of possibilities. In the study of the process
of perception, it defines one of the key activities that we recognize as taking place.

If we notice our daily interactions with the environment, at any given moment, there are several
elements of our surrounding that can act as stimuli. If we consider these as objects that are fighting
for our attention, the questions to be answered are:

1. How many objects can you focus on at a time?

2. Why is it that we only focus on one object at a time?
3. What factors influence my decision to shift from one object to another?

At any given moment, of the multiple stimuli that surround us the sensory organs select to focus on a
few that we perceive clearly, other class of objects that become less clear while the rest form a hazy
background.

We can state here that the perceptual world is divided with regards to the level of attention we give
to the stimuli around us. Of the multiple sets of stimuli around us at a particular time “T”, we select
one to be most important. Hence, attention divides our field of experience in to a Focus and Margin.

Example: While watching a soccer game, there are several things that we can choose from. Of
these, we choose to concentrate n the one thing that we feel is important, the person with the ball

Shifting of Attention

Example: Taking the same example of the soccer player, the moment the person passes the ball,
we will be looking at another person. The one that had the ball now is no more our focus of attention
but has rather been marginalized.

Attention shifts in a certain ordered manner. How we shift our attention is influenced by two sets of
factors that are internal and external to us.

A. EXTERNAL FACTORS

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 These are sets of factors that are external to us. They are attributes of the perceptual stimuli that will
trigger a certain response from us. Under this heading, what we will be discussing is what attributes
of the stimuli will make us shift our attention to it, making it a focus at that time T. Four factors will be
discussed hereunder:

Intensity & Size: When several stimuli are present, they always tend to fight for our attention. In such
situations, the most intense one will get noticed over the others. In an area that is full of
advertisements for example, the larger and brighter one will be noticed over the others.

Contrast: Human beings tend to adapt to stimuli around them. A sudden change from the stimuli that
we have adapted to makes us focus on it. Contrast hence refers to a sudden
change from the situation that was prevailing in a particular location, at a
particular time. For example, in a dark room, the appearance of a sudden
bright light results in an attention shift.

Repetition: Repetition of stimuli can be attention getting in two ways:

If stimuli are repeated, for obvious reasons, there is a better chance of
catching our attention than if it was only a single one.
It increases our alertness to it

4. Movement: We are sensitive to objects that move within our field of vision over objects that are
stationary.

(ii) B. INTERNAL FACTORS

Internal factors are those factors that determine our mind set at the time of interaction with the
stimuli. These factors are internal to us and will be different from a person to a person. They are not
attributes of the stimuli; rather they are internal attributes that will determine what of the attributes of
the stimuli will be concentrated on at the time of the interaction. Two major factors are discussed
hereunder:

1. Motives: Human motives are those factors that induce a person to act in a particular way. They
are understood to be expressions of our interest or need. They are subjective in their nature and
might differ from person to person. In a class room environment for example, we are attentive to
lectures expecting to get a new perspective to a subject matter that is at hand. Hence, it is through a
process of conscious choice that we decide to get to class on time and keep silent and attend a
lecture. Our interest to know something that is new induces a reaction: attentiveness to class
lecture.

2. Our mind-set or expectancy: This refers to us having advance knowledge of events that are going
to happen or that we anticipate to take place. We are sometimes almost entirely convinced of the
outcome of an event before we actually experience it. If we think that a certain building interior is
going to be attractive and go to check it out, our attention will be focused on those elements that
make the space more attractive. We see what we want to see as we are biased by expectations.

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 II ORGANIZATION IN PERCEPTION
In the study of perception, it is always necessary to understand what happens to the information that
we receive through our senses. The data that exists in the world is received in an organized manner.
It is usually processed as groups and patterns of stimuli that we call objects. Though details are
important to the process, we in the end perceive not in terms of measurable qualities such as length
or size but rather in terms of objects.

If organization is an activity that is undertaken by our mind in search of defining the data that we
receive, we should understand the nature of the mental activity that we will refer to as organizing
tendencies.

Organizing Tendencies in the Perceptual Process

Figure Ground The objects that fill our everyday perception are seen as standing out as separable
from the ground background. As examples, consider the following:

Text on a page: the text on this page is only visible because we have the white ground on which the
contrasting black words are visible. As the information that we transmit is through the text, we make
it our focus and the white space, a ground. This is an activity, a choice that is deliberately made in
the conscious mind.

Such relationship is basic to all object perception and organizes the information received by our
sensory organs with the following perceptual characteristics:

Figure has some sort of shape while ground is formless

Ground extends behind the figure – figure in front, ground behind

The image to the left is recognizable as a handprint because

of the ground that is present. When we decide to see is as a
figure, all the white spaces that are present in the figure are
taken as part of the ground, not the figure. We are therefore
grouping the figure into to, a figure and ground.

We as designers can create multiple figures that can be

perceived as figure or ground.

(2) Grouping: When several stimuli are present, we try to

identify perceptual relationships that will help us perceive
them as groups of objects rather than single entities.
Considering the content on this page, we group the text in
terms of words, not single alphabets because we have been
taught the structure of a language. In the case of grouping as
a perceptual threat, our mind always establishes a certain
prevalent relationship as a factor to assemble objects in the visual field in terms of groups.

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The apparent factors that establish relationships between objects that are grouped can be classified
as:

Nearness or Proximity: We tend to compare distances between elements as a quality for deciding
which objects belong together as compared to others.

Similarity: We
tend to group
similar elements
together. The
path of visual
recognition
follows similar
features of
objects such us shape, color, texture, pattern, etc to recognize meanings that are identified in the
visual field.

Symmetry or good figure: Tendency to group is tendency to form a balanced figure.

Continuation: we perceive in attempt to

understand complex patterns as groups
of objects. One characteristic is to group
figures as continuations by physically
trying to see extensions. Look at the
figure to the right.

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Contours: we are able to distinguish between figure and
ground because we can perceive contours. Contours are
formed when there is a market change in color, tone,
brightness etc.

Closure: we tend to perceive whole objects rather than disjointed

parts. We fill gaps so as to perceive whole objects.

In the example to the left, we see a triangle at the center

because we make a visual line that connects all the corners that
are cut from the black circles. We are therefore closing the
triangle.

III. PERCEPTUAL CONSISTENCY

The world as we view it is consistent.
CONSTANCY OF SIZE: Object appears to be the same
size irrespective of distances. We for example are able
to recognize that a person that is standing is actually
taller than us while we are sitting down. This is
predominantly because we take our size as a reference
in understanding our size relationships with other
objects.
As an exercise, explain the figure to the left.

2) BRIGHTNESS CONSISTENCY: Visual objects also appear

constant in their degree of whiteness, grayness or blackness.
This is irrespective of the amount of illumination in the room.

The example to the left was designed to create

inconsistency in the visual perception of brightness at the center.

Explain the figure with respect to brightness

consistency:

The white at the center appears to be brighter, but we know that it

can not be, as it is on the same white background.

The knowledge of what brightness consistency is enabled the designer of the example to get a pre-
determined reaction from us, the observers.

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3) PERCEPTUAL STABILITY: The visual characteristics that we define might be misleading to the
eye. But when we finally make sense of things, we understand the apparent relationship that has
distorted our perception of events. Hence,
we tend to finally identify and explain the
visual properties that distorted our vision.

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 IV. PERCEPTION OF DEPTH
Our mind receives and processes several clues that help establish a relationship between objects
based on their distance from our position. This relationship is referred to as depth and is nothing but
the relative distance between objects that are measured from the position of the observer.

Monocular Cues

Linear Perspective: Objects far away appear to be smaller than objects that are close. As the world
is consistent, we recognize that they are smaller mainly because they are further away. We are
therefore taking the effect of perspective as a clue to establish depth relationship between objects.

Clearness: We are able to clearly see objects

that are close to us than objects that are far
away. The degree of clarity is hence taken as
a clue that helps us understand the depth
relationships between objects in the visual
field.

Gradients of texture: Objects that are close

will have coarser texture as more of their
details will be seen. Texture is understood to
be the roughness or coarseness of a surface.
Gradient is defined as a change without
abrupt transitions.

Interposition: Objects closer to us partially

obstruct objects behind us.
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 Shadows: We assume that the source of light is always from up when we look at two dimensional
studies.

Movement: Objects closer to you appear to move in opposite direction than objects further away.

(iii) BINOCULAR CUES

Depend on having two eyes:

I. RETINAL DISPARITY: The difference in the images of same object that falls on the retinas of the
two eyes.

Eyes are separated by a few inches therefore the two images that are formed on the retinas are
different: Two images are more dissimilar when object is close
A gradient of disparity is established: a change in the point of fixation from the horizon to close
objects. This gradient provides us with information about depth.

II. CONFLICTING CUES

When the two cues give different impressions, we have conflicting cues and hence what our eye
sees and what the mind understands becomes a source of confusion.
Looking at a photograph: Monocular cues – Give Impression of Depth - Binocular cues – Give
Impression of Flat

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 V. PERCEPTION OF MOTION & EXPLANING PERCIEVED PHENOMENON
Apparent Motion: - Perceived movement that is created without the actual presence of movement of
the stimulus pattern.

Stroboscopic movement

Movie projection
Successive pictures are presented on screen

Auto kinetic Effect

Small stationary spot of light in a completely dark room will appear to move if a person fixates on it.

Induced Movement:

A stationary spot may get perceived as a moving object when the background or frame of reference
moves.
Example: Moon seen against moving Cloud
Movement in afterimages:

Perception of
Movement varies with speed
Size of object

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 IV. INFLUENCE ON CONTEXT WITHIN WHICH EVENTS OR OBJECTS ARE
PERCIEVED.
How we experience an object and how we react to the experience depends on the context in which
we perceive the events.

In the example to that left, the

last item in both rows of pictures
in the same.

Contextually speaking, in the

first row, it belongs to a group of
animals, while in the latter it
belongs to a group of humans.

Conversely, we perceive it as a
mouse and as an old man,
depending on the context.

Simultaneous contrast
-Color cast influenced by other color.

Adaptation level
-Context background sets a standard against which objects are perceived

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 VII. IMPORTANCE OF RELATIONSHIPS AS OPPOSED TO ABSOLUTE
DIFFERENCES

Transposition + Responding in terms of relationships

VIII. LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

Learning: - The world of perception is within limits, quite; plastic and modifiable.
: - Perception is in part a learned attainment

Association with already established

Influence of learning on the way sensory input is organized

Can learning affect the way our environment gets organized by ask to the extent to which the world
actually looks, sounds or feeds differently

Perceptual Development

Motivation: - We perceive what we want to perceive due to factors that are internal to us.

