Additional Mathematics Summary

Section 1: Algebra, Sequences and Series

A. Algebra
B. Quadratics
C. Inequalities
D. Surds, Indices and Logarithms
E. Series and Sequences

Section 2: Coordinate Geometry, Vectors and Trigonometry

A. Coordinate Geometry
B. Vectors
C. Trigonometry

Section 3: Introductory Calculus

A. Differentiation
B. Integration

Section 4: Probability and Statistics

A. Data representation and Analysis

B. Probability Theory

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 Section 1: Algebra, Sequences and Series

A. Algebra

!"
Remainder theorem: If f(x) is divided by (ax+b) then the remainder is f ( $ ).
Factor Theorem: If f(x) is divided by (ax+b) and the remainder is 0, then (ax+b) is a factor.

long division:

Theorem:

To solve or factorise a cubic:

a) Use trial and error to obtain first factor.
2. Divide function by first factor.
3. Solve or factorize the quadratic obtained.

2
 B. Quadratics

General form: y = ax2 + bx + c [highest power of x is 2]

"
To complete the square: y = a(x + h)2 + k. where h = %$ and k = c – ah2

To sketch a quadratic:
• Shape: minimum , a > 0
Maximum, a < 0

• Turning point : ( - h , k)
• Maximum or minimum value is always k .
• X-value which gives max or minimum value is – h.
• X-intercepts: solve ax2 + bx +c = 0
• Y-intercept: (0,c)

To determine the nature of the roots use the discriminant, D = b2 – 4ac:

• If b2 – 4ac > o then you have 2 real and distinct roots.
• If b2 – 4ac = 0 then you have real and equal roots, i.e. one root.
• If b2 – 4ac < 0 then you no real roots.

Some equations can be reduced to a quadratic then solved by using an appropriate

substitution.
e.g. x4 – 2x2 + 5 = 0 can be reduced to p2 – 2p + 5 = 0 , if we let p = x2 and p2 = x4 .

If 𝜶 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜷 are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 then :

!" &
𝛼 + 𝛽 = $
𝛼𝛽 = $ 𝛼 % + 𝛽 % = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 – 2𝛼𝛽
' ( ' ! ) ( !
( + ' = '(

3
 C. Inequalities

To solve quadratic inequalities:

1. Solve quadratic to obtain critical values, 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽.
2. Solution for f(x) > 0: 𝑥 < 𝛼 ∪ 𝑥 > 𝛽
3. Solution for f(x) < 0: 𝛼 < 𝑥 < 𝛽

NB. For the above rules to work the quadratic must be a minimum.

$*)"
For rational inequalities of the form &*)+ > 𝑘 , multiply both sides by denominator squared,
then simplify and solve.

!"#$
× (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)' > 𝑘 × (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)'
%"#&

4
 D. Surds, Indices and Logarithms

• am x an = am+n • exp. to logs.

surds
indices

logs
• 𝑎× 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏
𝑏=𝑐
•ac = b ↔ 𝑙𝑜𝑔!

• am ÷ an = am-n • 𝑎× 𝑎 = a
• 𝑙𝑜𝑔" 𝑎 = 1
!
• = 𝑎
• a0 = 1 !
• 𝑙𝑜𝑔" 1 = 0
• rationalise:
• (am)n = amn ! # $ % ' &
• × •𝑙𝑜𝑔! 𝑚( = n𝑙𝑜𝑔! m
% # & % ' &

!
• = a-m •(c + 𝑑 ) 𝑐 − 𝑑
", • 𝑙𝑜𝑔! m + 𝑙𝑜𝑔! n= 𝑙𝑜𝑔! 𝑚𝑛
= c2 - ( 𝑑)2.
= c2 - d
, #
- • 𝑙𝑜𝑔! m - 𝑙𝑜𝑔! n= 𝑙𝑜𝑔!
• 𝑎# =𝑎 - $

Linear reduction: logarithms can be used to linearize equations, ie convert to form y =

mx+c.