Section 2.05: Summary

Everyone behaves in accordance to the way we perceive the world.

Perceived world is a construction and an achievement

Information comes in through the sensory channels and the perceptual processes act on it to form it
into a world of experience.

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 Module Three: A New Approach: Understanding the Language of
Design

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Module Objective:
At the end of this section, you should be able to:

Understand the Rational behind the Language Construct that is going to be defined
Understand the Abstraction on which our definition depends on
Understand the Model of representation
Be able to define and distinguish between different elements of the Language Structure
Comprehend fully relevant concepts and terminologies

Lecture Synopsis:

A. Introduction to the Module

B. Understanding the Structure of the Language

a. Examples of Abstractions in Language Constructions

b. The Model
c. Understanding Associations in the Process
d. Defining the Content of the Stored Image

C. The Elements of our Language

a. Conceptual Elements
b. Visual Elements
c. Relational Elements
d. Practical Elements

D. Other Key Concepts

a. Framal Reference
b. Form and Structure

E. Module Summary

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 Section 3.01: Introduction to the Module

We have defined the design process as a constructivist process that attempts to generate an idea
for the solution of a problem that is defined depending on our level of understanding and approach.
The output of our design both in reality is hence an assembly of decisions that are made during the
thinking process.

In the study of the language of design, we first search for a simple way of rationally approaching the
process of the construction of objects in the human mind. If we recognize that the human mind
recognizes objects through a process that identifies components of the object that are assembled in
the mind to give a meaning, it would be logical to depict this process and try to recreate it to ensure
a progressive and organized thinking and doing process that will create an object with specific form
and content.

This is done to be able to predetermine the reaction of the observer to the designed output. To do
this, we try to develop our ability to create the design through an abstract language that has its base
on the way people perceive objects.

This module concentrates on introducing you to the language construct we are going to use in an
attempt to define the relationships between elements that make up the object to be studied and the
relationship between the object & its surrounding.

As in any language, or the first activity we undertake is to list out the concepts our symbols should
stand for. Then we learn the role of each symbol or element in the construction of our new language
structure. Then we learn the rules for the combination of our elements and build it up through the
study of principles of combinations, uses and other relevant components.

Section 3.02: Understanding the Structure of a

Language
Any language is made up of components that are abstractions of larger elements in reality that we
are trying to represent. Usually, these elements are the smallest possible representations
corresponding to the simplest components of known elements in reality. These elements are then
graphically represented through visual models that are determined as a consensus.

(a) Examples:
English Language: Is made up of 26 basic characters, the combination of which can represent any
sound we make.

MUSIC: is made up of 7+5 notes the combination of which represents any sound we make.

NUMBER SYSTEM: is made up of 10 characters the combination of which make up any infinite no
of symbols.

COMPUTING SCIENCE: is made up of 2 elements the combination of which gives us an infinite

possibility

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Each example gives basic elements of equal importance that when combined using a specific rule to
get elements that are at a higher level.

The same principle of “Growth” applies to all examples. Each of the examples above are organized
by using elements that are small, the combination of which produces larger elements that can still be
combined to produce larger elements …

This is in fact an abstract form of representing reality as we perceive it. In representing objects in
reality, what happens is that details are removed from objects perceived and abstract elements are
used to recognize and record information about the focus of our study. Objects are therefore
represented using a general model.

(b) THE MODEL

It is nothing but a tool that enables us to simplify an object. If we can decompose an object, using
this principle, we can build new objects that combining same elements.

The underline principle is the principle of growth each element grows to form the element next to it
on the model.

Each element can be decomposed to the element that is before it or each element can grow to
become the element that follows it.

In the previous chapter we have tried to study the perceptual process that helps us to characterize
and experience the environment. In trying to study the language of design, it is important to note
that:

Design: is an activity that attempts to modify this environment so that it becomes a better place to
exist in.

Man has always attempted to shape the environment to his needs. Design produces abstract ideas
that if implemented will serve as a solution that will address man’s need. In the subsequent
chapters, we try to understand the basic elements that are the building blocks of design.

What we will attempt to do is:

To observe things, terms of abstract elements

To remove details form objects perceived

Adopt a general model for describing and making objects

Design generates an abstract representation of an idea that can be practically constructed to the
specifications of the designer. This makes the designer a creator of an idea, a concept that can be
enriched and guided to become something greater than the original idea that started in the mind of
an individual.

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 The designer’s ability to come up with and execute ideas will heavily depend on knowledge and
experience of components of the design process. As an approach to design education, we must
recognize that design like any other discipline can be approached with a certain methodology.

Design methodology follows a language of its own. In an attempt to standardize our approach to
design solution, we must start by understanding that design is a purposeful creation for our visual
pleasure. It is not done as a fulfillment of personal desires of the creator; rather, it is placed before
the audience to relay a predetermined message, an abstract representation of an idea.

The product of a designer will be put out in a visual medium of communication. That is why we study
a language for visual communication of ideas. The mastery of this language helps us to build on our
personal taste and sensitivity to the way we establish visual relationship.

Such mastery is not possible without an understanding of the elements of the language, and the
important structures that will enable us to construct the basic components of our design in an
organized manner. Our first task therefore will be to identify basic elements that will serve as
building blocks that will help us create abstract images of our idea.

This part of the module hence defines and explains these elements and attempts to describe how
they have been developed. The elements are divided into four parts with respect to our use of them
in future design activities.

Section 3.03: The Elements of our Language

(a) Conceptual Elements

Conceptual elements are not visible. Their existence can be felt but they are not physically
tangible elements that can be found in nature and hence actually do not exist in reality.

(i) Point: Perceived to be the smallest of the elements, it denotes a certain position in space. It is
an abstraction of an idea that relates to the concept of having an element that is not measurable
in any dimension.

(ii) Line: Is perceived as an element that has measurable qualities. It is perceived to be created
through a process of evolution from a point. A point in motion in a single direction crates a line. If
the point is in motion in a single direction, then we can measure the distance that point moved in
that direction, Hence, a line is considered to have a single dimension.

(iii) Plane: The next level of elements is perceived to be generated through the movement of a line
in a single direction for a limited distance. Hence, we come up with a new conceptual element
that is dependent on the concept that argues that if a one dimensional object is moving in the
direction other than its measurable one, it forms an element that is measurable in two
dimensions.

(iv) Volume / Solid: The last of the conceptual elements is generated from a plane that we consider
to be in motion in the direction other than its known two dimensions. Hence, it becomes an object
that conceptually can be measured in three dimensions.

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 (b) Visual Elements:

These are representations of conceptual elements on a material medium. They are visible
creations that stand for a concept, and can be seen on the medium that they have been put on.
The moment that we have put a certain element on a drawing medium, it will be perceived as
being composed of several characteristic features that helps us recognize it.

These features in turn can be used too create any object in the visual field and are hence
recognized as visual elements of design.

(i) Shape/Form: It refers to the visual extent of the object that gives it an outer distinct appearance
defined by its edges.

(ii) Size: is the smallness or largeness of an element. It is a measurable quality that can be
expressed using a unit of our choice.

(iii) Color: Is created basically by the color of the material we used to create an element in the visual
field.

(iv) Texture: Is the roughness or smoothness of a surface as perceived by our sense of sight.

(c) Relational Elements:

These are those that determine the placement and interrelationship of the elements that form
our design. They can either be felt or perceived depending on their character but are always
present if one tries to study the principles that are used in any design.

(i) Position: Refers to the relationship of the object to the frame in which it has been placed.

(ii) Direction: refers to how the object is related to the observer, objects near it or the frame that
contains it.

(iii) Orientation: Refers how the object façade is related to the façade of the observer, objects near
it, or another standard of reference

(iv) Space: Is the extent that has been occupied by the object.

(v) Gravity: form our personal understanding of the effect of gravity; we tend to psychologically
attribute heaviness, lightness, stability or instability to objects that are in our field of vision.

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 (d) Practical Elements:

If one were to attempt to describe the content of any design, one would need a framework that
can be used to describe what is behind every design work.

(i) Representation: it refers to the representation of an object that exists in reality.

(ii) Meaning: When we use an element to transmit a certain message, then it has an inborn
meaning and falls to this category of elements

(iii) Function: When we have a use for our creation, then we can talk about function. Utilitarian
things all have the practical element that we call function.

Section 3.04: Other Key Concepts

(a) Framal Reference

All the above elements exist in a boundary that defines the extent of our design. We shall call
this the framal reference. It is said to be the boundary of the design as the relationship between
all created elements and any left over space is perceived to be working together within the
extent of the edges of the medium.

(b) Form and Structure

All visual elements constitute or add up to create what we call a FORM. Form in its design
sense is that visual element with a definite shape, size, color and texture. It is the primary
design element that we will be learning to manipulate.

With the study of form comes the study of the manner in which it is created or generated. This
refers to structure, both as an approach and as a principle. Structure refers to the relationship
that has been established between forms or between the form and the framal reference that it
has been put in.

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 Module Four: Form as a Design Element

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Module Objective:
At the end of this section, you should be able to:

Understand the Rational behind the Language Construct that is going to be defined
Understand the Abstraction on which our definition depends on
Understand the Model of representation
Be able to define and distinguish between different elements of the Language Structure
Comprehend fully relevant concepts and terminologies

Lecture Synopsis:

A. Conceptual Definitions

a. Shape
b. Form

B. Introduction to the Module

C. Form and the Conceptual Elements

a. Form as a Point : Vocabulary - Physical Characteristics - Expressive Characteristics - Spatial

Characteristics – Representational Characteristics – Point and the other Forms

b. Form as a Line: Vocabulary –Physical Characteristics - Types - Expressive Characteristics -

Spatial Characteristics – Representational Characteristics – Line and the other Forms

c. Form as a Plane: Vocabulary - Physical Characteristics - Types - Expressive Characteristics -

Spatial Characteristics – Representational Characteristics – Plane and the other Forms

d. Form as a Volume: Vocabulary – Physical Characteristics - Types - Expressive Characteristics -

Spatial Characteristics – Representational Characteristics – Volume and the other Forms

D. Interrelationship between Forms

a. Detachment
b. Touching
c. Overlapping
d. Penetration
e. Union
f. Subtraction
g. Intersection
h. Coinciding

E. Module Summary

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 Section 4.01: Conceptual Definitions

Shape: Is defined as the effect produced by the outlines or the edges of a figure. It is the visual field
that the object occupies demarcated by the outer limits that distinguish it from its surroundings.

Form: Visible aspect of an object or figure. It could refer to parts or the whole of a figure that is
describable in two or three dimensions. Form is also understood as being a characteristic feature of
the conceptual element that we call a solid or a volume.

Section 4.02: Introduction to the Module

This section of the module defines one of the primary focuses of the course, the element of form.
Architecture is an activity that utilizes form to define and enclose spaces that have specific functions.
It is therefore important to be able to understand form to the level where we can comfortably start to
use it to model our abstract ideas and notions.

It is It is further important to note that the ultimate target of a design work is to create a solution that
will be visible in the three dimensional visual world. Hence, we can say that our primary target in the
process of visual design is to create a form, a model of generated through the process of
abstraction.

Form as an element of design is more than a shape that is seen; it is a shape with definite size, color
and texture. It is therefore the equivalent of the summation of the components that we call visual
element.

Since it is the summation of the visual elements that we call a form, our study must start with
establishing:

a. A language that has elements that will help us construct forms

b. A general principle defining possible operations on forms

c. Principles of purposeful organization of forms

d. Principles and tendencies of grouping of forms

e. Principles of establishing relationships and order between forms

Our concentration at this junction will be on defining and understanding what form as a design
element is all about. As this section is the continuation of the previous module, we will start our study
of forms by describing its evolution starting from the conceptual elements defined.

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 Section 4.03: Form and the Conceptual
Elements
If the conceptual elements are those that are not visible, a visual representation of them gives us a
form. Though they are commonly referred to as point, line … they are in reality forms that have
distinct visible characteristics that can be described and manipulated.

Form therefore is that element that is visible and has describable properties that make up the list of
visual elements. We therefore study conceptual elements as forms and will exercise on their uses in
the development of abstract ideas that can be used in the design process.

(a) Form as a Point

(i) Vocabulary: A point is an element that marks a position in the visual space.

(ii) Physical Characteristics: to serve as a point, a form must be small enough to be perceived
as having no length, width or depth. It is only then that it will fulfill the conceptual requirement of
an element that we defined as having no dimension. In addition, a point is considered to be an
element that is static, centralized and direction less.

(iii) Expressive Characteristics: a point as a form expresses stability, calmness as it is static and
centralization

(iv) Spatial Characteristics: A point as a form will be perceived by the observer inducing the
spatial effect of stability when it is either alone or at the center of its field. When it is off-centered,
it will create a sense of pulling or an effect that is termed as visual tension in design.

(v) Representational Characteristics: Representational characteristics are the direct results of

the physical manipulation of the other characteristics of the element. As a form, a point has
physical characteristics that can be used to represent ideas at a practical or abstract level. It can
represent conceptual ideas such as positions, stability, calmness, etc.

(vi) Point and the other Forms: A point can have different uses based on what it marks when
used as a form. The following examples are used to show some of the common uses of a point
with regard to other elements of form:

1) A single point: Can be used to mark two ends of a line hence describing a
conceptual element
Intersection of two lines, defining a position
Meeting of lines at a corner of a plane or volume, helping to
establish the contour that define the shape or volume
Center of a field

2) Two points: Can be used to define a Line connecting them

Axis perpendicular to the line they describe

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 (b) Form as a Line

At a conceptual level, we have said that a point extended becomes a line: or a point in motion
creates the appearance of a line. As an extension of a point, a line inherits the properties of a point
and exhibits new characteristics.

(i) Physical Characteristics

As it is generated from an element that is understood to be dimensionless, it is visually recognizable
because it is possible to perceive the relationship between its length and width. The width of a line
so narrow that it is neglected hence, making line only measurable in its prominent direction, that
corresponds to the motion of the point that has conceptually created it.

As a form therefore, it conveys a feeling of thinness. In its conception and use therefore dependent
on the following characteristics that it exhibits:

1) Length: a measurable quality that proportionally dominates width to a degree where the
latter is considered to be negligible

2) Value: as lines are considered to be elements that have only length as a measurable
quality, anything with a width should be considered as a plane. But in the design language,
forms are recognized as lines when their length significantly dominates the width.

Value refers to our ability to differentiate between lines based on their visual weight that is
associated with their thickness.

3) Direction: a line will define a certain direction that corresponds to the motion of the
conceptual element that created is. Such direction is describable as being Vertical,
Horizontal, Oblique/inclined

4) Position: Another characteristics at a physical level deals with the position of a line in the
visual field. The position or location of a line is an important attribute it borrows from the
conceptual element of a point that has helped to define it.

5) Types of Lines: In our approach to design element definition, we emphasize the manner in
which we can emphasize ways of establishing classification among a class of elements.
The focus will be on complete understanding of the criteria for classification. In the case of
lines as a class of elements, the conditions are to be defined by aspects that are related to
the form’s visual properties. These aspects are described by Wong as:

a) Overall shape of the line: This refers to the general appearance of the form with
respect to the direction of the motion of the point that conceptually created it. A line based
on these criteria can be straight, curved, bent, irregular

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 b) The Body: This concept relates to thickness of a line. If a form is perceived as a line,
then an increase in its thickness or width does not make it a plane. It will remain a line,
and can be differentiated as a wide or narrow line. In such cases, a line will have visible
edges that define its boundary. The relationship of these edges can be utilized as a basis
to categorize lines into tapering, knotty, wavy

c) The Extremities: refer to the edges of the two ends of the line. With regard to the
thickness of the line described above, if the thickness of the line increases, the shape of
the extreme edges of the line can be used as a criteria for differentiation between lines
having ends that are round, square, pointed

(ii) Expressive Characteristics: Lines can be used to express abstract ideas such as feelings
and emotions, or realistic features of objects such as contours and elevations.

(iii) Spatial Characteristics: With regard to its placement in the visual field, a line can induce a
sense of stability, movement, and energy depending on its direction. A change in its value can
produce an effect of advance and receding in the visual space. A single line with value
differences can produce effects of twisting in space, etc.

(iv) Representational Characteristics: Lines can be used to represent both abstract ideas or
realistic features of objects such as contours and elevations.

(v) Line and the other Forms: A line can serve to:

1) Join, Link, Support, and Surround or intersect other visual elements;

2) Describe edges of or give shape to planes;

3) Articulate surfaces of a plane

(c) Form as a Plane

At a conceptual level, when a line is extended in a direction other than its intrinsic one, it forms a
plane. A plane therefore will inherit the properties of a line, direction and position, and in addition
have the following main properties:

(i) Physical Characteristics

1) Shape: is the primary characteristic of a plane and corresponds to the effect created by
the contours of lines that define the outer most limit or extent of the plane. According to
Wong, on a two dimensional framal reference, all flat forms that are not commonly
recognized as points or lines become forms as plane.

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 2) Surface: is that visual characteristics of the plane inscribed by the contour of lines that
have defined the shape. Surface exhibits complementary properties of surface color,
pattern and texture

3) Orientation: The surface of the plane can be described in terms of what it is facing in a
composition. As an example, in a three dimensional composition where a group of planes
are composed, the observer can establish the following generic types of planes with
respect to orientation:

a) Overhead Plane: the plane that is placed at the top. A ceiling can be an example of an
overhead plane.

b) Base Plane: When placed as a base, the top part of the plane surface becomes visible;
hence the plane becomes a base plane. A floor can be an example of a base plane

c) Vertical Plane: when vertically placed, the surface or surfaces of the plane can be
visualized as having a different orientation than the two mentioned above. If placed at an
angle, we can get an inclined plane.

4) Types of shapes
Based on Generic Lines: It is the characteristics and interrelationships of the conceptual lines that
define the edges of the form can be used to determine the shape of the planar form:

I. Geometric: such forms are bounded by lines whose relationship is determined

using rules of mathematics.

II. Rectilinear: Such forms are bounded by lines which are not mathematically related.

III. Organic Shapes: Such forms are bounded by free curves with no geometric
relations

IV. Irregular Shapes: Bounded by straight and curved lines with no apparent
mathematical relations

Based on orientation of the surface: Based on the relationship that is established with regard to the
orientation of the surface in the compositional frame, the form can be determined as being:

I. Static Plane
II. Dynamic Planes: when a form is positioned on a ground, its orientation can
suggest a sense of motion or rest. Based on this, forms are divided into static or
dynamic

Based on Interrelationship of Generic Planes

I. Positive or Negative Planes: A shape can be perceived as either occupying or as a

blank space surrounded by occupied space. This establishes a relationship

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 between the shapes in the visual field. The one occupying the space becomes
positive and vice versa.

II. Primary and Secondary shapes: looking at shapes, we can recognize that certain
shapes are created from lines while others are generated from the combination of
shapes. This helps us to classify shapes into primary and secondary shapes.

1. Uses of Planes

a. In design education:

ƒ Simplify complex shapes and volumes

ƒ Study relationships between components of a shape and volume
ƒ Combined to create complex shapes or forms in three dimensional visual field

(d) Form as a Volume

At a conceptual level, when a plane extends in the dimension that is other than its intrinsic one, it will
create a solid. It therefore exhibits all the characteristics of a plane and in addition will have the
following:

Form is the primary characteristics of a solid. Form as we have defined earlier is more than just a
shape. It is actually measurable in three dimensions and has all the characteristics of a plane
incorporated to it.

o It is determined by the contour of line forming the edges of the solid

o Used to:

ƒ Define or enclose space

ƒ Used to study relationships between components of a volume
ƒ Used to create a complex form in the three dimensional visual field

Types of Forms: depending on the nature of the shape, they can be divided into:

A. Geometric and Organic Form

B. Regular and Irregular Form

C. Static and Dynamic Form

D. Positive and Negative Form

E. Primary and Secondary Form

PRIMARY SOLIDS: are created from primary shapes. Primary shapes are used to generate
solids/forms that have the following characteristics:

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Regularity: Objects whose parts are related to one another in a consistent orderly manner.

Symmetrical: we recognize a visual axis about which all parts on both sides of that axis are located
at equal distance.

Stable: They appear to be stable in their nature

Section 4.04: Interrelationship between Forms

and their Effect on the Compositional Space
Regardless of what form we are dealing with, in the visual field, we can define the possibilities in
which forms encounter each other. Relationship between forms is approached from two different
dimensions. The first attempts to define interrelationship between the forms while the second
dimension studies the effect that former produces on the space in which the forms exist.