Example: 1. y = abx can be transformed to lg y = x lg b + lg a :

Y = lg y , X = x , m = lgb , c = lg a

2. y = axb can be transformed to lg y = b lg x + lg a :

Y = lg y, X = lg x, m = b , c = lg a

NB. - Y and X must never contain the unknown constants

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 E. Series and Sequences

Summation notation: ∑'()*(2𝑟 + 1) = (2(1) + 1 ) + (2(2) + 1) + (2(3) + 1) + (2(4) + 1)

=3+5+7+9
= 24
Rules of Summation:

• ∑ 𝑘𝑎. = 𝑘 ∑ 𝑎.

• ∑(𝑎. ± 𝑏. ) = ∑ 𝑎. ± ∑ 𝑏.

AP GP

Parameters a – first term a – first term

d – common difference r – common ratio

Sequence a, a + d , a + 2d, a + a, ar, ar2, ar3, ar4,……..

3d,……

General Term Tn = a + (n – 1)d Tn = arn-1

. $(0! 1 " )
Sn = % [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑] Sn = ,r<1
0!1
Sum of the first n terms .
Sn = % [a + l ] l – last $( 1 " !0)
Sn = 1!0
,r>1
term

Convergent or Divergent Divergent Convergent iff : -1 < r < 1

Does not exist 𝑎

Sum to Infinity 𝑆3 =
1 − 𝑟

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 Section 2: Coordinate Geometry, Vectors and Trigonometry
A. Coordinate Geometry

Distance between two points: B(𝑥% − 𝑥0 )% + (𝑦% − 𝑦0 )%

*! )*# 4! )4#
Mid-point: ( %
, %
)

4 !4 5$1$6676 68.79 :$;7 7<=$6 >1$+87.?9 [A# B A! ]

Gradient: m = *! !*# 57157.+8&=6$1 68.79,51E+=&? EF >1$+87.?9 7<=$6!0. [A# A! B !0]
! #

Equation of a line: y = mx + c m – gradient

c – y-intercept (cuts the y-axis)
To find the equation of a line:
- find gradient of line
- obtain a point on the line
- substitute in 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

NB.
- Solving equations simultaneously gives the points of intersection of the equations.
- If a line is a tangent to a curve, then when solved simultaneously, only 1 solution is
obtained.

Equation of a circle:

General form: (x + f)2 + (y + g)2 = r2 centre = (-f , -g) ; radius = r

Or
x + y + 2fx + 2gy + c = 0 centre = (-f , - g) ; radius = B𝑓 % + 𝑔% − 𝑐
2 2

To determine the equation of tangent at a point P (x, y) on a circle:

• Find the gradient of the radius using the centre and point P
!0
• Find the gradient of the tangent using >1$+87.? EF 1$+8=9
• Substitute gradient and point P in 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

NB – To determine the equation of the normal at a point P (x, y) on a circle, use the same
steps as above, except that gradient of radius = gradient of normal.

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 B. Vectors

𝑥
General form: For a point P (x, y), its position vector can be written as: JJJJ
𝑂𝑃 = ( 𝑦 ) = xi + yj
−𝑥
JJJJ = (
𝑃0 −𝑦 )
Equal vectors: If two vectors are equal:
ai + bj = ci + dj
then a = c and b = d.

𝑎 𝑐 𝑎±𝑐
To add or subtract vectors: L M ± L M = L M
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏±𝑑

𝑎 𝑘𝑎
Multiply by a scalar: kL M = L M
𝑏 𝑘𝑏

𝑎 𝑐
Multiplying two vectors: L M L M = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑 This is also known as scalar product.
𝑏 𝑑

Magnitude of a vector: If we have a vector xi + yj then its magnitude is given by B𝑥 % + 𝑦 %

H̅
Unit vector: A unit vector has a magnitude of one and is obtained by: ∥H∥

Displacement Vectors:

In the vector diagram above, the triangle can be used to determine unknown vectors by
finding an alternative path along the triangle.