For the first part of our study, Wong identifies for us eight different ways of interactions. Our
exploration of interrelationships will be extended to cover the effect each one will have on the
surrounding and defined space. The eight conditions are therefore defined hereunder:

1. Detachment: this refers to a condition where the forms in our field of vision are not in any
physical contact whatsoever.

With respect to the position of the objects from the eye, they may appear to be either
equidistant or one further away than the other in the space in which they exist.

2. Touching: Means that the forms are in actual physical contact. They are touching as they are
on the same surface.

With respect to the depth, orientation and direction of the objects in space from the eye,
different spatial effects can be created.

3. Overlapping: When forms are not on the same surface, one will end up being on top of the
other.

In this case the objects in space are related as being one above the other or one in front of
the other depending on the orientation of the surfaces of the objects.

4. Penetration: unlike overlapping, in the case of penetration, we are assuming that both forms
are transparent and there is no relationship that can be described in terms of above and
below and the contours of both forms remain visible.

5. Union: in this case, both forms are joined and become a larger single unit which means that
both forms will loose part of their contours

In most cases, the objects will appear to be equidistant in two dimensional spaces, though
different effects are possible in three dimensions.

6. Subtraction: can be visualized as taking an invisible form and putting it over a visible form,
where the visible part of the object that is covered by the invisible form becomes invisible

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 7. Intersection: in this case, the resultant form is smaller than the two forms because the
intersection is that part that is formed when the two forms cross over

8. Coinciding: it is a unique case where the two forms that we started with are the same and
become one.

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 Module Five: Operations on Solids

5-40
 Section 5.01: Introduction
As any discipline of the sciences, in architecture, it is important to understand that no solid is
created. As a form that exists in reality, it is made up of materials that are already present in the
environment.

The concept of being able to visualize the appearance of an object in our mind is an activity that
uses conceptual elements that do not exist in reality. Being able to recreate that idea in reality will
force us to use materials in our surrounding for the attainment of our goal.

Hence, in order to be able to recreate those forms that are formed in our mind, we learn techniques
of representing objects using the drawing sheet (projections and views) and basic operations that
can be conducted on materials that exist in reality.

In this course, we will concentrate on using a form or group of forms as elements that can bring
about a pre-determined emotional response from an observer. To do this, we perform basic
operations to shape forms or to alter their property either individually or as a group, and use them to
fulfill the purposes we set out to achieve while conducting a design activity.

Section 5.02: Definitions

The term operation is defined as an action, scope or method of working that is undertaken on
something to affect its value or form. We can give mathematical operations, surgical operations as
examples.

The term solid can be understood as something that is both firm in shape and measurable in three
dimensions.

Operation on solids then will deal with the subject matter related to those activities that are
undertaken to:

Alter the properties of solids with known outward shape or form; resulting in the change in
their appearance (Transformation)

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 Section 5.03: TRANSFORMATION

(a) Definition: Transformation should be understood as the operation of changing one

configuration/ expression or state into another according to a certain rule.

We can for example try to understand all forms as transformations of primary solids. Taking a
primary solid, we can come up with variety of forms by simple variations of the properties of the
object we started out with.

(b) TYPES OF TRANSFORMATIONS

Generally there can only be three kinds of transformation.

(i) DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMATION

Dimensional Transformation refers to altering one or more dimensions of an existing form. The
objective of such transformation will be to ensure that the new form that is created will belong to a
family of forms.

Here the underlying assumption is that all forms that we experience are transformations of the
primary platonic solids discussed.

Example: CUBE

1) COMPRESSION

Can be compressed to a planar form

2) STRETCHING

Can also be stretched to any direction

Change in length, Width or Length create different form than the parent object.

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(ii) SUBTRACTIVE TRANSFORMATION
Here also what we attempt to do is to subtract a portion of a volume to achieve a new form that may
or may not retain its initial identity.

There are several ways of using one of the tree techniques of transformation of forms. The key
determinant factor in all cases is whether or not we want the object to retain its initial identity.

(iii) ADDITIVE TRANSFORMATION

As the name suggests, additive transformation is nothing but the addition of elements to the
“Original” volume.

Our original volume is assumed to be one of the primary solids already discussed.

It is up to the designer to determine whether the identity of the initial form is to be altered or retained
the designer hence can manipulate the number and relative sizes of the elements being attached to
determine alter the identity of the initial form.

Ex. Cube

(iv) POSSIBILITES FOR GROUPING TWO OR MORE FORMS

We generally recognize that we have a parent form we start with and we attach one or more
subordinate forms to it. In this activity, the possibilities open for us are described by the types of
“contact” that can be established between the objects. The possibilities that we have are the
following:

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 1) SPATIAL TENSION
Here, we are attempting to establish a relationship that is based on proximity & common visual
elements and not any type of actual contact.

2) EDGE-TO-EDGE CONTACT
In this case forms share a common edge and have an actual physical contact, pivoting about that
edge.

3) FACE TO FACE CONTACT

In this case, the two forms need to have corresponding planar surfaces, which are parallel to each
other and with surfaces that actually meet.

4) INTER LOCKING VOLUMES

In such a relation ship forms inter penetrate each others space.

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 Module Six:Towards Defining the Principles of Composition

6-45
 Section 6.01: Introduction and Definition of
Terms
Composition is essentially an act of putting together. It deals with the activity that is undertaken to
arrange elements in a certain logical manner, with the target of demonstrating the dominant rule that
is used to establish the relationship that is holding the elements together as one unit.

Composition is not mostly an activity that is undertaken for the fulfillment of the desires of the
designer. It is rather a principle based approach that will enable the designer to create an effect that
will be recognized by a casual observer.

(a) Understanding Structure of a Composition

Structure in a composition is used to define the interrelationship between the elements of design.
The use of structure in a composition is particularly important as it defines and communicates the
purpose, meaning or effect the elements of the composition must produce together.

We may use visible or invisible structures in a composition. The difference between the two is
whether the structural elements are actually mapped on the composition or not. When visible, they
could be positive or negative forms depending on how they are united with the negative or positive
units of the composition.

The following section attempts to define different structures of composition.

1) The Basic Grid:

2) Repetition Structure:

3) Gradation Structure:

4) Radiation Structure:

5) Centrifugal Structure:

6) Concentric Structure:

7) Centripetal Structure:

8) Anomaly:

9) Contrast:

10) Concentration:

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 (b) Organization in Elements of Design
Additive forms will grow to merge with other forms. As designers, if we want our forms to be
perceived as a group, the way in which the elements are combined must demonstrate a coherent
relationship.

Forms therefore can be categorized based on the existing relationships between component forms,
as well as the resulting overall configuration. When we are emphasizing the rule that determines the
overall appearance of our composition, we are focusing on defining the structure that determines
how the composition has been organized. In such a case, we are referring to principles of
organization.

1) CENTRALIZED: As the name suggests, such types of compositions are so organized to

simulate a centralized object, one of the regular platonic planes. As an organization of
elements to produce an effect, the composition attempts to fulfill the following minimum
conditions:

a) Dominant central form: In a composition that is centralized, there will be a dominant

form that is located at the center of the compositional field of space and hence is
dominant owing to its placement. This central element hence becomes the Primary form
in the composition. To emphasize the core concept of the desired composition, the
centrally placed object is usually a regular form that is centralized and static.

b) Secondary Forms: Located around the central form will be secondary forms whose
presence is significant as they
i) Are used to add to the effect of centrality by being located equidistant from the central
object
ii) Are used to contribute to the overall effect by defining a static and stable outer boundary

2) LINEAR: As the name suggests, such types of compositions are so organized to simulate
a line. Therefore, we are trying to create a composition that depicts the properties and
characteristics of line as a form, to fulfill the following minimum sets of conditions:

a) Arrangement: In a Linear Composition, elements are arranged in a row, or along a

path, having a common direction.
b) Organized along a path:
c) Arrangement Expresses Movement:

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 3) RADIAL: As the name suggests, such types of compositions are so organized to simulate
the physical properties of a radius of a circle. The main property that we can recognize is
the fact that radiuses are lines having a common unmarked center as their origin. As lines,
they have directions that in our case is perceived to be from the center to the boundary of
the circle. Therefore, we are trying to create a composition that depicts the properties and
characteristics of group of lines as a form, having a common center, and the following
minimum sets of conditions are expected to be met:

a) Organization where linear forms are arranged extending from a central form.
b) Mixture of Linear & centralized organization
c) Central Core: is not necessarily dominant, not necessarily geometric center,
not necessarily present

4) GRID: When two or more parallel lines form a regularly shaped field, we have created a
grid structure. A grid structure helps us to organize the compositional elements of our
choice in a logical pattern

5) CLUSTERED: There are cases where compositions appear to have no organizing logic
present. They just appear to be one whole unit merely because of proximity or by sharing a
common field.

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 (c) Order among Elements of Design
In a composition that uses elements, we regardless of the logic of organization, we can establish an
ordered relationship between our elements by the use of Ordering Principles. These principles,
unlike organizing principles, are not the manifestation of the actual structure of the composition,
rather the relationship defined between the elements as the parts of composition that contribute to
the overall effect.

1) AXIS: Talks about a line defined between two points: This line can be actual or implied.
The overall impact of the introduction of an axis is that it establishes an order of
significance between the elements of design.

2) SYMMETRY: It is nothing but the arrangement of objects that are equidistant from an
actual or implied axis.

3) HIERARCHY: Way of establishing order from most dominant to least dominant element.
It establishes primary and secondary elements that have a dependent relationship.
Achieved by changing size, shape or location

4) DATUM: The introduction of one dominant element in an otherwise disordered

composition may produce an overall ordering effect on the existing forms. In such cases,
we are considering the introduction of the form as a datum. Such a form could be a line,
Plane, Volume.

5) REPITION: Reoccurrence of similar elements define repetition. As a structure, repetition

could be achieved by using visible structural elements of form or by the use of invisible
formal elements that produce effects of repeating spaces between visible forms.

6) RHYTHM: Reoccurrence of elements in a logical pattern. Rhythm is hence a sense of

order established between elements that are in repetition, but not vice versa.

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 Module Seven: Types of Composition

7-50
 Section 7.01: Introduction and Definition of
Terms
As composition deals with the arrangement of elements to form something that has a larger meaning
or significance, an attempt at defining types of composition should try to address how we are able to
understand the main logic that is holding the elements together for the overall effect they are
intended to produce. Hence, the dominant logic that each composition will portray will be our main
criteria for their categorization.

Section 7.02: Types of Composition: Nature

and Organization of the Element

I. Composition based on Equality: The end result of such a composition is usually a monotonous one
as the elements we use are equal in all their features. There exists no visual tension as the result of
their placement and interaction in the compositional plane and there is no dynamic expression
perceived, resulting in static and dormant effect.

II. Composition based on Similarity: The targeted end result in this case is a harmonious effect
produced through the use of elements that are similar in their main feature and yet with differences
that are large enough so as to create some degree of visual tension. This could be achieved by the
presence of placement variations creating unequal forces that are in constant interaction, producing
a pleasant effect.

III. Composition based on contrast: The target here is to produce an effect of maximum tension
produced using elements that are different in their main feature. Contrast enables us to establish
differences between elements in opposition.

Section 7.03: Types of Composition: Visual

Effect of a Composition

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 Module Eight: Grouping Tendencies in Composition

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Grouping

Grouping: is made essentially by determining the degree of correspondence that exists between
elements of our composition. The correspondence can be.

Dimensional
Nearness
Material
Shape
Size
Place
Position (Orientation)
Distance

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 Module Nine: Understanding Proportion and Scale

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Understanding Proportion and Scale

Scale: Size of something compared to a reference to a reference standard or to the size of

something else.

Example: One scale system could be the Human scale, where we compare the size of any
object as compared to the size of an average human.

PROPORTION: The measure of the relation of one part to another or to the whole.

Example: In the case of the proportion of an average human, we can for example compare
the size of the human face to neck or the proportion of the face as compared to the whole
body.

THEORIES OF PROPORTION

Different theories of proportion were developed to establish a controlled relationship between the
dimensions of the parts that make up the whole of a composition. All attempt to create a sense of
order along elements that form visual construction.

Important distinction between ratio and proportion

Ratio: quantitative comparison of two similar things

Proportion: Equality of Ratios

Proportion: a consistent set of visual relationships b/n parts of a composition and the whole.

TYPES OF PROPORTION

i. Commensurate: Refers to proportion systems that are composed of sizes with a

common denominator
ii. Incommensurate: Refers to system of proportions with dimensions or sizes that have
no common measure.

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9-56
 Module Ten: Check Point One

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 Section 10.01: Introduction and Definition of
Terms

Principles of Design

Principles of Design are the general accepted laws that we use in trying to undertake a controlled
design activity. They are useful in the sense that they give us the tool that will help us approach our
design problem with some sort of pre-conceived outcome of the final look or appearance.

When making a design, we generally use the following seven principles of design, namely: contrast,
emphasis, balance, unity, pattern, movement, and rhythm.

1. Contrast means showing differences in two different sections of the design or showing somehow
that the design being created is very different from other designs because of its contrast. Contrast
can also be used to show emphasis in any part of the design.

2. Emphasis is given to an area within the design because that area is meant to be seen or is more
important to be noticed when compared to other places of the design. For example, your design
might be to have white parallel lines going up and down. In the center of this design, you could have
a circle. This circle would be a part on the design that is emphasized.

3. Balance means keeping your design like a pattern. A balanced pattern would be if you had a
border on your pattern in black. Unbalanced would be if approximately one-third of the border was
orange and the other two-thirds in pink. To keep your design balanced, make your measurements as
accurate as possible. Keeping your design symmetric is a good technique for good balance, but not
necessarily the best for all types of designs.

4. Unity means keeping your design in a sort of harmony in which all sections of the composition
make other sections feel complete. Unity helps the design to be seen as one whole design instead
of disjointed pieces that are fighting for attention.

5. Pattern is simply keeping your design in a certain format. For example, you could plan to have
wavy lines all around your design as a pattern, but then you must continue those wavy lines
throughout the design for good patterns. It wouldn't look good if suddenly you stopped all the wavy
lines and drew a picture of a dog.

6. Movement is the measure of the degree to which a sense of motion or dynamics is included in a
design. It helps control the movement of the observer’s eyes on the compositional frame and
induces a predetermined reaction during such interactions. For example, circles going diagonally up
and down from right to left could show that the design moves up and to the right or down and to the
left.

7. Rhythm is the movement or variation characterized by the regular recurrence or alternation of

different quantities or conditions. In simpler words, it's just like pattern and shows that the design has
a 'beat' or 'flow' going with it. A plain white box has almost no rhythm what so ever.

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 Section 10.02: Balance

Balance is the consideration of visual weight and importance that is achieved by visual comparison
of elements with regards to their attributes and placement from an indicated reference. The
positioning logic of these elements will determine the logic and nature of balance attained.

(a) Symmetrical Balance: The butterfly below by itself is essentially symmetrical. Both
sides are similar in visual weight and almost mirrored. Because symmetrical balance often
looks more stiff and formal, sometimes it is called formal balance

(b) Asymmetrical balance: is more interesting. Above both sides are similar in visual
weight but not mirrored. It is more casual, dynamic, and relaxed feeling so it is often called
informal balance.

(c) Radial balance: is not very common in artist's compositions, but it is like a daisy or
sunflower with everything arranged around a center. Rose windows of cathedrals use this
design system.

This is a simple diagram of radial balance.

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Variety - You create variety when elements are changed. Repeating a similar shape but changing
the size can give variety and unity at the same time. Keeping the same size, but changing the color
can also give variety and unity at the same time. In visual composition, there are many ways you
can change something while simultaneously keeping it the same.

Depth - effects of depth, space, projection toward the viewer add interest.

Overlapping is often used by artists to create depth

Repetition can be used on all of the Visual Elements. If things are repeated without any change
they can quickly get boring. However, repetition with variation can be both interesting and
comfortably familiar. Repetition gives motion.

Visual Effects

When we analyze artwork we often start with visual effects. We notice something happening. Then
we try to figure out why it happens.

Motion: Motion isn't a principle. It is one those magic effects when a still picture has motion. There
are lots of ways to get perceptual movement that we recognize as apparent motion.

MOTION EXAMPLES

Sometimes it has to do with orientation.

A diagonal line is more dynamic than a horizontal or vertical line.

Sometimes motion depends on the character of the element itself.
A straight line may be less dynamic than a zigzag or a curving line.
A blended area may appear to flow.

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Depth: Depth is another “magic” effect.

DEPTH EXAMPLES
Sometimes the illusion of depth has to do with orientation.

If you want a chair or person to appear further away, you can place them higher on the picture
plane.

Sometimes the illusion of depth depends on the character of the element itself.

A warm color can appear to project and cool color can appear to recede, other things being equal.
A light tone (value) can appear to project and dark tone can appear to recede.
Illusion

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 Module Eleven: Surface Qualities of Forms

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 Section 11.01: Understanding Texture and
Pattern

(a) Objective: Why do we study Texture & Pattern?

We have so far tried to define what elements we can use to create a composition of forms, and what
principles can be applied in the arrangement of forms.

Apart from forms, we have other elements of design that are properties of forms. Their primary use
will be to modify the property a form, thereby making it appear to be more attractive.

These are therefore actually elements that we can use to increase the qualities our form. An existing
form can be made to appear different by textural treatment. Mastering the use of texture & pattern
will therefore enable us to work with an existing form and change its appearance without changing
the size of the form.

Definition of Texture: The coarseness or roughness of a surface. It has a lot to do with how an object
gets perceived. The primary way in which we will be able to perceive texture would be to visually
determine how the object will feel if we were to use the sense of touch.

When we talk about texture, we talk about how our sense of vision relates our pervious experience
of the sense of touch, associates the information stored in our mind, and reflects that the surface we
are looking at is rough.

Section 11.02: Types of Texture

When we talk about texture, we are referring to two different categories based on how texture is
recognized using the different senses.

(a) Visual Texture: Something that is recognized through the sense of sight
(b) Tactile Texture: Something that’s perceived through the sense of touch

Section 11.03: Uses of Texture

The use of textural treatment can be for functional or aesthetic purposes.

(a) Functional Uses:

Acoustical treatment of buildings
Rendering of building exterior t Long life of exterior
As elements of friction to prevent accidents on slippery surfaces

(b) Aesthetic Uses:

What textural treatment brings to our design can be better understood by paying attention to its
subjective interpretations and uses. Generally speaking, textural treatment is applied on existing
surfaces; hence it is easier to classify uses of texture based on what impact it will have on the parent
form that it modifies. With respect to this, textural treatment can
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11-64
 a) Reduce or increase the directional qualities and visual weight of the form.

b) Can be used to unite elements in composition.

C) Can be used to accentuate the natural features of the form.

VISUAL TEXTURE

I. PATTERN REDEFINED

Pattern is visual sense of texture created or felt by surface variation.

Patterns are created by repetition of units. Ordered repetitions give us rhythms. Rhythms is
important in architecture, as it will establish relationship between parts of a whole.

II. REPETION & GROUPING

Repetition is used in design activity owing to the fact that our eye tends to group together objects
that we find to be to the same type. Resemblance among objects will result in their belonging to the
same group. If it is this distinct properly of visual perception that the designer will use or manipulate
in getting a message across

III. MEANINGS IN PATTERN

To get a message through, we organize patterns to convey one of the following.

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Similarity of object

- Group triangles/Group of circles

Shade (Same Shade) Proximity

Large & Small Common Enclosure.

Common Ground

Orientation

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Texture can be

RANDOM ORDERED

IV. DIFFERENCES B/N VISUAL & TACTILE TEXTURE

The difference between visual and tactile is in the manner in which they are created. In tactile there
is an actual variation in the lanes while in visual, there is a difference in shade.

In tactile we can use the sense of touch as confirmation of what we see while in visual we can not.

Play of light and shadow creates visual texture while it accentuates tactile.

V. CONCLUDING REMARKS

In the use of any one of the two, it is important that Texture should be subordinate to the form. It
should accentuate not break it. In addition, it is usually true that roughness of a surface will create
the feeling of warmth while smoothness will create effect of chill in interiors.

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 Module Twelve: Principles of Light & the Mechanics of Vision
Introduction to principles of light
Sources of Light
Light & Matter
Dimensions of Light

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Light & Shadow

Introduction: How do we perceive objects through sense of sight.

- Light & Perception

Reflective Light
Quality Source
Object
Artificial Natural

Reflection from Object

Dimensions of Light
Brightness : How bright is the light source
- Intensity

Type of light sources

- Glowing - Others

Light Source
Glowing Others

Natural Artificial

Object Reflect Absorb Transmits

Reflective Quality: Transparent
Translucent
Opaque

Reflecting Surfaces
Regular
- Irregular

Diffusion of light
Light on objects in space

Exercise: - A writes a brief report on the effect of light on

Object visual perception

On photographic imprint
B. Analyze any picture of an interior space and the effect of light on the space.