PPPPP⃗ = 𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶 PPPPP⃗ + PPPPP⃗
𝐵𝐶

PPPPP⃗
𝐴𝐵 = PPPPP⃗
𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐵PPPPP⃗

PPPPP⃗
𝐵𝐶 = PPPPP⃗
𝐵𝐴 + PPPPP⃗
𝐴𝐶

Angle Between Two Vectors: The angle between two vectors 𝑎J and 𝑏J is given by
$."
cos 𝜃 = ∥$∥∥"∥

If two vectors 𝑎J and 𝑏J are parallel, then they are scalar multiples of each other.
If two vectors 𝑎J and 𝑏J are perpendicular, then a.b = 0.

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 C. Trigonometry

Radians, Arcs, and sectors

Trig. Graphs

y = sin x

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 Identities More Identities
M8. N
Tan 𝜃 = OE9 N Sin (A ± 𝐵 ) = Sin A Cos B ± Sin B Cos A

sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃= 1 Cos (A ± 𝐵 ) = Cos A Cos B ∓ Sin A Sin B

sin2 𝜃 = 1 - cos2 𝜃
P$. H ±P$. R
cos2 𝜃 = 1- sin2 𝜃 Tan (A ± 𝐵 ) = 0 ∓P$. H P$. R

Even More Identities

E55 Sin 2A = 2 Sin A cos A

Sin 𝜃 = :45
Cos 2A = Cos2 A – Sin2 A
Cos 𝜃 = :45
$+T = 1 – 2Sin2 A
= 2Cos2 A - 1
E55
Tan 𝜃 = $+T % P$. H
Tan 2A = 0! P$.! H

NB
• When proving identities, it is sometimes helpful to expand and simplify both sides
until they are equivalent
• When proving identities with cos 2A, remember to choose the identity based on if you
need cosA only or sinA only.
• When solving trig. functions, pay attention to range in which the unknown angle lies.
• Learn these exact values:
√L
cos (0) = sin (90) = 1 cos (30) = sin (60) = %
0 √%
cos (60) = sin (30) = % cos (45) = sin (45) = %
0
tan (30) = tan (45) = 1
√L
tan (60) = √3

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 Section 3: Introductory Calculus
A. Differentiation

How to differentiate?

§ y = axn 1. Bring down the power

2. Write back the a
+4
+*
= naxn-1 3. Minus 1 from the power

§ y = ax
+4
+*
=a

§ y=a
+4
+*
=0

§ y = (ax + b)n 1.Bring down the power

2. differentiate inside the bracket
3. Put back the term in bracket
4. minus 1 from the power
+4
= n(a)(ax + b) n -1
+*

§ y = cos x y = cos (ax+b)

+4 +4
+* = - sin x +*
= - a sin (ax+b)

§ y = sin x y = sin (ax+b)

+4 +4
+*
= cos x +*
= a cos (ax +b)

Product rule:
+4 +; +=
y = u .v then +*
= 𝑢. +* + 𝑣. +*

Quotient rule:
$% $'
= +4 ; !=
$& $&
y=; then +*
= ;!

+4 +4 +=
Chain Rule: +*
= += × +*

$(
+!4 +( )
Second derivative: = $&
+* ! +*

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 Applications of differentiation

To find the gradient : To determine the nature of

𝒅𝒚 stationary points:
= 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 +4
When +* = 0 , then stationary point
𝒅𝒙
exists. If :
At any point on a function substitute the x-
valve into the gradient function to obtain
the gradient of the tangent at that point.

Displacement- time graph

- gradient = velocity
- horizontal line = stationary
- negative gradient = change in direction Also:
𝑑% 𝑦
> 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Velocity- time graph 𝑑𝑥 %
- gradient = acceleration
And
- horizontal line = no acceleration
- area under graph = distance covered 𝑑% 𝑦
- negative gradient= retardation < 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑥 %

Rates of change: Kinematics:

+* +* +4
Rate of change of x = +?
= +4 × +? Rate of change of displacement = velocity

+H +H +1 +9
Rate of change Area, +?
= +1 × +? Velocity, v = +?