Prepare a detailed drawing of the retina and identify all of the major functions. Describe the role of
each of the functions you have identified in the process of seeing.
Submission Date: April 12, 2005

Assignment II: April 12, 2006

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Pictorially describe what refraction, reflection, scattering, diffraction and interference are. Use a
colored media and accurate drawing that show the light source, the material medium through which
light passes through, and the effect on the light source propagated

Submission Date: April 14, 2005

Reading Assignment

Read relevant chapters in physics books about interference, reflection and refraction. Try to also
refer to wave and wave motion.

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Principles of Light and Vision

I. INTRODUCTION

Light, is defined as a form of energy visible to the human eye that is radiated by moving charged
particles.

What is Energy?
What are particles?
What do we mean by Atomic structure?
How do elements change from one to another?

Scientists have learned through experimentation that light behaves like a particle at times and like a
wave at other times. There is a general understanding that light travels in a straight line. In this case,
it is exhibiting a property of a particle. The particle-like features are actually tiny particles called
photons.

When light diffracts, or bends slightly as it passes around a corner, it shows wavelike behavior. The
waves associated with light are called electromagnetic waves because they consist of changing
electric and magnetic fields.

Vision is defined as the ability to see the features of objects we look at. Such features will supply us
with the necessary information required to recognize the object. Some of these features could be:

Color
Shape
Size
Details
Depth
Contrast

Vision is achieved when the eyes and brain work together to form pictures of the world around us.

Vision begins with light rays bouncing off the surface of objects.
These reflected light rays enter the eye and are transformed into electrical signals.
Millions of signals per second leave the eye via the optic nerve and travel to the visual area of the
brain.
Brain cells then decode the signals into images, providing us with sight.

Almost all animals respond to light. The one-celled amoeba responds to light by turning in its
direction. Bees have complicated eyes that contain many lenses for sensing colors and shapes of
flowers. However, it is the vertebrates (animals with backbones) that have eyes and a brain that
work together to process light into true images. Human vision is particularly unique in that the human
brain can process visual images and use them to create language and pictures and to store
information for future use.

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II. THE MECHANICS OF VISION

How do we see?
Light rays reflected from any object we look at enter the
eye and are focused by the eye's optical structures:
cornea, iris, pupil, and lens. The final destination of the
light rays is the retina, a layer of nerve tissue that lines
two-thirds of the back of the eye. In the center of the
retina is the macula, an area that is only 1.5 mm (0.06 in)
in diameter. The macula is responsible for the clearest,
most detailed vision.
The retina is made up of two types of cells: cones and
rods.

Prepare a detailed drawing of the retina and identify all of the major functions. Describe the role of
each of the functions you have identified in the process of seeing.
What do we mean by cones and rods? What are their specific roles in the process of seeing?
Cones are nerve cells that are sensitive to light, detail, and color. Millions of cone cells are packed
into the macula, aiding it in providing the visual detail needed to scan the letters on an eye chart, see
a street sign, or read the words in a newspaper.

Cones also produce the sensation we call color. Cones contain three different pigments, which
respond either to blue, red, or green wavelengths of light. Cones mix the color signals to produce the
variety of colors we see. If a person is missing one or more of the pigments, that person is said to be
color-blind and has difficulty distinguishing between certain colors, such as red from green.

Rods are designed for night vision and the detection of motion and objects. They also provide
peripheral vision, but they do not see as acutely as cones. Rods are insensitive to color. When a
person passes from a brightly lit place to one that is dimly illuminated, such as entering a movie
theater during the day, the interior seems very dark. After some minutes this impression passes and
vision becomes more distinct. In this period of adaptation to the dark the eye becomes almost
entirely dependent on the rods for vision, which operate best at very low light levels. Since the rods
do not distinguish color, vision in dim light is almost colorless.

Light rays that reflect from the upper half of any object we look at are focused on the lower half of
the retina. Rays from the lower half of the same object are focused on the upper half of the retina.
This would seem to give us an upside-down picture of the world. Fortunately, these signals are
rearranged when the brain processes them into an image that is right side up.
Sources of Light

Sources of light differ in how they provide energy to the charged particles, such as electrons, whose
motion creates the light we perceive. If the energy comes from heat, then the source is called

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incandescent. If the energy comes from another source, such as chemical or electric energy, the
source is called luminescent.

In an incandescent light source, hot atoms collide with one another. These collisions transfer energy
to some electrons, boosting them into higher energy levels. As the electrons release this energy,
they emit photons. Some collisions are weak and some are strong, so the electrons are excited to
different energy levels and photons of different energies are emitted.

Candlelight is incandescent and results from the excited atoms of soot in the hot flame.
Light from an incandescent light bulb comes from excited atoms in a thin wire called a filament that
is heated by passing an electric current through it.
The Sun is an incandescent light source, and its heat comes from nuclear reactions deep below its
surface. As the nuclei of atoms interact and combine in a process called nuclear fusion, they release
huge amounts of energy. This energy passes from atom to atom until it reaches the surface of the
Sun, where the temperature is about 6000°C (11,000°F).
Different stars emit incandescent light of different frequencies—and therefore color—depending on
their mass and their age.

A luminescent light source absorbs energy in some form other than heat, and is therefore usually
cooler than an incandescent source. The color of a luminescent source is not related to its
temperature. A fluorescent light is a type of luminescent source that makes use of chemical
compounds called phosphors. Fluorescent light tubes are filled with mercury vapor and coated on
the inside with phosphors. As electricity passes through the tube, it excites the mercury atoms and
makes them emit blue, green, violet, and ultraviolet light. The electrons in phosphor atoms absorb
the ultraviolet radiation, and then release some energy to heat before emitting visible light with a
lower frequency.

Phosphor compounds are also used to convert electron energy to light in a television picture tube.
Beams of electrons in the tube collide with phosphor atoms in small dots on the screen, exciting the
phosphor electrons to higher energy levels. As the electrons drop back to their original energy level,
they emit some heat and visible light. The light from all the phosphor dots combines to form the
picture.

Synchrotron Radiation

Not all light comes from atoms. In a synchrotron light source, electrons are accelerated by
microwaves and kept in a circular orbit by large magnets. The whole machine, called a synchrotron,
resembles a large artificial atom. The circulating electrons can be made to radiate very
monochromatic light at a wide range of frequencies.

Lasers

A laser is a special kind of light source that produces very regular waves that permit the light to be
very tightly focused. Laser is actually an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. Each radiating charge in a non-laser light source produces a light wave that may be a
little different from the waves produced by the other charges. Laser sources have atoms whose
electrons radiate all in step, or synchronously. As a result, the electrons produce light that is
polarized, monochromatic, and coherent, which means that its waves remain in step, with their
peaks and troughs coinciding, over long distances.

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III LIGHT AND MATTER

Light behaves in a specific manner when it interacts with matter. Its behavior can be divided into two
categories:
How light interacts with matter
How light travels, or propagates through matter

A. Interaction with Material

Why does light slow-down as it passes a material?

What is light absorption?
What is reflection?
Why do materials heat up when light passes through them?

When white Light from sources such us the sun is separated into Colored Light it appears white. The
white light that we see is actually the sum effect of the different colors. The fact that the one color
that we see consists of several colors can be demonstrated by passing it through a prism.

When white light passes through a prism, it separates into a spectrum of different colors. The prism
bends, or refracts, light of different colors at different angles. Red light bends the least and violet
light bends the most.

This effect is clearly seen on the rainbow. We see light that is bent to the different colors. The
juxtaposition of these colors depends on the angle of curvature of each.

The question that we should raise here is what actually happens when light strikes a material?

Generally, when light from a source falls on any matter, the following series of reactions take place:

It interacts with the atoms in the material

Depending on the frequency of the light and the atomic structure of the material. In transparent
materials, the electrons in the material oscillate, or vibrate, while the light is present.
This oscillation momentarily takes energy away from the light and then puts it back again.
This results in the slowing down of the light wave without leaving energy behind. Denser materials
generally slow the light more than less dense materials, but the effect also depends on the
frequency or wavelength of the light.
Materials that are not completely transparent either absorb light or reflect it.
In the process of light absorption, the energy of the oscillating electrons does not go back to the light
instead going toward increasing the motion of the atoms, which causes the material to heat up.
The atoms in reflective materials, such as metals, re-radiate light that cancels out the original wave.
Only the light re-radiated back out of the material is observed.

The interaction with matter produces one or more of the three effects on the source of light that
reached the object or material medium. These effects are described in the next section.

Exercise: Pictorially describe what refraction, reflection, scattering, diffraction and interference are.
Use a colored media and accurate drawing that show the light source, the material medium through
which light passes through, and the effect on the light source propagated
Refraction

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Refraction is the bending of light when it passes from one kind of material into another. Because
light travels at a different speed in different materials, it must change speeds at the boundary
between two materials. If a beam of light hits this boundary at an angle, then light on the side of the
beam that hits first will be forced to slow down or speed up before light on the other side hits the new
material. This makes the beam bend, or refract, at the boundary.

Reflection

Reflection also occurs when light hits the boundary between two materials. Some of the light hitting
the boundary will be reflected into the first material. If light strikes the boundary at an angle, the light
is reflected at the same angle, similar to the way balls bounce when they hit the floor.

Scattering

Scattering occurs when the atoms of a transparent material are not smoothly distributed over
distances greater than the length of a light wave, but are bunched up into lumps of molecules or
particles. The sky is bright because molecules and particles in the air scatter sunlight. Light with
higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths is scattered more than light with lower frequencies and
longer wavelengths.

The atmosphere scatters violet light the most, but human eyes do not see this color, or frequency,
well.
The eye responds well to blue, though it is the second most scattered color.
Sunsets look red because when the Sun is at the horizon, sunlight has to travel through a longer
distance of atmosphere to reach the eye. The thick layer of air, dust and haze scatters away much of
the blue.

B. How Light Travels

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Dutch scientist Christian Huygens proposed the first successful theory of light wave motion in three
dimensions in 1678. Huygens suggested that:

Light wave peaks form surfaces like the layers of an onion.

In a vacuum, or a uniform material, the surfaces are spherical.
These wave surfaces advance, or spread out, through space at the speed of light.
Each point on a wave surface could act like a new source of smaller spherical waves, which may be
called wavelets that are in step with the wave at that point.
The envelope of all the wavelets is a wave surface. An envelope is a curve or surface that touches a
whole family of other curves or surfaces like the wavelets.
This model explains:

How light seems to spread away from a pinhole rather than going in one straight line through the
hole.
Blurs that we see in the edges of shadows.

Interference

Interference in waves occurs when two waves overlap. There are two types of interference
depending on the effect that is created by the overlapping waves of light. These are:

Constructive interference: If a peak of one wave is aligned with the peak of the second wave, then
the two waves will produce a larger wave with a peak that is the sum of the two overlapping peaks.
Destructive interference: When a peak of one wave is aligned with a trough of the other, then the
waves will tend to cancel each other out and they will produce a smaller wave or no wave at all.

Diffraction

Diffraction is the spreading of light waves as they pass through a small opening or around a
boundary. As a beam of light emerges from a slit in an illuminated screen, the light some distance
away from the screen will consist of overlapping wavelets from different points of the light wave in
the opening of the slit. When the light strikes a spot on a display screen across from the slit, these
points are at different distances from the spot, so their wavelets can interfere and lead to a pattern of
light and dark regions.

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How do we measure light?

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IV MEASURING LIGHT

Monochromatic light, or light of one color, has several characteristics that can be measured.
The length of light waves is measured in meters.
The frequency of light waves is measured in hertz

When light is considered as a source of illumination for human eyes, it is important to measure its
intensity, or brightness. Such measurement is done using units that are based on a modernized
version of the perceived brightness of a candle.

A. Brightness

Scientists use candela and lumen to measure the brightness of light as perceived by humans. These
units account for the different response of the eye to light of different colors.

The candela measures the amount radiated in a particular direction. The candela was originally
called the candle, and it was defined in terms of the light produced by a standard candle.
The lumen measures the total amount of energy in the light radiated in all directions. The lumen can
be defined in terms of a source that radiates one candela uniformly in all directions.

B. The Speed of Light

Scientists have defined the speed of light in a vacuum to be exactly 299,792,458 meters per second
(about 186,000 miles per second). This definition is possible because since 1983, scientists have
known the distance light travels in one second more accurately than the definition of the standard
meter. Therefore, in 1983, scientists defined the meter as 1/299,792,458; the distance light travels
through a vacuum in one second.

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 Module Thirteen: Understanding and Using Color

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Section 13.01: Important Concepts
What is Color: Color can be defined as the Visual Quality of Light

In the natural world of animals, birds, and plants, color always has a purpose -- to attract, repel,
conceal, communicate, warn, or assure survival. Pigment producing plants do so for a particular
reason. It is this psychology that became the driving force behind man’s exploration to the world of
color.

Human beings have made colored objects since the earliest times, but never in such great quantities
as now. Ownership of colored objects was a luxury that was afforded only by the wealthy majority.
The age of technology changed all of this and has made color and coloring accessible to all of us.

Though we have been living and using color for most of our lives, If one was to ask us the question:
“what is all this color for?” most of us will not be able to provide a satisfactory answer.

For present-day humans, has color even begun to lose its purpose and meaning? Now that we have
this huge bulk of manufactured color, is its use mostly indiscriminate? Or is purpose and meaning
still subliminally inherent in color as a remnant of our biological heritage? Do we for example choose
to dress in a particular color for a reason? And what is the significance of color in architecture?

Most of the time, we, the modern generation tend to turn to science for answers to question of this
nature. For the scientist, color is nothing but a subjective experience, a mental sensation that can
only occur if three requirements are fulfilled:

An observer,
An object,
And sufficient light in the narrow band of wavelengths called the visible spectrum

If color is a mental sensation, how does it happen?

Scientists tell us that when light

falls on an object -- for example,
an orange -- the surface of the
orange has the particular property
of absorbing all of the
wavelengths of the spectrum
except that which, when reflected
back to our eyes and processed
through the visual system, causes
the mental sensation we have
named the color "orange".

This being the case, what visual

qualities about color should we
understand to be able to use it to
create a desired environment in the objects and spaces that we design? What elements should we
learn about in order to be able to use color for design purposes?

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 Section 13.02: LEARNING ABOUT COLOR

We often take it for granted that we know enough about color to know what we like, and we feel
that's sufficient. Yet knowing something more of the enormous body of knowledge about color would
help to increase the pleasure in color. With the color we add on any surface, we learn to increase
the quality of the object that is related to the expected emotional experience of the object. To be able
to use color effectively, there are certain things we need to know about color that are discussed
under the following topics.

(a) Color Attributes

(i) Hue: the perceptual attribute associated with elementary color names.

Hue enables us to identify basic colors, such as blue, green,

yellow, red and purple. People with normal color vision report
that hues follow a natural sequence based on their similarity to
one another.

With most color deficits, the ability to discriminate between

colors on the basis of hue is diminished.

(ii) Lightness: corresponds to how much light appears to be reflected from a surface in
relation to nearby surfaces.

Lightness, like hue, is a perceptual attribute that cannot be

computed from physical measurements alone. It is the most
important attribute in making contrast more effective.

With color deficits, the ability to discriminate colors on the basis

of lightness is reduced.

(iii) Saturation: is the degree of color intensity associated with a color’s perceptual
difference from a white, black or gray of equal lightness.

Slate blue is an example of a desaturated color because it is

similar to gray. A deep blue, even if it has the same lightness as
slate blue, has greater saturation.

Congenital and acquired color deficits typically make it difficult to

discriminate between colors on the basis of saturation.

To a person with color-deficient partial sight, the left-hand panel

might appear like the right-hand panel appears to a person with
normal color vision.
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 (b) WHEEL OF COLOR

The purpose of constructing the color wheel is to set which colors are opposite each other on a
wheel. This in turn will define a context that helps to talk about the possibilities in color combinations.

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There are Different types of color wheels as indicated below.

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13-84
 (c) COLOR SCHEMES

The reason for the study of color schemes is to be able to use the color wheel to put colors together,
in a meaningful way. To do so, we have at least three alternative approaches.

A. MONOCHROMATIC

The term monochromatic comes from - "mono" means "one", "chroma"

means color; to mean one color and its values. In the case of the
example below, notice how the entire composition is made up only of
the different values of the color family of yellow:

Example one: Composition using the chroma yellow.

B. ANALOGOUS

As in the case of the example that follows, this sort of composition

attempts to use 3 to 5 colors next to each other on the color wheel with
their respective values. The example below uses the same drawing as
in example one and uses the colors – red-purple, purple, blue-purple,
and blue.

Example Two: Composition using red-purple, purple, blue purple, and

blue

C. COMPLEMENTARY

This technique attempts to create harmony with simultaneous contrast.

Using colors opposite on the color wheel and their respective values
can help us create such contrast that gives a harmonious composition.

Example Three: Composition using blue and orange.

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 D. WARM COLORS

This attempts to use colors of sun and fire, on

the right side of the color wheel and their
respective values as elements that control the
composition.

Example Four:
Composition using reds
and yellows (and their
values)

E. COOL COLORS

This technique will attempt to use cool colors, colors of snow and ice, on
the left side of the color wheel and their respective values.

Example Five: Composition example using blues, greens, purples (and

their values)

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 (d) COLORS AND MEMORY

Most experienced painters would be able to differentiate between two values of the same color. For
us, those with less experience, telling the difference between two will not be that easy. The reason
for this is that we remember colors the way we remember anything else: vaguely, often incorrectly.
There are so many shades of so many hues that it's literally impossible for anyone to recollect each
of them.

Any one of us will not go to a store to purchase a piece of material to match a specific color without
carrying a swatch of the required color with us. We recall with certainty only the names of colors,
and the fact that they are dark, or light, very dark, or very light. It's especially difficult to remember
changes in colors caused by illumination.

(e) THE MEANING OF COLORS

In his endless search for causes, reasons, explanations, and in his equally endless hope of finding
answers to all questions and meanings in all phenomena, man must have stumbled on meanings of
colors at an early date.

Didn't a blue sky imply a pleasant day?

Didn't dark clouds announce a storm or rain?
Wasn't the green pasture more pleasing to the eye than the dried-out, dirty-brown vegetation?
Wasn't red the color of blood?
Wasn't white the purest possible color? Didn't darkness frighten people?
Didn't the radiant sun resemble a huge disk of gold?

Later on, certain colors became associated with facts, events, ceremonies, and titles. What may
surprise us is to find that some colors have different meanings in various parts of the world.

(i) SYMBOLIC COLORS

We have ample evidence that colors began to have special meanings a very long time ago, and that
those meanings were clear to the entire population. As an example, we can take the Ziggurat of Ur,
built between 2300 and 2180 B.C. in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, which consisted of four main
stories:

The first story, rising from a white court, was black, symbolizing the underworld;
The second was red, representing the earth;
The third was a blue shrine symbol of heaven
The fourth was a gilded top representing the sun.

Judging by the use of similar colors elsewhere, though, there can be no question that certain hues
were selected for symbolical reasons.

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(ii) WHAT DO COLORS STAND FOR?

Most colors have several meanings, but they are closely connected with each other. Here are a few
examples:

Blue stands for sky, heaven, and water.

Green may also be water, but it generally means hope, the color of spring, the renewal of life, feed
for animals, and thus, food for humans. Green also means poison, because arsenic, known in most
ancient times, is green, and so is poisonous Sulphate. In more recent times, many poisons were
manufactured in green powder form, in order to differentiate them from flour or sugar. Green also
symbolizes jealousy, and fear, both of them deadly poisonous emotions.

Red is the color of blood; hence, it represents courage, sacrifice.

Black is death, the underworld, mourning, desolation.

White is purity, chastity, but it's the color of mourning in the Far East. Isn't white as pure, or as empty
as black? It's also the color of surrender, because a piece of white on a pole could be seen from a
great distance, and could not be mistaken for any kind of flag. White means cowardice, too, because
some people surrender for no other reason than to save themselves.

Gold or yellow means the sun, sun-god, wealth. Yellow, however, also represents envy, treachery,
cowardice. A yellow flag on a ship signifies contagious disease. In the Western world, yellow is the
symbol of a certain type of sensation seeking, destructive journalism, because the most vicious kind
of news was printed on colored (yellow) paper to incite the curiosity of the public.

Purple is emblematic of rank and authority. It's derived from the ancient, expensive dye prepared
from the purple fish (purpura in Latin, porphyra in Greek). Purple robes were worn by Roman
emperors and, later, by high ranking prelates of the Christian church.

Scarlet, a yellow-red hue of very high saturation is also a sign of dignity and high rank. Originally, it
was a kind of Persian broadcloth, used for tents and flags. The textile was often dyed this particular
red and, eventually, the name of the cloth became synonymous with the color. Scarlet, however, is
also applied in an opprobrious manner, to women of ill repute. This association is due to Revelations

Gray means colorless, figuratively as well as literally.