+U +U +1
Rate of change Volume, +?
= +1 × +?

+4 +4 +*
Rate of change of y = +?
= +* × +? Rate of change of velocity = acceleration
+; +!9
Acceleration, a = +? = +? !

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 B. Integration

How to integrate?

$* ")#
§ ∫ 𝑎𝑥 . . 𝑑𝑥 = .)0
+c 1. Add 1 to the power
2. Divide by new power

§ ∫ 𝑎. 𝑑𝑥 = ax + c

($*)")")#
§ ∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏). . 𝑑𝑥 = $(.)0)
1. Add 1 to the power
2. Divide by the new power
3. Divide by the differential of bracket
"
• ∫$ 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑑𝑥 = $"[𝐹(𝑥)] = 𝐹 [𝑏 ] − 𝐹 [𝑎]

0 0
• ∫ cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏). 𝑑𝑥 = $ sin (ax + b) + c. 1. +8FF717.?8$6 EF ($*)")

2. Integral of cos = sin

3. Combine step 1 and 2 and put

back (ax + b).
0
• ∫ sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏). 𝑑𝑥 = − $ cos (ax + b) + c

Applications of Integration

1. To formulate the equation of a curve given its gradient function.

𝑑𝑦
s . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑑𝑥

2. Area under the curve: 3. Volume of revolution about the x-axis:

" "
Area = ∫$ 𝑓(𝑥) Volume = 𝜋 ∫$ 𝑦 % . 𝑑𝑥

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 Kinematics

/0"123 41 54678"/3#319
o Average velocity = 94#3 9":31

9;9"8 5469"1/3 9<"=38835

o Average speed = 94#3 9":31

o A particle is instantaneously at rest when its velocity is zero.

o A particle reaches maximum velocity when its acceleration is zero.

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 Section 4: Probability and Statistics

A. Data representation and Analysis

Types of data:

Quantitative data: numerical data. e.g., Age

Qualitative data: non-numerical data, e.g. Gender.

Discrete data: takes the form of whole number values only.

Continuous data: can take any value within a particular range.

Quartiles:
0
Lower Quartile, Q1 = V (𝑛 + 1)?: 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 Interquartile Range = Q3 – Q1

0 W* ! W#
Median, Q2 = % (𝑛 + 1)?: 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 Semi-Interquartile Range = %

L
Upper Quartile, Q3 = V (𝑛 + 1)?: 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

Stem and Leaf diagram Box and whisker diagram

-All intervals must have equal widths - Raw data is lost

- Must have a key
-All the raw data is available

For grouped data:

∑ F(*)
Mean, 𝜇 = ∑F

∑ F* !
Variance, 𝜎 % = ∑F
– 𝜇%
Standard deviation, 𝜎 = √𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

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 B. Probability Theory

Classical Probability:

. (H) .E EF E=?&EA79 8. 7;7.? H

Probability of event A occurring = P (A) = . (M) = ?E?$6 .=A"71 EF 5E998"67 E=?&EA79

Basic Laws of Probability:

o Sum of the probabilities of all the outcomes in a sample space is equal to one.
∑ 𝑝 = 1.
o For any event A; 0 ≤ 𝑃(𝐴) ≤ 1.
o P(A) + P(𝐴̅) = 1 , where P(𝐴̅) is the probability of A not occurring

For Two Events:

o P(A or B) = P (A∪B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A∩B)

o If P(A∩B) = 0 then events A and B are said to be mutually exclusive.

o For Conditional probability, A given B,

Y(H∩R)
P(A/B) = Y(R)

o If A does not depend on B then A and B are said to be independent and

P(A∩B) = P(A).P(B)

o Probability tree diagram :

P(A∩ 𝐵) = P(A).P(B/A)

P(B) = P(A).P(B/A) + P(𝐴̅ ).P(B/𝐴̅ )

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