(iii) PSYCHOLOGY OF COLOR

Symbolic meanings of colors have psychological connotations. Nevertheless, colors affect us

psychologically regardless of any symbolism. And the psychological effect of one color can be very
different from its symbolical significance.

Black may signify mourning, but a black gown or suit, such as a tuxedo, is distinguished and elegant
as well, depending upon circumstances. An orange or red gown is loud and flashy, out-of-place,
when worn by a woman attending a funeral; but it may be proper and attractive when the same
woman wears it at a reception or dance.

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There can be hardly any question but that people prefer bright, sunny days to dark, rainy ones; a
bouquet of fresh flowers is more attractive than a shabby trash can full of waste; darkness will
always suggest danger and mystery; fire and flames will never cease to be fascinating as well as
frightening.

As we have become more conscious of the pleasant or unpleasant reactions to colors, we employ
our knowledge in a practical manner. There is now a tendency to paint the walls of hospitals and
schools a pale Nile-green, rather than the previously universal dull gray or buff or glaring white; we
find the soft green hue more relaxing to eye and soul.

With new discoveries, we now know that:

ƒ A small room looks bigger if painted in light tones

ƒ It would appear to be even larger if one of its walls is done in a different hue;
ƒ The lighter color gives a feeling of space, while the different color appears to open on
another dimension.

The study of color is vast. Follow up of the study of color will be continued in the course Arch. 331
where you will be exposed techniques of water and oil painting.

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Unity University College School of Architecture & Urban Planning
Arch 201: Basic Design I Exercise I of Eight on colors:
Submission: May 19, 2006 Total Grade Points: 5%

By referring to the color wheel, fill the blank circles in the

first of the two figures above with opposite colors. If you
start with the top circle, the bottom circle should be filled
with its opposite color. Continue working by filling all the
circles in a clockwise direction.

In the second figure, fill all of the circles uniformly with a

single color of your choice. The color of your choice should
be your favorite color. By applying a varying value coating
using a pencil, create different shades of the same color
family in the figure.

EFFECTS OF AFTER IMAGES: Explain what is meant by the phrase.

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 Module Fourteen: Module Fourteen: Form and the Element of
Space

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

DIMENSIONS: Measurable extent as expressed in terms of Length, Width & Depth

FIGURE: External form or bodily shape

Two or three dimensional spare enclosed by lines, or surfaces

GROUND: Extent of a subject covered or dealt with

SPACE: Continuous expanse in which objects exist

The study of space should start by limiting the scope of or discussion to three major aspects.

The first element would deal with how spaces are created. If we define space as a continuous
expanse, we create a space by establishing boundaries that will divide the space in existence into
the space we defined and the space that remains. The topic that deals with this subject will come
under the topic “Space Defining Elements”, and will explore the techniques of defining space.

The second element deals with how and where the spaces we create get represented. We as
designers can represent our works both on two and three dimensional media. The techniques of
representing space in the two media will be different owing to the techniques of representing depth.
With regards to depth representation, the kind of work we have to undertake will be different while
working on two dimensional plane when compared to the activities related to working with a three
dimensional form.

Finally, we should have a study of the relationships that can be established between spaces and
how we can organize spaces accordingly.

I.FIGURE-GROUND RELATIONSHIP

UNITY OF OPPOSITES
A figure cannot exist without a ground and vice versa
A figure is perceived on a ground if it has some distinction from the latter.

Two dimensional figure exists on a two dimensional ground

Such figures are abstractions that represent reality

We employ techniques of visual illusion to achieve our objective
We use them to convey messages and to study visual relationships in reality.

Three-dimensional figures exist in reality. The abstraction in this case will be that of scale.

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SPACE IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Space is usually associated with three-dimensional studies as it is inseparable from the study of
three dimensional forms. Where visible in two dimensions, it is usually an illusion. We can walk and
exist in a three dimensional space. We represent this space in two dimensions using several
techniques.

The study of space & how to represent it has been one of man’s earliest fantasies. Man always
attempted to communicate ideas using one form or another. The need for communicating ideas falls
under the study of sharing of experiences. Early form of graphic arts therefore transmitted real
experience, which was just about enough for the early man who had little in the form of higher
needs.

With the rise in the need to express oneself, graphic arts became the fancy of early man. They
allowed him to have a universal language that can express ideas like music and painting.

With the advancement of modern education, subject specific studies were carried out to try to create
a universal language for the understanding, design and representation of spaces. The
representation of spaces in two dimensions concentrates on the creation of the feeling of depth on a
planar surface using several techniques.

Taking a plane as the extent of our study, we can create a defined space by introducing space
defining elements as discussed in the following chapter.

II SPACE DEFINING ELEMENTS

A form is created to make an impact on the space within which it exists. Upon its introduction, it
automatically makes divisions on the space. We can therefore state that a form either determines or
is determined by the spaces around it.

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Horizontal Planes

Figure Horizontal Plane -

Ground Contrasting Plane

Result = Field of space

Visual Reinforcements: Reinforcing visual separation between figure & ground

Elevated base plane

Depressed base plane

Overhead
Defines space between
Two objects.

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VERTICAL PLANES.
Have greater presence in our visual field.
Claim space immediately around them.

VERTUCAL CLNEAR ELEMENTS

PERPENDICULAR EDGES

SINGLE VERTICAL PLANE

L SHAPED PLANES

U- SHAPED PLANES

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SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS

Space within a space

Interlocking Spaces
Adjacent Spaces
Space linked by a common space.

We have so far seen ways of defining space. A space has no extent or limit if not defined. We
cannot define a single space. Therefore when we define a single space of interest, we are
establishing a relationship between spaces.

What is a relationship?

Association/Connection
Connection, Correspondence, Contrast, Prevailing Feeling, Bond-Common or not

I. SPACE WITHIN A SPACE

We can talk about: Smaller space belongs to the

- Placement
- Size relationship

II. INTERLOCKING SPACES.

Space belongs to two larger spaces.

Space can belong to one of the larger spaces.

1 Space can be independently defined.

III. ADJACENT SPACES.

Spaces have some sort of division, yet they could have been one.

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14-97
IV. SPACES LINKED BY A COMMON SPACE.
Interlocking

Common Space smaller than two or more spaces

v
Common space for both

Common space adjacent to both

Spaces
1 M 2

2 Links 1 & 3 yet it is not joined.

1 2 3

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SPATIAL ORGANIZATION: Overall effect suggested by the manner of organization.

I. CENTRALIZED

LINEAR

Linear sequence of repetitive elements

i.
ii.
iii.

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 iv. III. RADIAL

A central space from which linear organizations of space extend in a radial manner

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IV. CLUSTER
Spaces ground by proximity or by sharing a common visual trait.

tProximity tSimilar
Shape.

Related by axis
Yet
Not Linear

V. GRID
Spaces organized within a field of structural or 3-Dimensional grid.

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 Module Fifteen: Putting the Semester in Perspective: A Summary
of Design Basics

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Principles and Use of Elements of Design

Principles of Design are the laws of designing anything! When making a design the seven principles
are contrast, emphasis, balance, unity, pattern, movement, and rhythm. Consider each of these
carefully for any design and you'll be a guaranteed a great project!

Contrast means showing differences in two different sections of the design or showing somehow
that the design being created is very different from other designs because of its contrast. Contrast
can also be used to show emphasis in any part of the design.

Emphasis is given to an area within the design because that area is meant to be seen or is more
important to be noticed when compared to other places of the design. For example, your design
might be to have white parallel lines going up and down. In the center of this design, you could have
a circle. This circle would be a part on the design that is emphasized.

Balance means keeping your design like a pattern. A balanced pattern would be if you had a border
on your pattern in black. Unbalanced would be if approximately one-third of the border was orange
and the other two-thirds in pink. To keep your design balanced, make your measurements as
accurate as possible. Keeping your design symmetric is a good technique for good balance, but not
necessarily the best for all types of designs.

Unity means keeping your design in a sort of harmony in which all sections of the pattern make other
sections feel complete. Unity helps the design to be seen as one design instead of randomness all
around your design.

Pattern is simply keeping your design in a certain format. For example, you could plan to have wavy
lines all around your design as a pattern, but then you must continue those wavy lines throughout
the design for good patterns. It wouldn't look good if suddenly you stopped all the wavy lines and
drew a picture of a dog.

Movement is the suggestion or illusion of motion in a painting, sculpture, or design. For example,
circles going diagonally up and down from right to left could show that the design moves up and to
the right or down and to the left.

Rhythm is the movement or variation characterized by the regular recurrence or alternation of

different quantities or conditions. In simpler words, it's just like pattern and shows that the design has
a 'beat' or 'flow' going with it. A plain white box has almost no rhythm what so ever.

Elements of Design are components that are assembled when making a design. The seven
elements of design are color, value, texture, shape, form, space, and line. Elements of design will
help your design look a lot more unique from other designs, and can help make the design
symbolize anything!

Line defines the position and direction of the design. If you have lines or shapes that seem to be
running horizontally, then the design would seem like it's running in a left and right line. Make sure
your design identifies some sort of line so that the human eye can recognize which side is the top of
the design or on which side the design is suppose to start with interest.

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Shape is something distinguished from its surroundings by its outline within your design. You can
make your whole work a certain shape besides the common square, and then have shapes within
the design shape. This makes the design more complex.
Form is similar to the idea of shape. Form is the structure of your design and how everything in the
design looks like it's meant to go together. If the form is well planned and then carried out, it almost
guarantees your design in black and white will be a success.
Space has to be included in your design. Space means leaving some blank areas. Why would you
want to leave parts of the design blank? Sometimes a human's eye needs space to feel comfortable,
and space will let the human's eye distinguish the part that's meant to be noticed compared to just
the background. Sometimes not including space in your design is ok, but make sure it doesn't make
it look messy.
Texture helps your design to be distinctive or have identifying character and characteristics. With the
proper texture, your design will look more fascinating than the average design.
Color is an easy one. Just make sure your design's color is right for the mood! Also make sure that
each section's color matches another section's color. Color is probably the biggest element to pay
attention to.
Value is the relative darkness or lightness of a color. Just as said in the paragraph above, make sure
the colors you put on your design are dark or light enough for the proper mood. If you want to show
a sad figure in your design, most people would give the design a darker value. On the other hand to
show happy children playing around most people would recommend lighter colors.

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